PHILO 11.05 - THE POLITICAL DIMESION NOTES PDF

MODULE 1 - Philosophy as Human Activity 0 - How to Read Philosophy | Conception Terms: Flagging: Writing notes on the margins to remember important details, usually pencil is used Philosophy involves explicit reading and thus should be read for enlightenment and developing rich understanding. It is...

MODULE 1 - Philosophy as Human Activity 0 - How to Read Philosophy | Conception Terms: Flagging: Writing notes on the margins to remember important details, usually pencil is used Philosophy involves explicit reading and thus should be read for enlightenment and developing rich understanding. It is about using the text to reflect upon oneself and one’s beliefs. There are three facets of reading philosophy: Pre-Read and Fast-Read (Stage Setting): -Examine the general features of the article such as the title, headings, footnotes -Goal: Generate a basic understanding of the Thesis of the reading Understanding: -Re-reading the entire article very carefully, correcting and adding to previous flagging. -Goal: Explain the author’s defense of their conclusion in their own words. Evaluating: -Re-reading certain passages, fixing any mistaken flagging, and writing down new discoveries. -Goal: Assess whether the author’s argument is plausible. Along with these facets, it is necessary to perform note-taking, flagging, and to adapt to idiosyncrasies of philosophical conversations. Furthermore, philosophy heavily focuses on dialogic writing, a style of monologue and self-contradiction to further bolster claims. 1 - The Value of Philosophy | Russell The value of philosophy is its ability to stimulate intellectual growth, challenge assumptions, and broaden perspectives. It encourages critical thinking and open-mindedness emphasizing contemplation over abstract and universal knowledge that leads to a liberated intellect. That being, a state of mind free from personal biases, prejudices, and habitual beliefs. It is free from the constraints of personal biases and is able to view the world with impartiality, seeking truth and knowledge without the influence of individual desires. (I don’t fully agree with this given that it is impossible to be totally free from personal biases. If that were the case, then every philosopher would arrive at the same approach or conclusion, but they don’t, so it’s not). It challenges conventional wisdom by asking questions outside of the norm that may not have definitive answers - this uncertainty allows for growth beyond the scope of concrete sciences. If it were definitive, it would become a totally other science (ie. Astronomy). By exploring philosophical inquiries, individuals are prompted to consider unfamiliar possibilities and to question habitual beliefs diminishing dogmatic assurance that is common with unquestioned convictions. "​ Philosophy, like all other studies, aims primarily at knowledge. The knowledge it aims at is the kind of knowledge which gives unity and system to the body of the sciences, and the kind which results from a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions, prejudices, and beliefs." p. 90 ​ ​"Philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions, since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions themselves; because these questions enlarge our conception of what is possible, enrich our intellectual imagination, and diminish the dogmatic assurance which closes speculative interest in the universe." p. 93 - 94 ​ ​"The true philosophic contemplation, on the contrary, finds its satisfaction in every enlargement of the not-Self, in everything that magnifies the objects contemplated, and thereby the subject contemplating." p.93 NOTES - 01/19/24: Principle of Charity - Assuming that the opposing position rests on valid grounds - that there is a coherent argument to be explored. you rather than appreciating its nuances. The quest in meaning itself makes us aware of our limitations. Indirect effects on the growth of the knower - awareness and intellectual humility. There is nothing economically valuable with asking philosophical questions - thus it is valid to think that Philosophy is not valuable. The philosophical attitude is akin to a wandering child. 2 - The Apology of Socrates | Plato We repeat the same questions because they strike at the heart - we realize that reality is far too rich and vast for the human mind to encapsulate. There is no progress in philosophy as there are no definitive answers to the questions we ask - hence we repeat the same questions. If we limit ourselves to definitive answers, we domesticate reality - limiting ourselves to what we could discover. Sticking to knowledge that is proven, prejudices and biases, leaves out opportunities for growth Custom is dangerous because it hinders you from thinking for yourself - it is always easier to follow than to think independently and stand your ground. “A crowd - is untruth, since a crowd either renders the single individual wholly unrepentant and irresponsible, or weakens his responsibility by making it a fraction of his decision.” - Soren Kierkegaard. The crowd thinks for the person. What the crowd believes might be true may in fact be true but it prevents an individual from making their own conclusion solely using their own faculty. On Philosophical Contemplation: It is obtained when the desire for knowledge is alone operative. The desire of knowledge is an end in