POLI Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

Exam 2 Study Guide  Reminder: The exam will consist of True false questions, multiple choice questions, and several short answer questions. Given the material, I’m likely going to have less True false and M/C this time around and more short answer questions. We’ve done a lot of differen...

Exam 2 Study Guide  Reminder: The exam will consist of True false questions, multiple choice questions, and several short answer questions. Given the material, I’m likely going to have less True false and M/C this time around and more short answer questions. We’ve done a lot of different theories and I think theory is often best tested by asking you to explain a concept and how it applies. So, expect, 5-6 T/F, 5/6 M/C and about 5 short answer questions. 2 Some reasons freedom matters. Making our own choices. Living our own lives. Authenticity. Why does this matter? Moral Responsibility To a lesser extent Legal responsibility Political and Social Legitimacy if freely chosen? The Concept of DESERT (economic, social, legal, moral) depends upon agents who act freely Personal relationships? Meaning in Life? Happiness comes from being free & ‘owning your own life’ Ronald Dworkin (and many political theorists) argue that the freedoms necessary to ensure individuals are treated with equal concern and respect should be inviolable. They are a basic human right and necessary for equality. Legitimate constraints on Liberty Physical Coercion: being physically prevented from doing what you want to do. Systemic Racism: Racist norms, institutions, and structures that prevent equal access to justice and liberty for all. Unconscious bias: unconscious mental states that restrict our own liberties (I’m a women so I cannot speak up), or motivate us to restrict others (They’re not the same race as me, so I don’t trust them and won’t hire). Physical Incapacity ( being unable to do something physically such as talk/walk, etc. in ways that restrict your political agency) Institutional design (The way in which we build our institutions often limits or promotes the liberty of citizens) Rationality: To the extent those reasoning capacities are compromised or diminished, many have thought you are lacking in freedom (If you are not an ideally rational min/maxer, classically, you’re not free) Psychology: being manipulated by propaganda (marketing/advertising/government iniatives). Big data makes this worse than it has ever been. Economic Impediments: not having access to the basic needs of human survival prevents you from exercising your political liberty. What is Critical Race Theory? Roots in Critical Legal Studies. Been central o most political and legal theory for the past 60 or so years. Assumes Systemic Racism sometimes exists (and does exist in contemporary Western cultures). And then says (And this is what Critical Race theory is: Being aware of how these systemic racist systems have formed and how they operate will allow us to address both overt and structural racism and promote liberty for all citizens. Social conservatives have become voicing concerns about the teaching of it in recent years (post BLM) removing textbooks from libraries and universities that have any mention of race or gender or the impact economics has on social opportunity and firing professors and teachers in parts of the US 9and threatening to do so in parts of Canada) if they dare to teach this material. This is done in the name of protecting free speech. What is Intersectionality  The study of overlapping or intersecting social identities and related systems of oppression, domination, or discrimination.  The theory suggests that—and seeks to examine how —various biological, social and cultural categories such as gender, race, class, ability, sexual orientation, religion, caste, age, nationality and other sectarian axes of identity interact on multiple and often simultaneous levels.  Create our identities, responsible for our oppression and loss of liberties, etc. What happened at Michener Centre North between 1923-1973? What was the justification? was a residential school for children who were developmentally disabled. In the name of Eugenics, to prevent the genetic transmission of undesirable traits, over 2800 people were sterilized while at this facility by the Alberta Eugenics Board, without their consent (or their guardian’s consent) or knowledge. Others sterilized at the facility included Indigenous people, immigrants of Eastern European descent, Catholics, and many other women (it was judged by committee that it would be undesirable for them to reproduce). What were Torches of Freedom and how did Edward Bernays use them? Cigarettes. Bernays did a proof of concept test for using propaganda against the American people to make them modify their behavior and buy stuff. It was unladylike to smoke prior to 1929 (less than 5% of women did). He used targeted propaganda to present smoking as female empowerment. His campaign was wildly successful, with smoking rates spiking to 12% in a year, and 18.1% by 19.35 (Smoking amount women peaked at 33.3% in the mid 60s). What is the difference between Negative and Positive Freedom? negative freedoms, or the right to non-interference E.g. Freedom of religion ( I can practice my Christianity or my Buddhism or my Satanism or my atheism and the State and others will not stop me. positive freedom, or freedoms we are owed by the state. Freedom to a safe and secure public including educational institutions, means the State owes its citizens an environment in which no one will make those spaces unsafe (which is the Australian justification for restricting gun ownership and the ‘right’ to bear arms Utilitarian views on Freedom Greater freedom typically leads to greater happiness. We ought have the maximal freedom that is consistent with not causing greater harms to others. In particular, maximal possible freedom of expression must be maintained in a utilitarian