Philosophy PDF

PHILOSOPHY Metaphysics has the following parts: Theology is concerned about the 1.1 presence of God and nature. The Anthropological Aspect of the...

PHILOSOPHY Metaphysics has the following parts: Theology is concerned about the 1.1 presence of God and nature. The Anthropological Aspect of the Ontology deals with the ultimate Definition of Philosophy reality, the nature of existence. It reflects a worldview about man, society, Cosmology is the study of the mores, nation, nationhood, etc. problems concerned with origin and imposition. The Systematic/Methodological Aspect Cosmogony is the theory of the Definition of Philosophy concerning the origin and the Ideas serve as parts trying to fit together in development of the universe/the a synthesis. n In this context, Philosophy is creation of the world. an ongoing process "in which philosophies Eschatology is a doctrine which are 'moments', which is to say dynamically studies the last or final maters as interrelated parts constituting a whole which death and life after death. is ever progressing. Epistemology is a second branch of Philosophy that deals with the theory of Philosophy comes from two Greek words: problem of knowledge. philos (love) and sophia (wisdom) which Questions in metaphysics are: were used by ancient Greeks to refer to What is knowledge? "love of wisdom" and soon applied it to the How to know? study or discipline that uses human reason How does man know what is real? to investigate the ultimate, causes, reasons, What are the sources of knowledge? and principles which govern all things. Axiology is the third branch of Philosophy which studies values philosophically. Philosophers are people who Questions in metaphysics are: engage in philosophy or "lovers of wisdom" What are the higher values of life? What are the principles of life? Philosophy is not angry debating or arguing What are the importance of developing Don't make others feel bad by arguing them values? What is truth, goodness, and into a corner beauty of life? 1.2 Logic- “logic” came from the Greek word THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY logos, which is sometimes translated as "sentence", "discourse", "reason", "rule", Metaphysics- It is a field in philosophy that "ratio". is generally focused on how reality and the Logic is the study of the principles of correct universe began. reasoning. It is a process for making a Questions in metaphysics are: conclusion and a toll you can use to make an What is the nature of the universe we live argument. The foundation of a logical in? argument is its proposition, or statement. What is reality? The proposition is either accurate (true) or not What is soul? accurate (false). What is God? Premises are the propositions used to build Heraclitus the argument. Branch: Metaphysics The argument is then built on premises. Approach: Monism Then an inference is made from the premises. He proposed that everything that exists is Finally, a conclusion is drawn. based on a higher order or plan which he called logos Deductive Reasoning- provides complete change is permanent aspect of the human evidence of the truth and its conclusion. It condition; "No man never steps in the same uses a specific and accurate premises that river twice." leads to a specific and accurate conclusion. EVERYTHING IS FLUX With correct premises, the conclusion to this type of argument is verifiable and correct. Democritus Branch: Metaphysics Approach: Atomism Inductive reasoning is "bottom up," meaning it Democritus study the causes of natural takes specific information and makes a broad phenomena generalization that is considered probable, was among the first to propose that matter is allowing for the fact that the conclusion may composed of tiny particles called atoms not be accurate. This type of reasoning MAN IS A MICROCOSM OF THE UNIVERSE usually a rule being established based on a series of repeated experiences. Diogenes of Sinope Branch: Ethics Approach: Cynicism THE ANCIENT WORLD Pre-Socratic He is a known advocate of living a simple Philosophers and virtuous life 700 BCE - 250 CE one should not only talk of virtue but should show it in words and actions Thales of Miletus his emphasis on austerity and simplicity often Branch: Metaphysics went to the extreme and was said to have Approach: Monism lived like a beggar Thales of Miletus is considered to be the first HAPPINESS IS A GOOD FLOW OF LIFE philosopher by Aristotle and the others. A Greek mathematician, astronomer and Epicurus pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in lonia, Branch: Ethics Asia Minor. He was one of the Seven Sages of Approach: Epicureanism philosophy could Greece. enable man to live a life of happiness his views gave rise to Epicureanism - a school of Pythagoras philosophy which believes that wisdom and Branch: Metaphysics simple living will result in a life free of fear and Approach: Pythagoreanism Pythagoras is a pain mathematician and scientist, credited with formulating the Pythagorean Theorem Socrates established a community of learners devoted Branch: Epistemology Approach: Dialectical to the study of religion and philosophy Method considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times, he did not claim to be "wise" and merely considered himself a "midwife" Failing to see that certain behavior cannot that helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom produce happiness believed that philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue. Plato Branch: Epistemology Approach: Rationalism Truth is Absolute and Objective Plato (meaning broad) is a student of "Argumentation" to achieve substantive Socrates, he wrote down his mentor's concepts of truth and goodness teachings and incorporated some of his own He attempted to discover the foundation of ideas good life by simply knowing and doing his teachings and writings were considered Knowledge is a virtue the foundation