itself not a means to an end. There is no specific purpose, it is simply to investigate and that in itself is satisfaction - scholē (leisure). An indirect enlargement of the Self. The world becomes our starting point rather than the Self performing a self-assertion. Making the world fit Socrates was charged with corrupting the minds of the young and believing in supernatural things of his own invention instead of the gods recognized by the State. A charge of treason. The punishments were between death and being expelled to a different The framing made by Plato, makes Socrates appear virtuous in front of an increasingly politically charged event. Socrates' opponents had a significant impact on the jurors, as they were able to sway their opinions and create a false impression of Socrates over many years. The opponents, through their malicious suggestions and persistent hostility, managed to influence the jurors to believe that Socrates was committing an injustice by inquiring into matters below the earth and in the sky, and by supposedly making the weaker argument defeat the stronger. (19b - 19c) This hostility resulted in the term "wise" being applied to Socrates, which further contributed to the false perception of his character. Additionally, the opponents' influence led to the creation of a negative public image of Socrates, as evidenced by the play by Aristophanes, where Socrates is portrayed in a negative light. Socrates begins his defense by addressing the jury in a rhetorical manner, responding to his opponent's claim - that there is an attempt to mislead and misrepresent. Socrates starts by challenging the misconceptions that led to his unpopularity and charges brought against him. The text provides insights into Socrates' philosophical beliefs and his interactions with Athenian society, particularly in the context of politics and the pursuit of wisdom. From a political perspective, several key philosophical knowledge can be gained: 1. Socratic Method and Political Discourse: Socrates' use of the Socratic method, characterized by questioning and cross-examination, can be seen as a model for engaging in political discourse. His approach of challenging assumptions and seeking deeper understanding through dialogue can be applied to political debates and decision-making processes. 5. Ethical Leadership and Public Service: Socrates' commitment to moral encouragement and his refusal to engage in conventional political activities highlight the importance of ethical leadership and public service. This prompts reflection on the virtues of integrity, moral guidance, and the pursuit of the common good in political leadership. 1. "I will offer you substantial proofs of what I have said; not theories, but what you better appreciate, facts. Listen while I describe my actual experiences, so that you may know that I would never submit wrongly to any authority through fear of death, but would refuse at any cost - even that of my life." 2. Divine Command and Political Action: Socrates' obedience to the divine command, as he claims, has led him to prioritize philosophical pursuits over political involvement. This raises questions about the relationship between religious or moral imperatives and political engagement, prompting considerations of how individuals balance personal beliefs with civic responsibilities. (Without application, or even 2. "The only office which I have ever held in our city, gentlemen, was when I served on the Council. It so happened that our tribe Antiochis was presiding when you decided that the ten commanders who had failed to rescue the men who were lost in the naval engagements should be tried en bloc; which was illegal, as you all recognized later." attempting to realize what we believe in, especially if it is for the betterment of society, will the wisdom and knowledge in Philosophy be able without purpose). 3. "When the oligarchy came into power, the Thirty Commissioners in their turn summoned me and four others to the Round Chamber and instructed us to go and fetch Leon of Salamis from his home for execution." 3. Influence on the Youth: Socrates' influence on the youth, as described in the text, raises questions about the role of mentorship and education in shaping future political leaders. It prompts reflection on the ethical responsibilities of political figures and the impact of philosophical teachings on the development of civic virtues. 4. The Value of Wisdom in Governance: Socrates' pursuit of wisdom and his assertion that true wisdom is a property of the divine, as indicated by the oracle, invites contemplation on the role of wisdom in political leadership. It encourages consideration of how philosophical insights can inform governance and decision-making processes for the betterment of the state. 4. "I am fairly certain that this plain speaking of mine is the cause of my unpopularity; and this really goes to prove that my statements are true, and that I have described correctly the nature and the grounds of the calumny which has been brought against me." 5. "Do you suppose that I should have lived as long as I have if I had moved in the sphere of public life, and conducting myself in that sphere like an honourable man, had always upheld the cause of right, and conscientiously set this end above all other things?" 