state to allow for the marketplace of competing ideas (Which, of course, runs into a problem with hate speech—when speech becomes harmful) What is cultural Pluralism? How do cultural pluralism and liberty often conflict? Cultural pluralism: different cultures follow different norms of behavior within a single society Cultural pluralism and liberty often conflict– in cases where a cultural practice looks to cause harm to another from the perspective of a different cultural framework (Female circumcision (genital mutilation or a way of protecting purity?) or when the cultural practice, if practiced, would restrict the liberty of another who may not endorse that culture’s framework (Quebec’s commitment to ‘secular public State’ at odds with ‘freedom of religious expression?’) What does Justice mean? the requirement to give others what they Deserve. This is understood in quite different ways (Merit, Need, Fairness are the three main ways) What is the difference between Merit-based justice and Need-based justice? Merit:Classical view of Justice To each according to their DESERT. Retributive theory of punishment. Meritocratic theory of justice: distributes social goods according to merit for the overall benefit of society. Provide opportunity for advancement to those that are best (not equality of opportunity of opportunity but promotes SAMENESS OF TRETEMENT/TESTING (the ‘best’ wins) Focus on ELITE & Streams-based education system (Ivy leagues and Trade schools based on your talents) Merit-based views today, tend to argue in support of equality of opportunity everyone should have the same opportunity to compete, but then we only let the best in. NEED: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs” Frequently associated with socialism. Also evident in the welfare systems of liberal democratic states Justice as Equity is also increasingly a common slogan which also takes ‘need’ as central to justice. Restorative and public health model of punitive justice (not retributive) Education to the middle (what we have in Canada today) What does Justice as Fairness mean? Justice is a state of affairs that all ideally rational agents would agree is fair. To achieve this Rawls argues we need to negotiate our political reality under THE VEIL OF IGNORANCE in THE ORIGINAL POSITION. What is the difference between structural versus procedural justice? Current Time-slice (Strutural) : Gender representation in a workplace Historical (Procedural) identical hiring procedures and criteria). What is the original position? The original position: think of this as a boardroom table around which a representative of every possible stakeholder in our society sits. That is, anyone that has an interest in what we are doing and how we do. Anyone we impact, including rivers, streams, and mice, has a seat. What is the veil of ignorance? The Veil of Ignorance: To ensure impartiality, everyone in the original position knows nothing about themselves. They are a rational, risk adverse agent but they do not know their talents, their goals, their abilities, their desires, their gender, their IQ, their race, etc. This is to ensure genuine impartiality. What are John Rawl’s Two Principles of Justice? 1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. 2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged…and b) attached to office and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. *The liberty principle (1) has priority over the difference principle (2) What is Nozick’s justification for rejecting structural justice in favor of procedural justice? Robert Nozick (Anarchy, State, & Utopia 1974) puts forward a procedural theory focused on property One is entitled to one’s property so long as it was acquired fairly (procedural & historical justice as opposed to the Formal/Current-time slice approach to Justice that Rawls endorse) therefore redistribution is unjust Nozick, the good libertarian, holds that all taxation is theft and therefore also unjust, even if done with good intent. And, like all good libertarians, he is also logically committed to the view that settler land claims are illegitimate as our the property claims associated with those claims. All of this renders Rawls’s position on inequality illegitimate What are communitarians and cosmopolitans? Communitarian: Rejects the liberal concept of the free-formed rugged individualist. There are no John Gaults, for the communitarian. Justice should take into account the particular social and cultural character of the society. We are encumbered individuals. Our social situation, our embodiness, our intersectionality, etc. provide us with values, needs, wants, desires, obligations, and commitments,. The ideally rational agents of the liberal egalitarian picture and the picture of justice they would adopt has little to no connection to what humans would actually adopt in the original position. Justice is as much about asking what we owe to each other as it is about asking what the state owes to us Cosmopolitan: All humans, regardless of our political affiliation (homeland, state) are citizens of the world. The state is, at best, a useful fiction. We are citizens of the Earth, as far as justice is concerned. Justice beyond the bounds of the state. It is global. What does 7 generations mean in the context of justice? the notion of intergenerational justice which considers future generations (Indigenous 7 generations view, the Long Now project.) We should consider how our actions now will outlast us by seven generations. We must be able to justify our acts now to our ancestors. What is an ideology as opposed to a philosophy? Ideologies are types of philosophies. They are simplifications. They are ‘isms’ A set of ideas designed to … Describe the existing political order Present an ideal vision of what the political order should look like Prescribe a means to transform the existing into the ideal Seeks to promote a particular social and political order What are classical