of Western philosophy "The inner life is the seat of a unique activity The Theory of Knowledge (the activity of knowing) which leads to the -The Allegory of the Cave practical activity of doing." -The Metaphor of the Divided Line Education is a matter of conversion - a Soul/Psyche complete turning around from the world of "That is within us in virtue of which we are appearance to the world of reality. pronounce wise or foolish, good or bad." Dialectic - a method of inquiry where two Structure of personality opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to "make the soul good as possible" arrive at new knowledge founded the Maieutic Method Academy - an institution of higher learning Intellectual midwifery which was the first of its kind in the Western Dialectic World Elenchus WHAT WE CALL LEARNING IS ONLY A A process thereby in abandoning the PROCESS OF RECOLLECTION misdirected opinion Formulated the Socratic Method - a means of THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE (Plato’s examining a topic by devising a series of allegory) questions that let the learner examine and Shadowing opinions and enlightening sun. analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION DISTINGUISHED I KNOW NOTHING EXCEPT THE FACT OF MY OPINION IGNORANCE eikasia or illusion, or imagination. Socrates' dialectical method was a simple pistis or belief or conviction. method of questioning that brought to life the KNOWLEDGE often-false assumptions in which particular noesis or reason. Using the intellect. claims to knowledge are based. dianoia or understanding (via thinking) using Socrates Morral Thought scientific, mathematical hypotheses. Teleological Conception The view that things have functions or Soul is the principle of life and purpose and tend toward the good. movement. Knowledge = Virtue The SOUL'S 3 Parts Fulfilling one's function Reason Ignorance = Vice Spirit  Appetite 1.3 The Charioteer Methods of Philosophizing Good Bad EPISTEMOLOGY - Study of Human Knowledge episteme means knowledge Tripartite Soul by Plato logos means study Reason - The rational/logical part of the mind Knowledge begins with perception via senses Spirit- The part of the mind concerned with reputation, status and ambition 1. SPECULATIVE THINKING- specula Desire- The irrational, animalistic element of means “watch tower”. It implies a the mind concerned with cravings e.g. food, vision above of an ordinary person drink and sex which allows a person to expand their VIRTUE as Fulfillment of Function perspective and their way of thinking The Soul by looking the bigger picture. Reason = virtue of wisdom - Speculation is sometimes Spirit = virtue of courage considered as detachment Appetite = virtue of temperance because this is an activity Justice is the fourth virtue done alone and in isolation. Will be achieved once the soul fulfills - Speculation is a mode of its proper function philosophical inquiry that will Product of people staying in their help a person to explore and place and doing their special task take in a variety of perspectives about human person through contemplation. Aristotle 2. CRITICAL THINKING/ANALYSIS Branch: Epistemology To criticize means to “judge” or to Approach: Empiricism "analyze." Critical thinking (analysis) Aristotle attended the academy and prominent evaluates any principles and premises student of Plato that may be gained through all ideas and views are based on perception speculation (rational inquiry). and our reality is based on what we can sense Modes of Critical Thinking/ Analysis and perceive Logical solves philosophical problems Studied logic that led to the formulation of a through careful analysis of the logical formal process of analyzing reasoning which structure. In logical analysis, statements are gave rise to deductive reasoning - the process reduced into simplest form to verify. of which specific statements are analyzed to Linguistic analyses words for clarity and reach a conclusion or generalization consistency. It requires a clear definition of ALL MEN BY NATURE words to avoid ambiguity or vagueness and DESIRE TO KNOW therefore ensures clarity of claims. 3. REFLECTIVE INQUIRY This kind of reflection is seen as "meaning making" process that moves a person from one experience into the next with a deeper understanding of  its relationship with connections to Bandwagon Argument(Argumentum ad other experiences and ideas. populum) a fallacious argument which is based on affirming that something is real or THEORIES OF TRUTH better because the majority thinks so. COHERENCE THEORY Hasty Generalization is a fallacious Ascertains that a thing is true or false based generalization that is usually false due to on whether the statement COHERES with the insufficient sample size. In all cases, hasty larger system or not. Consistency with the generalizations refer to conclusions drawn system being used. from insufficient information, or where a CORRESPONDENCE THEORY logical pathway is reversed What we believe is true if it corresponds to the ways of things. Sense perception or Equivocation experience as its source of knowledge. In logic, equivocation is an informal fallacy PRAGMATIC THEORY resulting from the use of a particular Ascertains that a belief or statement is true if word/expression in multiple senses within an it has a useful application in the world. Based argument. It is a type of ambiguity that stems on the good or practical consequences of an from a phrase having two or more distinct idea. meanings, not from the grammar or structure of the sentence INFORMAL FALLACIES Equivocation In logic, equivocation is an informal fallacy resulting from the use of a What is fallacy? particular word/expression in multiple senses fallere - means to deceive within an argument. It is a type of ambiguity An error in reasoning that stems from a phrase having two or more "argument" in which the premises given for the distinct meanings, not