6. "It may seem curious that I should go round giving advice like this and busying myself in people's private affairs, and yet never venture publicly to address you as a whole and advise on matters of state." Numbers which is the pagination on the margins for standardization. 7. "I want you to think of my adventures as a cycle of labours undertaken to establish the truth of the oracle once for all. After I had finished with the politicians I turned to the poets, dramatic." Socrates was carried away at the start of the apology (17a) - he was losing a sense of himself. “Know thyself.” It is only through self-knowledge that one can obtain wisdom. You can be knowledgeable but not wise. When you focus too much on the known and not the knower, you lose a lot in the beauty of life. Asking the deep seeded questions that put the meaning of our lives at stake. Does it lead me to a more fulfilling life? Trying to find what moves you. 8. "But how is it that some people enjoy spending a great deal of time in my company? You have heard the reason, gentlemen; I told you quite frankly. It is because they enjoy hearing me examine those who think that they are wise when they are not; an experience which has its amusing side." 9. "I spend all my time going about trying to persuade you, young and old, to make your first and chief concern not for your bodies or for your possessions, but for the highest welfare of your souls, proclaiming as I go, 'Wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth and every other blessing, both to the individual and to the state.'" 10. "There you have the causes which led to the attack upon me by Meletus and Anytus and Lycon, Meletus being aggrieved on behalf of the poets, Anytus on behalf of the professional men and politicians, and Lycon on behalf of the orators." NOTES - 01/23/24: Athens was at the forefront of democracy in the time of Socrates - standing as the main opposition to Sparta which was very militaristic and lacked liberties. There was a culture of pederasty. Plato: Plato was a student of Socrates who wrote the Socratic dialogues and was present during Socrates’ trial (34a and 38b) Plato is relevant to Socrates as Plato wrote about Socrates, Socrates himself did not write anything himself. Important: Stephanus What makes the self hard to “know”? When it comes to objects, there is sentimental value. Think about your mechanical wristwatches and fountain pens. The value evolves but it is constant. When it comes to people who are important to us, it’s much harder. A partner, a parent, or a child whom we’ve known for so long, may surprise us. What makes the self hard to know is probably because it is too near. Measuring your life, your purpose, is shaky. What could be the relation between persuasion and truth? Socrates would be a terrible salesman because he is direct to the point, and does not use flowery words. Being persuasive does not equate to being truthful. Persuasion is selling something and whether that is the truth, untruth, or non-truth relies on the persuader. Truth is truth. Socrates vs the Sophists Socrates inquires about the objective truth like the Sophists, but unlike the Sophists, he does not claim absolute knowledge on it. Socrates considers the earliest charges much more difficult as they are deeply entrenched prejudice that have been passed on from generation to generation. You cannot argue against prejudice, it is something people believe and think they know. Socrates only had a little amount of time left. Furthermore, Socrates believed that virtue and wisdom is unteachable. You can teach them how to ask the questions and influence someone but you cannot pass on virtue and wisdom. It isn’t taught like Mathematics or the Natural Sciences. There is poverty in philosophy. One has to live the questions themselves. The Pythian Priestess claimed that no one was wiser than Socrates. Socrates and Meletus Socrates questioned Meletus. Socrates clarifies that they believe that he is the only bad influence and everyone else in Athens are good influences on the youth. To which Meletus admits. Socrates then places the situation into an analogy. When a horse is sick, you can’t just bring the horse to anybody, you need to bring them to a specific person with the expertise to care for them so that they can improve them. ”It would be a singular dispensation of fortune for our young people if there were only one person who corrupted them, while all the rest had a beneficial effect.” (25b) - meaning that him only having a bad effect is impossible. Socrates then asks whether Meletus believes that he corrupted the youth intentionally, to which Meletus believes is true. Socrates then claims that it is irrational to do so knowingly as it runs the risk of getting harmed in the future. What does Socratic Ignorance entail? Socratic ignorance, as presented in the text, refers to Socrates' assertion that he possesses a unique form of wisdom. He claims that his wisdom lies in the awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates explains that the oracle of Apollo declared him to be the wisest of men, leading him to embark on a quest to find individuals wiser than himself. However, through his interrogations and discussions with politicians, poets, craftsmen, and others, Socrates discovered that many people who claimed wisdom were actually ignorant. This realization led him to conclude that true wisdom is a property of the divine, and human wisdom has little or no value. Socrates' acknowledgment of his own ignorance and his commitment