Liberals? Emphasis on limiting the role of the state to providing: Internal and external security Enforcement of property rights Strong respect for individual rights and freedoms Typically connected to laisse faire free market capitalism (although a capitalist system with minimal state involvement in vital services would be consistent with classical liberalism) Also a moral dimension in that a limited state maximizes individual freedom and rewards for those who make the most economic contribution to the society/work hardest Adam Smith, John Locke, Immanuel Kant What is New or Reform Liberalism? They reject the Laissez-faire principles of classical liberalism (No one ‘pulls themselves up by their own bootstraps’. We are not rugged individuals and capitalists. We succeed as part of a network of support, luck, opportunity, and misfortunate.) Emphasis on social reform. State intervention could increase liberty by expanding individual opportunity Argue for an important role for social institutions and emphasize structural justice (today also equity) Maintain states core function of security and advocate for non-violent social change.  What is a Libertarian? What is a Neo-Liberal? Developed primarily as a reaction against the welfare state liberalism of the 1930s and 1940s Welfare state liberalism was seen as a state project including socialized unemployment insurance, healer care, old age pensions, and other social benefits. Neo-Liberals felt this was state overstepping and inconsistent liberal ideology. They argued for a return to the laisse faire approach of classical liberalism BUT it retained a belief in the power of the state acting in the name of the market” Epitomized by policies such as deregulation of private industry, the selling of state-owned industries, the rollback of the welfare state, the promotion of free trade, and a general belief that free markets were better at allocating scarce resources than governments Libertarianism, today, can be seen as a reaction movement calling for a return to classical liberalism and its emphasis on Laisse Faire economics. Neo-Liberalism is the political ideology that was most widely endorsed by the New Right in the 1980s. In practice, often the same thing and many who call themselves neo-liberals are actually libertarians and many who claim to be libertarians are actually neo-liberals. The difference is on focus. Neo-Liberals are focused on economics. They argue against what they see as government over- reach—Under a Liberal democracy, they claim, the government does not have the right to take my tax dollars and pay for lavish social services or progressive social policies. That is theft. Go back to the free market. The Libertarian is focused on individual rights and freedoms. There is such a thing as a Far Left Libertarian (Oscar Wilde’s political philosophy, for example). They are not concerned so much about economics and they can even, at least conceptually support state-involvement in the economy (provided, perhaps incoherently, the state does not take my property). So, A libertarian could say something like “I fully support a robust public health care system accessible to everyone but it cannot be funded by my tax dollars because you have no right to tax me. Taxation is theft.’ What they are opposed to is state restrictions on individual freedoms. What is Socialism? What is Communism? What is Social Democracy? Socialists see human nature as capable of being shaped by social, economic, and political circumstances We are not selfish, amoral, of solely self-interested egoists. We are products of our socio-economic environment and our nature is malleable and we have potential. Equality Socialists advocate equality of outcome (Structural Equality), because they understand inequality to be the result of different positions in a social structure, rather than differences in ability Community There is an emphasis on co-operation and collective, rather than individual, goals Two (main) camps: Communism (Endorsed by Soviet Russia under Vladimir Lenin) Social democracy (Canada embraced and has been heavily influential in Canadian politics. Tommy Douglas, the Co-operative commonwealth Federation, and the NDP. Canada’s University Health Care system was the flagship policy success of this movement. Canada has had a communist party since 1921 (our second oldest political party) Be able to explain the class struggle at the heart of Marxist thought (the bourgeois and the proletariat and how they interact (and why) the bourgeois class implies the accumulation and consolidation of wealth in the hands of private individuals. This wealth is obtained through labour theft (not paying the workers fairly for their labour). Once wealth is consolidated as capital in the hands of private individuals it implies competition between labourers. Labours form associations and co-ops and unions to collectively bargain and keep their power as the capital owners strength comes from isolating the labourer and pitting worker against worker. Collective action nullifies this And the bourgeois class fails. Workers of the world unite. You have only your chains to lose. What is Alienation, in Marxism? Claims that capitalism alienates the worker leading to her exploitation. Alienation results from the separation of the product from their labour under a capitalism system. In the past (and in a Marxist Communist Utopia) the worker was not as alienated from the work. They laboured and produced the product themselves and profited from their own labour. Under capitalism, the labourer is increasingly a cog in a beauracatic system where the fruits of their labour and the profits of their labour are separated from them. You do your task, the product shows up elsewhere, if at all, and the profit is only ever seen by the Bourgeoise. This leads to a disconnection between the work you do and the output. You work for scraps from the capitalist, not for fulfillment or meaning. Eventually this leads to