from the grammar or conclusion do not provide the needed degree structure of the sentence of support It conceals error, it projects an apparent truth Argument from Authority also called an appeal to authority, or argumentum Argument from Ignorance also known ad verecundiam, is a form as appeal to ignorance, is a fallacy in informal of argument in which the opinion of an logic. It asserts that a proposition is true authority on a topic is used as because it has not yet been proved false or a evidence to support an argument. proposition is false because it has not yet been proved true. False Dilemma also referred to as false dichotomy, is an informal fallacy based on a Appeal to Pity (argumentum ad premise that erroneously limits what options misericordiam) A fallacy committed when the are available. The source of the fallacy lies not arguer attempts to evoke pity from the in an invalid form of inference but in a false audience and tries to use that pity to make the premise. audience accept the conclusion. Slippery Slope Fallacy, critical thinking, OPINION political rhetoric, and caselaw, is an argument eikasia or illusion, or imagination. in which a party asserts that a relatively small pistis or belief or conviction. first step leads to a chain of related events Opinion is a feeling, judgment, belief, or culminating in some significant effect. conclusion that cannot be proven true by objective evidence. Red Herring Fallacy is a logical fallacy where A statement of opinion cannot be proved true someone presents irrelevant information in an or false. It is a belief or judgment. It often attempt to distract others from a topic that's contains a word of judgment, such as best, being discussed, often to avoid a question or should, or beautiful. It may begin with the shift the discussion in a new direction. words In my opinion, or I believe. Though an opinion may be widely accepted, Fallacy of Sunk Costs describes our tendency that does not make it a fact. to follow through on an endeavor if we have A statement of opinion should be supported. already invested time, effort, or money into it, A valid opinion is supported by facts or good whether or not the current costs outweigh the logic. A faulty opinion is not. benefits. TYPES OF OPINIONS Questionable Cause also known as causal Hypothesis Statements - A Hypothesis is an fallacy, false cause, or non causa pro causa is assumption made to explain an observation. a category of informal fallacies in which a Though an Observation is a Fact, a Hypothesis cause is incorrectly identified. is an Opinion. Theory Statements - A theory is an opinion 1.4 that is widely believed explanation for a group FACT AND OPINION of observation. - The Theory of Relativity FACT - The Theory of Evolution noesis or reason. Using the intellect. Assumptive Statements- An assumption dianoia or understanding (via thinking) using statement is an opinion that is an improvable. scientific, mathematical hypotheses Value Statement- A value statement is any 1. A fact is a specific detail that can be proven claim that is based in someone's belief. as true Exaggerated Statements- An exaggerated based on objective evidence. statement is one that embellishes the facts, 2. Are statements that can be proven. often to sway the reader. 3. A statement of fact can be correct or incorrect. You can check it by doing research. HUMAN AS EMBODIED SPIRIT FACTS A fact is something that can be proven by a What is a human person? reliable authority such as: - History Books Man- It is generally and commonly defined to -Proven Scientific Law represent the entire human race - Government Law Human- A term used to refer for various - Mathematics classification and species. For a living man, - Measurements human is under the classification of EXISTENTIAL APPROACH Mammalia. Which focuses on the kind of life, or mode of Human Being- A general term refers to the existence, that is unique to human person. deepest and natural behavior of a person that Dealing with the WHO of a human person. distinguish human from animals. A collective traits that formed and considered the very essence of humanity. Nobody can be What are the components of a HUMAN considered man without human nature. PERSON? Human Person Refers to an individual who possess self- awareness, self-determination, 1. UNSPIRITED BODY VIEW rational mind, and the capacity to interact with - human person is just essentially other and with himself/herself his/her body and nothing more. Personhood A general term refers to the state Supporters of being a person with unique, sacred and MIND-BRAIN IDENTITY ethical status within him/herself. THEORY - Mental state or neutral state of the brain. What is a Human Person? 2. DISEMBODIED SPIRIT VIEW Came from Adam and Eve >>>>> -maintains that the human person A human person is typically with a body which has both body and spirit but claims is tangible and has three components that iit is the spirit that essentially composed of soul, mind, and spirit. >>>>> defines the human person. From an Ape - The human soul exists prior to the under the Class: Mammalia body and even after the body is long gone. - Plato Two General Ways to Distinguish a Human 3. EMBODIED SPIRIT VIEW - human Person person is just essentially the unity of Cognitive Self his/her body and spirit. The essential components of a human person What is Embodied Spirit? that deals with the what of a person which BODY + SOUL includes the human person's belief, desire, The embodiment of the spirit dreams, and intentions. particularly refers to the inseparable Physical Self union of human body and soul. It deals with the essential features of the There is no dichotomy between human way of life or the who of a person person's body and soul. Both body which includes his/her body type, strength and soul are fundamental and and appearances integral parts of the human person. METAPHYSICAL APPROACH - Aristotle Which focuses on