to questioning and challenging the claims of others is a central theme in his defense against the charges brought by his accusers. In summary, Socratic ignorance, as presented in the text, reflects Socrates' belief in the limitations of human wisdom and his recognition of the value of self-awareness and humility in the pursuit of knowledge. NOTES - 01/26/24: An example of the Socratic method of cross-examination: The second accusation against Socrates is that he believes in no gods at all. Socrates believes in divine activities and therefore implies that he also believes in supernatural beings. You cannot believe one thing and not believe in a highly related matter. “Socrates believes in X. X=Y. But Socrates does not believe in Y.” A debate is different from the Socratic method as the former is persuading the judges that your claim has more ground while the latter questions the fundamentals of the claim posed against them - an inquiry of some truth. The oracle of Delphi on Socrates: The oracle, the mouth of Apollo, says that there is no one wiser than Socrates. But Socrates believes he knows nothing but has reasoning capacity and believes that the gods could not be wrong. The tension built went to Socrates to have dialogue with the “wise” people in Athens in an attempt to inquire about the truth of the oracle. Politicians (21c-21e), Poets (22b-22c), Craftsmen (22d-22e) - they are skilled in their crafts but they assume that they are knowledgeable on everything already. Socrates would rather be himself, not as skilled as they are but not as ignorant as they are. Admitting you know nothing does not come from a place of darkness. Admitting that you are lacking or ignorant in an aspect is a product of search and inquiry. It comes from a depth of understanding and active investigation. After Socrates’ search, he realized that you can replace his name in the statement “No one is wiser than Socrates.” and it would still make sense. Everyone is capable of being awoken to their ignorance and realizing that there are things we do not readily understand - so keep asking questions. The jury ruled 281-220 against Socrates and so he was given the punishment of a fine, of which his students like Plato would help pitch in, but tells the jury that he will continue to pursue his beliefs instead of living idly. He was then punished to death. Technē - practical skill or craft. It extends to all aspects of human activity (Ex. Technē in volleyball, in sculpting, in guitar, in Excel etc.). Socrates implies that there is a Technē in being human. There is an appropriate way to live life. “…examining both myself and others is really the very best thing that a man can do, and that life without this sort of examination is not worth living…” When you claim you are the master, you stop learning about the art you are a master of. The only way to move forward is to continue acknowledging your ignorance as when you are receptive to such, you realize you know so little. The unexamined life is not a human life. Socrates shows you what is not - be critical, be open, keep asking questions. 3. Meditations in First Philosophy | Descartes “How do we actually know something?” The search for a foundational indubitable and certain belief. The author employed a method of radical doubt and introspection to start his meditations and begins by reflecting on the false opinions and shaky foundations that he has accepted since childhood. He expresses his determination to demolish his former beliefs and start afresh to construct something lasting and unshakeable in the sciences. He delves into the nature of doubt and the unreliability of the senses, raising questions about the certainty of various beliefs. The author also explores the possibility of being deceived by a powerful and cunning being, leading to a deep introspection about the nature of existence and the self. In the "Second Meditation," the author continues his contemplation, focusing on the nature of the human mind and its capacity for knowledge. He engages in a systematic analysis of his thoughts, recognizing the certainty of his own existence as a thinking thing. This leads to a profound exploration of the nature of the mind, distinguishing between innate, adventitious, and self-produced ideas. The author also examines the concept of God, striving to establish the existence of a supreme being and the extent of his own knowledge and understanding. In the "Third Meditation," the author further investigates the origin of his ideas, particularly those related to bodily things and the concept of God. He scrutinizes the nature of reality, causality, and the distinctions between finite and infinite substances. The author's reflections culminate in the affirmation of the existence of God as a necessary and supreme being, independent of his own finite existence. This realization leads him to a deeper understanding of the nature of truth, existence, and the self. affirming the existence. The First Meditation: The first meditation of the document delves into the author's realization of the many false opinions he has accepted since childhood and his determination to rebuild his knowledge on a more solid foundation. The author expresses his intention to eliminate all doubtful beliefs and start anew in his pursuit of unshakeable truths in the sciences. He reflects on the certainty of his own existence as a thinking thing and the nature of doubt, while