a alienation from your fell humanity (we are self- focused profit seekers, not members ofa community) and alienation from even yourself (you are no longer a passionate person pursuing your own good, you are a consumer, selling your time for capital to spend to numb yourself from the pointless and meaninglessness of your own existence. What is Political and Human Emancipation, for the Marxist? The goal for Marx is to move beyond political emancipation to human emancipation, this is where humans are no longer alienated from themselves, where we are no longer political citizens, but real individuals and our real individual powers become social powers. A Worker’s revolution would restore dignity to humanity and that is the goal… a world where we are pre- occupied with pursuing our own goods in a community of equals Star Trek (a post-scarcity Utopia) is probably something like what Marx had in mind. What is the difference between the way we use ‘conservative’ when talking about Western political parties today and the meaning of the word ‘conservative’ when applied to political ideologies? (Slide 44) No ideological uniformity to conservative thought, all united by a resistance to change and support for tradition, law and order, respect for authority, patriotism, and civic virtue. Many groups we have called ‘conservative’ in Western politics, today, have more in common with liberal ideologies (particularly neo-liberalism and classical liberalism) than they do with ‘Conservatism’ as a political ideology. What was David Hume’s conservativism? He is a ‘conventionalist– our practices arise out of our early circumstances and then they slowly evolve. We enter into that convention when we enter a society. To be part of a society is to adopt and support its convention. We can (and should critique our culture—not a relativist), but justice is a cultural tradition, an artifact we engage with and shape slowly over time, not one we reject and tear down... As per tradition. Justice is something we create, not an abstract objective property we find ‘out there.’ It is an artificial virtue (he believes many virtues are natural, but justice is artificial) It results from our circumstances. Those rules are not arbitrary, but they arise out of our social circumstances. What was Edmund Burke’s dispute with Mary Wollstone Craft and what is his conservativism? Burke defends the right to inherit wealth, and while he recognizes the need for change, he rejects the idea of a sudden, revolution. He believed that the French Revolution would soon turn violent (it did), it would lead to chaos, anarchy, and the loss of tradition, culture, and social stability. He proposed gradual reforms to address injustice and inequalities. He believed that societies are a kind of living organism, operative by their own slow laws of adaptive development. Its well-established customs and institutions are a system of obligations and privileges that have stood the test of time and must not be overthrown by abstract idealism His Dispute with Wollstonecraft was over Civil disobedience. He felt we should work within the system to promote gradual change. She felt som many were disenfranchised and the system would never change without civil disobedience and revolution. What is a social or cultural conservative? Emphasis on cultural and social practice, less focused on economics, governing process, etc. Our traditional knowledge and practices are worth preserving, and we should not be hasty to change. If we do change, only do so when necessary. If something is not broke, do not fix it. Threatened by globalizing culture, pluralism, multi-culturalism, etc. Emphasis on preservation of traditional values Often advocates an anti-secular position These are people who vote on the basis of social issues. Anti- progressive. Return to traditional values. Protect the sanctity of X, etc. What is NeoConservativism? This is a movement that gained prominence during the presidency of George W. Bush presidency (2001–9). Most neo-cons started out on the ‘left of the political spectrum.’ These were the Democrats of the 1970s who became Republics under Carter’s presidency, under our text. They reject most traditionally conversative ideals. They do not, typically, defend tradition, ritual, hierarchy, small government, fiscal austerity, devotion to place or homage to the past. Instead, they believe: 1) Patriotism is a good thing. You are with us or against us. 2) Globalism and World Governments are terrible ideas as they can lead to a world tyranny. The US should not, for example, be constrained by the UN 3) The world comprises good and evil actors and the statemen have the right to distinguish friend from enemy All were united in a hatred of communism and condemnation of liberals who criticized the US and undermined US resolve when needed After/during Bush, a hatred of ‘terrorists and their allies who had attacked America on Sept 11 th, and you were either with the US or against the US in its war on Terror. Text argues this directly leads to Iraq and Afghanistan 4) Superpowers, like the USA, are subject to special rules in international politics. They have ‘ideological interests that extend beyond their nation… I.e. The US, as a superpower, is justified in aiding its allies, in both military and economic conflict, to promote the spread of democracy world wide What is Populism? Generally these movements tend to identify themselves with “the people”; claim that some set of institutions or groups have been damaging the interests of the people and need to be removed from power (Weyland, 2001) Thin ideology that can be mixed with others; no allegiance to traditional camps like the “left” or “right” What do Fascists actually believe? A Far right doctrine, An extreme form of nationalism, accompanied by a set of racial, social, and moral ideas Often conflated with authoritarianism and totalitarianism but it is neither Fascism is anti-Enlightenment and opposes ideas of liberalism (all liberalism), democracy, reason, individualism. Diametrically opposed to Libertarian thought. Fascism sees the community as creating individuals, and that they therefore owe allegiance to it. We owe ourselves to the state. We would not exists without it. We are subservient to it. Adopts elitist stance and demands a strong central ruler Who were the Canadian Fascists? THERE WERE SEVERAL FASCIST PARTY’S IN CANADA IN THE 1930S INCLUDING THE CANADIAN UNION OF FASCISTS, THE CANADIAN NATIONALIST PARTY, THE NATIONAL UNITY PARTY, AND THE PARTINATIONAL SOCIAL CHRETIEN. THESE PARTIES IDENTIFIED WITH FASCIST IDEOLOGY ENDORSING ANTISEMITISM, OPPOSED IMMIGRATION, ENDORSED EUGENICS, NATIONALISM AND CORPORATISM. THEY SUPPORTED THE RISE AND SUCCESS OF THE NAZIS. Who were the American Fascists? What did they believe? IN THE 1920S-1940S THE AMERICA FIRST MOVEMENT WAS A popular FASCIST MOVEMENT They were anti-immigration and anti-refugee, promoted traditional American values (White Christianity). Isolationists that felt America should not be involved in international wars. Focused on at home economic development and discouraged international trade and development. What is Giovanni’s political philosophy? He’s a fascist. Individuals are parts of the state and only states are free. To promote liberty is to promote the State’s freedom and its’ interests. Promote nationalistic unity and bring the parts of the state in line so they serve their function/work together and eliminate (or heal ) the parts that are weak or sick. Justice is a well-order State exercising its liberty. What role does violence play for fascists? FASCISM, BY CONTRAST ADMITS TO IT'S VIOLENCE. IT ALONE TRANSPARENTLY USES THE FORCE OF THE STATE TO ALIGN ALL INDIVIDUALS AND ORGANIZATIONS UNDER IT'S INFLUENCE TOWARD THAT GOAL WHICH IT HAS DEFINED BY SYNTHESIZING ALL THEIR INTERESTS IN LIGHT OF VIRTUE, BY REFERENCE TO THETRUE, THE GOOD, AND THE BEAUTIFUL. How is fascism difference from liberalism and communism. FASCISM AND COMMUNISM BOTH ADVOCATE COLLECTIVISM, INCLUDING A WORKER OWNERSHIP STAKE IN THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION (Whereas Liberalism rejects this in favor of idnvidualism.) But Fascists AND Liberalism believe inequality is a reality in a just society (some will be poor, some will be well-off) whereas Communists see this as a sign of a disfunctional society. Liberalism and Communism both reject idealist ontologies (do not believe in a ‘Zeitgeist or spirit of the age’ (the unit of concern is the individual, not the Nation, for the Liberal and the Communist) Fascists believe in a uniting ‘spirit’ of a nation (the unit of concern is not the individual, it is the nation. America First, not ‘Us’ or ‘Me’ first. What role does the other play in fascist thought? The other is the enemy, the outsider, he reason things don’t work. They other is immigrants or progressives or liberals or Jews or omen or academics or gays or them or antifa or poor people or …. They’re the bad guys andif we could just deport them or round them up or pss laws to keep them in line and show them the world would be a better place. What role does the mythic past play in fascist thought? Remember the before times, the glory days hen men wer men and women were women and here were no others and we were great? Where we put us first? Well we are going to do that again and make our country great again. The myth moves populations and others to ignore the harms they’re causing, to justify them on the basis of utilitarian thought, and gets them to support he glorious leader’s mission. What role do ‘real citizens’ play in fascist thoughts? Part of the Spiritual Identity of a Fascist State is an Appeal to the Virtuous ‘REAL’ Citizen of the State. ‘We’ live in the Rural Heartland, the Rhineland, Real Alberta, Where Values and traditions of the Nation are still upheld despite the threats of Cosmopolitianism, multiculturalism, progressives, and the influx of foreign ideas from minority groups and urbanites who live there, embolden by liberal tolerance. We are hardworking, we are strong. We have earned our pride of place by struggle, work, and merit. We have built this country. They are lazy and they survive by exploiting the goods we produce, by exploiting the generosity of our welfare systems or by employing corrupt institutes like labour unions meant to separate honest, hardworking citizens from their pay. We are makers. They are takers. What view do fascists take on women? A women’s place is in the home, subservient to men, making babies ‘We’ own their bodies Fear gender equality and sexual freedom What role has propaganda played in Fascism? They invented it and advertising. Key to molding the minds and intentions of the citizen and creating a post-truth subjective reality What is Feminism? The view that women are people. Know what Mary Wollstonecraft had to say about feminist thought Focused on the Intrinsic Moral dignity of women, argued for recognition of shared humanity, women are people (not property). Once women are educated as extensively as men and given the write to vote, are not forbidden to enter certain professions women will be roughly equal to men, perhaps even surpass them in some domains. Both sexes would flourish free from oppression. First wave feminism. Know Simone De Bouvoir’s core claims from the Second Sex (in your notes). Basis for second and third wave feminist thought. . She denies the idea that there is an innate ‘female nature’ that has been oppressed by society/men and that it merely needs to have the opportunity to break free from male domination (the core assumption of first wave feminism).  Instead, she claims that women are dominated by men in all aspects of their live-that their very consciousness and the shape of their mind is a formed by the patriarchal society of which they are part.  That femininity itself is constructed by patriarchy and we cannot simply change the laws and institutions.  