Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives PDF

PHILIPPINE ENGLISH LINGUISTIC AND LITERARY PERSPECTIVES Edited by MA. LOURDES S. BAUTISTA and KINGSLEY BOLTON Hong Kong University Press 14/F Hing Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong © Hong Kong University Press 2008 ISBN 978-962-209-947-0 All rights reserved. No portion of this...

PHILIPPINE ENGLISH LINGUISTIC AND LITERARY PERSPECTIVES Edited by MA. LOURDES S. BAUTISTA and KINGSLEY BOLTON Hong Kong University Press 14/F Hing Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong © Hong Kong University Press 2008 ISBN 978-962-209-947-0 All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Secure On-line Ordering http://www.hkupress.org British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Printed and bound by Condor Production Co. Ltd., in Hong Kong, China  Contents Series editor’s preface xi Acknowledgements xiii List of contributors xv Map of the Philippines xvii Introduction Philippine English: Linguistic and literary perspectives 1 Kingsley Bolton and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista Part I: The Sociolinguistic Context 11 1 A favorable climate and soil: A transplanted language and 13 literature Andrew Gonzalez, FSC 2 English in Philippine education: Solution or problem? 29 Allan B. I. Bernardo 3 English-language media in the Philippines: Description and 49 research Danilo T. Dayag 4 World Englishes or worlds of English? Pitfalls of a postcolonial 67 discourse in Philippine English T. Ruanni F. Tupas 5 ‘When I was a child I spake as a child’: Reflecting on the limits 87 of a nationalist language policy D. V. S. Manarpaac viii Contents 6 Taglish, or the phantom power of the lingua franca 101 Vicente L. Rafael Part II: Linguistic Forms 129 7 Linguistic diversity and English in the Philippines 131 Curtis D. McFarland 8 A lectal description of the phonological features of Philippine 157 English Ma. Lourdes G. Tayao 9 Lexicography and the description of Philippine English 175 vocabulary Kingsley Bolton and Susan Butler 10 Investigating the grammatical features of Philippine English 201 Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista 11 English in Philippine call centers and BPO operations: Issues, 219 opportunities, and research Jane Lockwood, Gail Forey, and Helen Price Part III: Philippine English Literature 243 12 Colonial education and the shaping of Philippine literature in 245 English Isabel Pefianco Martin 13 Negotiating language: Postcolonialism and nationalism in 261 Philippine literature in English Lily Rose Tope 14 ‘This scene so fair’: Filipino English poetry, 1905–2005 279 Gémino H. Abad 15 The Philippine short story in English: An overview 299 Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo 16 The Filipino novel in English 317 Caroline S. Hau  Contents ix 17 Filipino diasporic literature 337 Alfred A. Yuson 18 In conversation: Cebuano writers on Philippine literature and 357 English Simeon Dumdum, Timothy Mo, and Resil Mojares Part IV: Resources 369 19 Bibliographical resources for researching English in the 371 Philippines Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista Index 395  List of contributors Gémino H. Abad is Professor Emeritus at the University of the Philippines and a leading Filipino poet. Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista is a University Fellow and Professor Emerita of English and Applied Linguistics at De La Salle University-Manila. Allan B. I. Bernardo is a University Fellow and Professor of Counseling and Educational Psychology at De La Salle University-Manila. Kingsley Bolton is Professor of English Linguistics at Stockholm University, Sweden. Susan Butler is the Publisher of the Macquarie Dictionary, Sydney, Australia. Danilo T. Dayag is Associate Professor at the Department of English and Applied Linguistics at De La Salle University-Manila. Simeon Dumdum, Jr., is a leading Filipino poet and an Executive Judge of the Regional Trial Court in Cebu City. Gail Forey is Assistant Professor at the Department of English, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong. Andrew Gonzalez, FSC, was President Emeritus, University Fellow, and Professor of Linguistics at De La Salle University-Manila. Caroline S. Hau is Associate Professor of Southeast Asian Studies at Kyoto University, Japan. xvi Contents List of contributors Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo is a writer of fiction and creative nonfiction, a teacher of creative writing and literature at the University of the Philippines, and is currently the University of the Philippines’ Vice President for Public Affairs. Jane Lockwood is Head of the Centre for Language in Education at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. D. V. S. Manarpaac teaches in the Department of European Languages of the University of the Philippines-Diliman and is currently researching transnationalism and Filipino American writing. Isabel Pefianco Martin is Associate Professor at the Department of English, Ateneo de Manila University. Curtis D. McFarland