also considering the possibility of being deceived by a powerful and cunning being. The meditation also touches on the author's contemplation of the nature of the human mind and its capacity for knowledge. In the exploration of the nature of the human mind and its capacity for knowledge, the author comes to understand that he is a thinking thing, capable of doubting, understanding, affirming, denying, wishing, imagining, and perceiving through the senses. He also reflects on the distinction between the mind and the body, and the limitations of sensory perception in understanding the true nature of the self. This leads to a deeper understanding of the complexities of human cognition and the quest for unshakeable truths. The nature of doubt is a central theme in the document, particularly in the context of the author's introspective exploration. The author questions the certainty of his own existence and the reliability of his senses, leading to a profound examination of doubt as a fundamental aspect of human cognition. The author grapples with the possibility of being deceived by a powerful and cunning being, which prompts him to question the nature of reality and the self. The being that the author refers to is himself, as he engages in a process of self-reflection and introspection. He contemplates the nature of his own existence, the capacity for knowledge, and the fundamental aspects of his being as a thinking thing. The author realizes that, despite the doubts and uncertainties, the proposition "I am, I exist" is necessarily true whenever it is conceived in the mind, certainty of his own Key quotes from the first meditation include: "It is some years now since I realized how many false opinions I had accepted as true from childhood onwards." "Hence I saw that at some stage in my life the whole structure would have to be utterly demolished, and that I should have to begin again from the bottom up if I wished to construct something lasting and unshakeable in the sciences." "But this seemed to be a massive task, and so I postponed it until I had reached the age when one is as fit as one will ever be to master the various disciplines." "Hence I have delayed so long that now I should be at fault if I used up in deliberating the time that is left for acting." "The moment has come, and so today I have discharged my mind from all its cares, and have carved out a space of untroubled leisure. I have withdrawn into seclusion and shall at last be able to devote myself seriously and without encumbrance to the task of destroying all my former opinions." Notes - FM: The Copernican and Scientific Revolution along with Galileo and his discoveries through the telescope introduced a paradigm shift in the world. The scientific and cultural developments in the Age of Enlightenment emphasized that human reason is capable of knowing independent of divine revelation. What could be the strongest justification for radical doubt or skepticism? What remains true and debunks the case is mathematics. Mathematical principles remain true whether I am awake or asleep. A triangle’s interior angles will always be 180 degrees, 1+1=2, the Pythagoras Theorem. The supreme doubt will be able to undermine Mathematics itself. Possible Reason #3: All-Powerful God God as an infinitely powerful and perfect being, is the source of existence and therefore can influence the ideas that the author possesses. God has the ability to do so. Possible Reason #1: Illusory Sense Perception There are plenty of times that we are deceived by the senses. You think you’re seeing a certain thing but in reality, you are not. This is not the main reason because of the concept that “The truth of some is not the truth of all.” This is not a strong reason either as God is full of goodness and will not have willed him to be cheated - it is against God’s nature. That said, the author believes it inconsistent with quality if they permit man to be perceived - but God does so anyways. You can get fake diplomas but that doesn’t mean all diplomas are fake. You can get a fake passport or driver’s license but that doesn’t mean they’re all fake. Furthermore, the assumption that there is a fake, implies that there is a genuine one. Possible Reason #3: The Evil Spirit or Genius Possible Reason #2: Indistinguishability of Dreams from Waking Perceptions You cannot actually distinguish between you being awake and asleep. When we are lucidly dreaming, we don’t even recognize that we are in the dream. How can we be sure that we are awake and not just dreaming or in a coma? The waking world is a different reality and the lucid dreaming world is a different reality. If you cannot distinguish between the two, then this is a better argument for doubt. “Some evil genius, supremely powerful and cunning, has devoted all his efforts to deceiving me.” (22-23) Since the evil genius is no God there are no moral impediments that could hinder the evil from deceiving the author. Like God in terms of power, but not like God who has an unwavering moral compass. The evil genius serves as a catalyst for the author’s engagement in radical doubt compelling the author to resist this deception and proceed toward deeper introspection. The Second Meditation What could be the certain and indubitable belief from which knowledge about the world could be built upon? The second meditation delves into the nature of the human mind and its capacity for