Women will still be left as subordinate even if we change things. There must be a fundamental shift to the paradigm of our society. What is a sameness versus a difference feminist? Both Groups agree that women & men should be equal under the law. They disagree about how to achieve equality. Sameness: Men and women need formal equality (Structural). They are fundamentally the same. They should be treated the same. Difference: Men and women need resultant equality (Current-state). Sameness is not enough. What do essentialists believe about sex? Essentialist: Our SEX AND GENDER are natural, necessary, unchanging, biological properties (as opposed to constructed). PRIOR to the 18th century: Essentialists believed there was ONE true sex, perfected in males who had a superior humoral set-up and imperfect in females who had less balanced humors. Post 18th Century: Essentialists believed there were TWO true sexes, with males being the rational and stronger and females being the softer, weaker and emotional ones. Know the difference between first and second and third wave feminism. First Wave Feminist 1790-1930: Goal: Women are people. They should have the same basic legal privileges as men. The focus was on formal obstacles to women’s equality, such as not having the same legal rights as men. Characteristic Accomplishment: Culminates in women gaining the right to vote 1918. Second Wave Feminism (1950-1970): Focus on The deep and subtle nature of patriarchal dominance The difference between Sex and gender. Gender treated as a social construct. Some 2nd wave thinkers attack all objective/universal categories as patriarchal (truth/reason/etc.) Focus was on social inequalities (Unofficial inequalities). Third Wave (1980s-2000s): Didn’t discuss. Note the focus was on the diversity of gender, sexualities, and cultures, and promoting respect for all. There is no essential women. Focus on respect for individuals and diversity. Individuals define, for themselves, what and who they are. It is not our place to tell them they are oppressed or they must be a certain way. Global rights for women. What does De Bouvoir mean when she says ‘One is not born, but becomes a women..”? Gender is constructed It is the product of socialization, not biology. What role does the Other play in feminist thought? Being a women, in a patriarchical society, is to be constructed as the other, as the sex. All perspectives have been taken from a hypothetical European male colonial perspective and the other is the thing we study, we conquer, we exploit, we use. Women are ‘the other’ in feminist thought, they are to be conquered, used, understood, and owned. They are the subject, not the point of view. What is the Patriarchy? which a male dominated society structures the world in a certain way thus leading to various kinds of oppression. In this case, the male is defined as humanity (i.e. the patriarchy) and women are defined as relative to him, her nature is constructed out of what he is not. She is not an autonomous being What is the difference between Liberal, radical and conservative feminism? Liberal: Endorse a ‘Sameness’ Standard (we should treat like the same)Value inclusion, neutrality, and equality. Assume that patriarchy has largely been eliminated. Focus is on global justice and promoting/protecting equal rights for all people. Radical (Dominance Feminism): Endorse the ‘difference principle.’ Patriarch is live and well There is structural subjection and oppression. Focus on power structures Conservative: Assume that patriarchy has been largely eliminated. Governments should interfere in the private sphere (eg. Pornography).Government should treat women differently than men (eg. Custody issues, separate sports, bathrooms, etc.) So, difference in appropriate domains What is comparative politics? Subfield of political science, emerges in the 1950s Seeks to understand political phenomena by comparing across collective groups, regions, countries, and time periods. Statistical data collection, trend analysis, and prediction to help us better understand the political landscape. Focus on Political institutional analysis and Political Behavior and culture. Look for general trends and patterns and a large socio-political framework that can be used to understand what and why. Goal is rigorous, data-driven analysis and experimental design and replicable, testable results. Borrows methods from History, economics, sociology, and increasingly psychology and statistics. What is the difference between a formal and an informal institution? Defn: Regular patterns of behaviour that give stability and predictability to social life Can be formal or informal Informal: no clear written rules, such as: the family, social class, or ethnic group Formal: codified rules, such as: governments, political parties, bureaucracies, legislatures, constitutions, law courts What is structuration? Structuration: the factors that both hold back change & provide resources for changes in how institutions and the system as a whole functions. What is a State (Definition)? State Defn: The structure of rule and authority within a particular geographical area. Know the brief history of the European State from your notes/text 1. Modern European state emerges in the 17th and 18th centuries 2. European model spread globally by colonialism State and ruler inseparable until the 17th century. The state WAS the Leviathan, typically the Monarch. The people running the state were appointed by the ruler who paid them out of his/her own coffers. Cost of warfare leads to new forms of tax collection and a salaried bureaucracy and that led to complexity of the state model. Income tax (1861) pay for the American Civil War, Canada Income Tax to Pay for WWI French Revolution introduces universal taxation, which is then adopted by the rest of Europe What role did Taxes play in the spread and formation of states? Taxes funded wars and then institutions: Income tax (1861) pay for the American Civil War, Canada