the kinds of substances or materials and capacities that uniquely make Soul is the cause of life is a form up a human person. Vegetative/Nutritive soul - plant Dealing with the WHAT of a human person. Sensitive soul- animal Rational soul- human A Person is a physical substance 1. Facticity refers to the things in our life underscored the substantial unity of human that are already given. nature. Biological Sex - Thomas Aquinas Historical Period Nationality The Unity of Body and Soul 2. Spatial-temporal Being Without the Soul, the body would have no As temporal beings, our most obvious form. limitation is our finitude - our finite quality or Without the Body, the soul would not have state. its required organs of sense through which As spatial beings, we are limited by our to gain its knowledge. bodies to be present in two or more places at the same time. 1.6 3. The Body as Intermediary HUMAN PERSON: LIMITATIONS AND Intermediary means acting as a mediator TRANSCENDENCE (Merriam-Webster). Our body serves as an intermediary between The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit us and the physical world. Human existence is embodied existence. Many things related to our existence as LIMITATIONS CAN LEAD TO persons are related to bodies - age, sex, POSSIBILITIES!!! race, relationships, etc. Possibility Consciousness is the state or quality of A chance that something might exist, awareness, or, of being aware of an external happen, or be true; object or something within oneself. The state of fact of being possible; Embodiment refers to the biological and Something that might be done of might physical presence of our bodies, which are a happen; Something that is possible; necessary precondition for subjectivity, Abilities or qualities that could make emotion, language, thought and social someone or something better in the future. interaction. Transcendence The ability to change, be dynamic, and WHAT IF YOU DON'T HAVE A BODY? continually redefining oneself which works with our facticity to create change. Limitations of the Human Person as an Exceeding usual limits or surpassing; Embodied Spirit Extending or lying beyond the limits of Human Persons are biologically deficient ordinary experience; beings. This means that we (human beings) Being beyond the limits of all possible are not equipped with the best physical experience and knowledge (Kantian attributes among all the beings in the world. Philosophy) LIMITATIONS OF THE HUMAN PERSON AS LET’S TRANSCEND!!(૭ ｡ ̀ ᵕ ́｡ )૭ AN EMBODIED SPIRIT 1.7 Environmental Philosophers tackle issues Humankind is part of the world, and we such as humanity's role in the natural world, significantly affect our environment in the the interaction between nature and human same way that changes activities, and humanity's response to in our environment affect us. environmental changes. Human Beings Approaches to the The human person can change the Environment environment to suit his or her purposes. As 1. Instrumental Approach a rational being, the human person is not Human beings affirm the protection of the only capable of transforming the world, but environment if it possesses value and also of understanding the laws which importance for human being. The problem govern nature. of this approach is when human beings can no longer recognize the value of the Views on the Attribution of Moral environment, it ceases to be of value. Consideration 2. Axiological Approach Human beings recognize the intrinsic value 1. Anthropocentrism of the environment. This demands him to only humans are assigned protect and take good care of it. of intrinsic value 3. Anthropological approach - considers human beings as The primary concern of the human being is the center of moral to unveil his/her being as human or what consideration being ought to be. He/she sees the 2. Panthocentrism -extends intrinsic value and importance of protection, care, and respect thus moral consideration to higher forms of for the environment. animals or intelligent animals such as dogs 4. Utilitarian approach and chimpanzees who are sentient. It focuses on the consequences of human 3. Biocentrism- is the view that not only action, whether it is wrong or right. Our humans and animals, but also plants should action is ethically right when it produces be morally considerable. -The intrinsic value is assigned to living happiness to a great number of people, things. otherwise, ethically wrong. Human being 4. Ecocentrism use the environment to utilize and -regards ecosystems as holistic entities that manipulate natural environment for human should be given moral consideration. development. Ecosystem: the community of living organism in conjunction with the nonliving components Environmental Philosophy of their environment interacting as a system. Philosophy also seeks to explore the relationship between humanity and Sustainable Development is development environment that meets the needs of the present without The discipline in Philosophy that studies compromising the ability of future moral relationship of human beings with the generations to meet their own needs. environment and its non- human contents. It contains two key concepts: 1. The concept of needs- the essential needs of the world's poor 2. The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet the present and future needs. Three Important Principles of Sustainability 1. Environmental Ethics - refers to maintaining the state of the environment Three Important Principles of Sustainability 2. Economic Efficiency - refers to prudence in decision- making regarding the use resources to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste. -Prudence is the ability to regulate one's action and behavior. 3. Equity -Demands that we use our natural resources in such a manner that these are conserved so that the next generation will be able to use them. - Frugality is being thrifty with the use of one's resources.