knowledge, as well as the author's commitment to radical doubt in the pursuit of unshakeable truths. The author reflects on the certainty of his own existence as a thinking thing, stating, "I am therefore a true thing, and one that truly exists; but what kind of thing? I have said it already: one that thinks." The author also expresses determination not to give assent to anything false, even in the face of a powerful and cunning deceiver, stating, "I will take care not to give my assent to anything false, or to allow this deceiver, however powerful and cunning he may be, to impose upon me in any way." The meditation also touches on the challenges of carrying out the plan of radical doubt, with the author acknowledging the effort required and the temptation to slip back into former opinions. The author compares this to a prisoner enjoying imaginary freedom in dreams, afraid of being woken up, and slipping back into soothing illusions. The author's introspective exploration leads to a deeper understanding of the complexities and uncertainties inherent in human cognition and perception. In summary, the second meditation focuses on the nature of the human mind, the commitment to radical doubt, and the challenges of maintaining this commitment in the face of temptation. The key quotes from the meditation highlight the author's recognition of his own existence as a thinking thing and his determination to resist deception and pursue unshakeable truths. Key Quotes from the Second Meditation: “I can finally decide that this proposition, ‘I am, I exist’, whenever it is uttered by me, or conceived in the mind, is necessarily true.” "I will take care not to give my assent to anything false, or to allow this deceiver, however powerful and cunning he may be, to impose upon me in any way." "But to carry out this plan requires great effort, and there is a kind of indolence that drags me back to my customary way of life." "Just as a prisoner, who was perhaps enjoying an imaginary freedom in his dreams, when he then begins to suspect that he is asleep is afraid of being woken up, and lets himself sink back into his soothing illusions; so I of my own accord slip back into my former opinions, and am scared to awake, for fear that tranquil sleep will give way to laborious hours of waking, which from now on I shall have to spend not in any kind of light, but in the unrelenting darkness of the difficulties just stirred up." Notes - SM: If there is a being as powerful as God but not moral, then there is nothing that can be certain. How does he combat this? An evil genius is only capable of deceiving me if “I” actually exist. You cannot deceive something that isn’t there. The fact that there is someone doubting, means that there exists someone who is doubting. What sort of thing is this “I” that exists? What is it? “A rational animal.” “The first was that I have a face, hands, arms, and this whole mechanism… a body?” The evil genius can trick me on these things too by hijacking my senses and therefore “I” cannot be a body. I am “A Thinking Thing” (cogito). If one thinks, if one doubts, if one understands, if one affirms, if one denies, that there is something doing these mental gymnastics - withstanding the ultimate reason for skepticism. based on sensory qualities or imagination but on an intellectual understanding of its essential nature. Descartes concludes that the mind's inspection of the wax is independent of the senses and can be either imperfect and confused or clear and distinct, depending on the degree of attention given to it. The mind as a thinking thing is self-evident, a clear and distinct idea. This thought experiment is central to Descartes' exploration (an Archimedian point) of the nature of knowledge and the foundations of certainty. The Third Meditation Wax experiment: Descartes uses the example of a piece of wax to demonstrate that the qualities perceived by the senses, such as taste, smell, color, shape, and texture, are subject to change. He describes how the wax, when brought close to a fire, undergoes a transformation, losing its original properties and acquiring new ones. Despite these changes, Descartes argues that the wax remains the same substance. He gives three possible explanations: Sense Perception, Imagination, and the Mind. It is not sense perception as all the initial sensible qualities of the wax disappeared and changed. It is not imagination for nature is unpredictable and one’s imagination cannot account for all possible ways the wax could change. Through this experiment, Descartes aims to show that the true nature of the wax is not grasped through the senses but rather through the mind alone. He asserts that the mind's perception of the wax is not Now that he has solved the Cogito and determined it to be true, Descartes faces a new problem. How does one bridge the mind to the reality outside of it? The existence of entities other than the self. The Third Meditation in René Descartes' "Meditations on First Philosophy" focuses on the existence of God and the nature of external reality. Descartes explores the idea of God as a supremely perfect and infinite being, and he reflects on the nature of the human mind and its capacity for knowledge. Key quotes from the Third Meditation include: 1. "All these considerations are sufficient proof that, up to now, it is as a result not of a certain judgment, but only of some blind inclination, that I