Income Tax to Pay for WWI (1917), etc. Colonies: European State model does not develop in isolation. It develops as a product of the Colonial Era. Eureopeans states created networks of colonies tied to their mother country where settler states like the US and Canada occupied Indigenous lands, promoted policies that displaced and killed large numbers of indigenous peoples, and stripped resources from those lands to pay back to the mother state. French Revolution introduces universal taxation and a citizen army, which is then adopted by the rest of Europe (largely asa response to France’s growing power and an attempt to compete) and spreads. Why did Max Weber like bureaucracies? Argued that bureaucracy is an ideal type of social organization, identifying it with the rationalization of social life, which is the reason is has been so successful in comparison to other models of governing. What are the six innovations of the American Revolution, according to your text? The French Revolution gave us universal taxation and citizen armies. The American Revolution gave us six innovations in state formation: 1. the deliberate formulation of a new frame of government by way of a popular convention 2.A written constitution 3. A bill of rights enshrined within it 4. Guaranteed protection for these rights through judicial review 5.The separation of powers along functional lines 6. The division of powers between national and state governments (Finer, 1997) While this has roots in Modern political philosophy (Locke as an example) and this was influenced by the British constitutional monarchy, but the American ‘experiment’ provided a formal model for a secular state where powers were separated into separate branches and citizens were all equal (at least those who were recognized as full citizens) under the law and governing structure. What is the doctrine of Discovery? In 1455 and 1493, Papal decrees were issued that granted Christian European explorers the right to claim lands they “discovered” and lay claim to those lands for their Monarchs. Any land that was not inhabited by Christians was available to be “discovered”, claimed, and exploited. If the “pagan” inhabitants could be converted, they might be spared. If not, they could be enslaved or killed. What is Terra Nullius? Translates as ‘Nobodies land’. Comes out of the Natural law tradition (Aristotle, Roman Law, Thomas Aquinas- later Classical liberalism, today a key part of Neo-Liberalism/Libertarianism) The STATE OF NATURE belongs to no one. But by mixing our freedom with the natural world we can come to own it. In application, if I, a Christian explorer, discover an island I can claim it for my monarch/or even myself, by mixing my own labor with that land. This is used as a legal justification for the claiming of lands across the Earth beginning in the Colonial era and extending right up until today. References to this doctrine are sparse in the 18th and 19th century. It shows up in the discussion of the ‘carving up of Africa in the 1870s-1889s’ and is applied with controversy to the North and South poles (the last ‘unclaimed’ lands) in 1890-1920. What role did The Doctrine of Discovery and Terra Nullius play in Colonialism? These doctrines have played a central role in international law (and still do). Under the doctrine of discovery, ‘newly discovered’ lands belongs to the government (i.e crown lands) whose subjects discovered the new territory and the right to grant titles to those lands lay with the government who had discovered those lands. This doctrine was primarily used to invalidate the land claims of indigenous peoples and to legitimize land claims in lands that were ‘discovered’ by European nations, from the Americas to Australia. What was established at the Treaty of Westphalia? he Modern European State system is widely considered to originate in the ‘Peace of Westphalia’ which ends the 30 years war in 1648. Roots in the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which established three principles: 1. The sovereignty of states and their fundamental right to self- determination 2. Legal equality between states 3. Non-intervention of one state in the affairs of another What are the internal functions of a state? Understood in Three Distinct Ways: The state as partisan: pursuing its own interests (Strengthening and promoting the power of the State itself (not the people), growth for growth sake, increase its reach, its resources, its strength, its narrative, etc.) The state as guardian, working for the interests of the society as a whole Federal systems designed to counter fundamental disputes within the state (Ex. Quebec’s sovereign state vs rest of Canada, Canada’s Truth & Reconciliation commission, Spanish attempt to address dispute between Catalan & Basque separatist movements, Canadian responses to Western Alienation, etc. The state as a tool A pliable tool one or more groups in society can manipulate and use to accomplish their goals: Example, Religious right promoting family values through influencing state action, LGBTQIA+ community advocating for equal treatment and recognition of same-sex marriage, Corporations and billionaires using their money to influence government policy and buy politicians, etc. WHAT Two primary functions: ARE THE EXTERNA Manage relations with other states L Protect the territory and Recognition population fromofoutside one state attack FUNCTIO by another strengthens the NS legitimacy of each and forms the basis for international society What is the difference between a resilient and fragile state? What are some causes of resilient versus fragile states? Resilient states tend to provide these services to the satisfaction of their citizens Developed states are typically strong Fragile states do not provide services efficiently, or sometimes even at all  REASONS FOR RESILIENT STATES AND FRAGILE STATES External factors affecting the capacity of states  Size (both geographic and population)  Economic power  Military might Internal factors affecting the capacity of states  Legitimacy: Questions may emerge over issues like borders or ideologies  Robustness of state institutions: To what extent can they withstand social turbulence? COVID-19 pandemic result in major social, political, and economic fallout; fragile states feeling this particularly Climate Change likewise, will push even the most resilient states to the limit. The Rise of Multi-national Corporations and a Global Economy is likewise, leading to the erosion of sovereignty in even the strong states And increasing political and social alienation is weakening support for states. © 2021 Oxford University Pres What is the Voting Paradox? Voting is a mechanism for making collective decisions Key component of representation Assumed to ensure that majority preferences are reflected in decisions But…the costs associated generally outweigh the benefits, which are even more miniscule once calculated Hence, rational, self-interested actors are more likely not to vote as a result Collective action problem. What is rational for me to do, is never what is rational for all of us to do. But also, a problem of individual utility. My vote does not matter, for a game- theoretic standpoint, so the cost of voting will always be more than the gain of not- voting. What is Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem and what does it show? In a situation where there are three or more options, it is impossible to determine the one that is “most preferred” unless more than 50% vote for it We should want Unanimity (agreement by all people involved (the voters agree that this was the winning candidate) We should want independence of irrelevant alternatives (choice between two options should not be affected by the addition of a third, unrelated option). BUT Arrow’s Theorem PROVES that the only system that satisfies that is a dictatorship. So, we have to give up one or both of these. But that leads to ‘favorite betrayal’ (where you vote against your least favorite instead of for your favorite, but that leads to strategic voting and two party systems). What are the main functions of political parties? an important feature of almost all political systems Originally formed to meet system needs in government (were internal to legislatures): They simplified the negotiation process for passing legislation Joining a Political party increased your individual influence over the legislature (united as a single voting block) so it make individual sense to join one Increased powers of representatives Provided greater predictability for other legislators Later expanded outwards with the intent of structuring votes in popular elections (Don’t vote for me, vote for the Conservatives) What is the difference between plurality and proportional representation? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of these? method of assessing preferences through Proportional representation votes Prioritizes adequate representation of the range Central to democracy (despite their of public opinions complexity and flaws) Favours the participation of minority groups and Two basic types of electoral systems: smaller parties Plurality May contribute to policy stability Single-member-plurality (SMP) Reduces the “wasted vote” problem and “First-past-the-post” increases the likelihood of coalition government Simple (the most votes wins) May encourage fragmentation of the party system Encourages strong opposition parties, and discourages extremism Disproportionate power to small parties Can exaggerate margins of victory (their support is necessary to do anything– NDP/Liberal government of today) It encourages strong opposition parties (rather than cooperative ones) More difficult to assign accountability for The “wasted vote” problem individual decisions Where do political parties come from (According to your text/notes)? Pioneered in the US and UK Originally formed to meet system needs in government (were internal to legislatures): They simplified the negotiation process for passing legislation Joining a Political party increased your individual influence over the legislature (united as a single voting block) so it make individual sense to join one Increased powers of representatives Provided greater predictability for other legislators Later expanded outwards with the intent of structuring votes in popular elections (Don’t vote for me, vote for the Conservatives) Why did political parties form in the US? Why did they form in Canada? In 1828, the Democratic party forms under Andrew Jackson’s leadership Intended to mobilize support for candidates in presidential elections (Jackson was extremely popular, so intent was to mobline that support and increase voter turnout Larger voter turnout among supporters = more votes for the party candidates Voter turnout increases even more with the rise of mass parties, implying a strengthened democracy In Canada, parties are made along class lines between owners and workers (the Conservatives and the Liberals) akin to the UK What is a Cartel Party versus an ideological party? By the mid-20th century (Post WWII), there is a trend towards “catch-all” parties who focus on gaining support from the median (middle-of-the-road) voter.focus on winning. Party machine ready to serve any candidate that emerges Idea of candidate-centred parties gain momentum By contrast, Ideologies parties are formed around what they believe.  What are the Main Functions of Political Parties 1. Reduces the range of Political 6. Aggregates political interests Choices (and prioritizes them) 2. Integration and mobilization of 7. Recruitment of leaders for public citizens office, which (normally) facilitates non-violent choice between 3. Encourages stability & individuals Legitimacy of political systems. 8. Formulation of public policy, 4. Socialize voters into the political facilitating choice between policy system options 5. Articles the values and interests of supporters 80