have believed in the existence of various things distinct from myself, and conveying ideas or images of themselves to me through the sense-organs or in some other manner." (page 17) 2. "But there is yet another way that occurs to me by which I could investigate whether any of those things of which the ideas are in me exist outside me." (page 17) 3. "Nor should I suppose that since the reality I am considering in my ideas is purely objective, there is no need for the same reality to exist formally in the causes of these ideas, but that it is enough for it also to exist in them objectively." (page 18) Object = the entity that the idea refers to. ONLY ideas have an objective reality. There are also degrees of objective reality. The idea of the color violet is less real than the idea of a tumbler. The idea of a finite substance is more real than that of an accident. The idea of God is the idea that contains all perfections in itself. Thus the idea of God is clear and distinct and has therefore the most objective reality according to Descartes’. Notes - TM: Lumiere Naturelle (Natural Light) Descartes' capacity for rational thinking and understanding. The capacity to judge, deliberate, and use the natural mind. Starting Point: The Innate Idea of God in Descartes’ Mind Formal Reality = The reality of an entity as an actuality in the world: The parent must exist for a baby to exist at all. The carpenter must exist for there to be a table that exists. What is less perfect cannot produce something more perfect. Humans can create “red” as a mode or an accident. We can create something with less reality. “Red” cannot create me though. A. Substances - “a thing capable of existing by itself” Infinite substances Finite substances = Tumbler, Descartes B. Modes/Accidents - Contingent properties of a substance (color, size etc.) Think of how there isn’t just red. You can think of something red (like an apple) but not just red. The color red is contingent on there being substances that are red. Finite substances are us. We stand on our own but we are finite and will eventually die. Objective Reality = The reality of an entity as an idea Argument 1: From nothing, nothing is produced. Everything has a cause. Does Descartes succeed in his attempt to prove the existence of God? Something other Descartes must be the cause of the idea that God exists. Something finite whose formal reality is medium degree at best can’t come up with a being of the greatest objective reality. The idea that there can be a supremely perfect being is proof that God exists.God placed a signature on humanity. There is an implication of the fact that God necessarily exists. From this it is sufficiently clear that he cannot be a deceiver: for all cunning and deception presuppose some shortcoming, as is plain by the natural light. Thoughts: His assessment of God’s existence feels lacking. Ideas exist with less reality than formal things. To say that God exists as the cause of the idea that God exists is shaky. 3a. The Truman Show: What are similar themes between the film and the First and Second Meditations of Descartes? Both Descartes and Truman resolved their doubts about the reality they lived in by embracing skepticism and seeking the truth. Descartes, in his First Meditation, emphasized the significance of doubting one's surroundings in order to attain a genuine understanding of the world. He encouraged the abandonment of preexisting assumptions and the questioning of the authenticity of one's experiences. Similarly, Truman, in The Truman Show, begins to question the authenticity of his reality and ultimately realizes that his world is being controlled by external forces. Both Descartes and Truman demonstrate a transition from trust to doubt and the pursuit of truth. The similar theme between The Truman Show and Descartes' Meditations is the exploration of skepticism and the pursuit of truth. In Descartes' First Meditation, he encourages the abandonment of preexisting assumptions and the doubt of one's surroundings in order to reach a genuine understanding of the world. Similarly, The Truman Show presents a world where the protagonist, Truman, begins to question the authenticity of his reality and ultimately realizes that his world is being controlled by external forces, similar to Descartes' emphasis on doubting one's surroundings. Both works highlight the transition from trust to doubt and the quest for truth, emphasizing the significance of skepticism in attaining a deeper understanding of reality. However, the difference lies in their approach to resolving their doubts. Descartes sought to reach a full understanding of his world by doubting everything, including his own existence, and ultimately arriving at the famous conclusion "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am). On the other hand, Truman's resolution of doubt involved actively seeking out the truth about his reality, despite the attempts to dissuade him by those around him. He ultimately takes risks and fights his way to reaching a reality that aligns with the absolute truth, as opposed to Descartes' more introspective and philosophical approach. Both Descartes and Truman demonstrate the significance of skepticism and the pursuit of truth in their respective quests to resolve doubts about the reality they lived in. What are the similarities and differences in the way Descartes and Truman resolved their doubts about the reality they lived in? Truman had to leave the certain behind and venture into the unknown to discover the truth. The doubting and wondering gives him the courage to do this. 4. The Republic (Book III and IV) Start of Philosophy from a Political discourse Context: Why be just? Is it worth it to pursue justice? This is from the second book (too long) Assumption: Justice is worth striving for. It is a good worthy to pursue, like good health or wisdom. Is Justice good: -for its own sake -for its own sake and for its results -for its results but not for its own sake Good health is good. But good health also means that you’re physically fit and capable of great athleticism. Socrates believes that justice is good for its own sake and for its results. Justice involves minding one’s own business and maintaining harmony within oneself leading to a balanced and virtuous life that people will regard highly. It is also beneficial for the community contributing to its overall virtue and well-being. Glaucon believes that justice is good for its results but not for its own sake. Given the chance, people don’t want to pursue justice - it is valuable in the reputation and wages it can give to someone. No one wants to amputate their feet unless it prolongs one’s life. injustice without being able to avenge oneself. Glaucon argues that this is the origin of justice, a stalemate of those that are too weak to dominate and those that can. The Ring of Gyges The Ring of Gyges grants its wearer the power of invisibility without consequence. Gyges used the power of the ring to commit adultery with the Queen and killed the King. 1. Glaucon uses this to argue that people are inherently selfish and would act immorally if they can do so without consequences. 2. No one would be willingly just. If one were a god among humans. If you gave the ring to someone else, someone known to be just, they would go about it the same way. 3. Justice is only good for one’s reputation. Here’s a thought: Person A: Terrible person with the reputation of a saint Person B: Wonderful person with the reputation of the devil How different would their lives be? Person A would live with benefits and revel in the praise and glory. Person B would be scorned against, threatened, crucified, and discriminated upon. Why then is a just life worth living? Justice is just a compromise: Humans revel in dominating others. A compromise, It is the mean between injustice without penalty and suffering Plato's "The Republic," featuring a dialogue between Socrates and various interlocutors, primarily Adeimantus and Glaucon. The conversation revolves around the nature of poetry, narrative, justice, and the ideal city-state. Socrates discusses the different forms of narrative, the role of imitation in poetry, and the importance of moderation, courage, and wisdom in the ideal city. The dialogue explores the concept of justice, the nature of storytelling, and the characteristics of a just city. Socrates emphasizes the importance of minding one's own business, the harmony of the soul, and the role of education in shaping virtuous individuals. The text also delves into the relationship between music, narrative, and the cultivation of virtues. Key quotes from the text include discussions on the nature of narrative, the characteristics of a just city, and the impact of music on the soul. These quotes provide insights into the philosophical discussions on justice, education, and the ideal society. 1. The Nature of Justice The dialogue explores the concept of justice, emphasizing the importance of minding one's own business and maintaining harmony within oneself. This notion of justice extends to the organization of the ideal city-state, where each class of society is expected to fulfill its role and function without interfering in the affairs of others. This concept of justice can be applied to political governance, highlighting the importance of individuals and institutions fulfilling their designated roles for the overall well-being of society. 2. The Virtues of the Rulers The text discusses the virtues of wisdom, moderation, and courage as essential qualities for the rulers of the ideal city-state. These virtues are crucial for effective governance and leadership, emphasizing the importance of ethical conduct, prudence, and the ability to make just decisions for the benefit of the community. 3. Education and Guardianship The dialogue touches upon the role of education and the need for guardians to oversee the moral and intellectual development of the citizens. This highlights the significance of an educated and morally upright citizenry in maintaining a just and harmonious society, reflecting the political importance of fostering a well-informed and virtuous populace. 4. The Unity of the City The text emphasizes the unity and harmony of the city-state, where each individual and class contributes to the overall well-being of the community. This underscores the political value of social cohesion, cooperation, and the collective pursuit of the common good within a political framework. In summary, the philosophical knowledge derived from the text provides insights into the political dimensions of justice, governance, education, and the ideal organization of a just society. These insights offer valuable perspectives on the ethical and political principles that underpin the functioning of a harmonious and virtuous political community.