is Professor of English and Linguistics at Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan. Timothy Mo is a novelist and a frequent visitor to the Philippines. Resil B. Mojares is Professor Emeritus at the University of San Carlo, Cebu City. Helen Price is a consultant on business and professional English and an independent researcher. Vicente L. Rafael is Professor of History at the University of Washington, Seattle, USA. Ma. Lourdes G. Tayao is Professorial Lecturer in Teaching English as a Second Language at the University of the East, Manila. Lily Rose Tope is Professor at the Department of English and Comparative Literature, University of the Philippines. T. Ruanni F. Tupas is Lecturer at the Centre for English Language Communication, National University of Singapore. Alfred A. Yuson is a fiction writer, essayist, and poet, and Professorial Lecturer in Fiction and Poetry at the Ateneo de Manila University. Introduction Philippine English: Linguistic and literary perspectives Kingsley Bolton and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista Encountering the Philippines The unprepared foreign visitor to the Philippines is often astounded by the immediate encounter with this tropical society and the texture of a daily life that includes crowded and chaotic cities, heat and rain, music and dance, and friendly, hospitable, multi-tongued people in a nation with more than a hundred recognized indigenous languages. In the capital Manila (population twelve million), the street signs are in English; the disc jockey on the radio woos the station’s listeners in dulcet American; the bookstores are full of English books (many penned by local writers); and the front pages of the major newspapers assail readers with headlines such as ‘PNP Opposes Erap Confinement’, ‘4 Pinoys Hurt in Ship Blast in Australia’, and ‘Local Bets Troop to Comelec’. Although most Manileños only speak English to other Filipinos in such formal settings as the boardroom or the law court, and prefer to mix English into a hybrid vernacular of Taglish (Tagalog and English) with each other, the presence of an American-influenced variety of English permeates public and private life in an unusual and surprising fashion. The taxi driver may give you a nuanced account of local politics, the coffee shop waitress may discuss Tess of the D’Urbervilles, and the salesperson in a store may crack a joke in colloquial Philippine English (Joke only!) — interactions unlikely to be repeated in other Asian cities. Our foreign visitors may take this somehow for granted as they head to their business meeting, or in the case of tourists, head for their beach vacation. Or they may find time to consider and to ponder how it is that this predominantly Malay society, with its diaspora of overseas emigrés and workers, happened to become one of the largest English-speaking societies in the world. As editors, we have been guided by two essential aims in compiling this volume on English in the Philippines. The first of these has been to produce a volume that would be of interest to an international audience, some of whom may be scholars with an extensive knowledge of Philippine linguistics and 2 Kingsley Bolton and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista literature, while others in this audience may have little previous knowledge in this area. The story of English in the Philippines is a compelling tale, and one that deserves international recognition, we would argue, involving as it does narratives of colonialism and postcolonialism, of hybrid language and literature, as well as contemporary histories of politics and globalization. A second aim has been to publish a volume that would serve students and teachers in the Philippines who are interested in researching aspects of Philippine English, from both a linguistic and literary perspective. We therefore trust that this volume will not only serve as a record of previous research, but also as a starting point for future studies in this field, and will be of direct use to the local academic and educational community. For both audiences, however, it may be useful at this point to consider at least some of the sociolinguistic (i.e. historical, social, political, and linguistic) realities that have influenced the spread of the language here, not least because of the impact of historical, social, and political factors in shaping English language and literature in the Philippines. The sociolinguistic background The Republic of the Philippines comprises 7,107 islands located close to the equator, south of the China mainland, east of Vietnam, and northeast of the Indonesian archipelago. For much of its existence as a geographical entity, the Philippines has owed its identity and borders to successive waves of colonialism, and the name Felipinas is said to have been coined in 1543 by the Spanish explorer Ruy de Villalobos in honor of Crown Prince Felipe (or Philip), later King Philip II of Spain (1556–98) (Quimpo, 2003). Ethnically and racially, the majority of Filipinos are considered Austronesian, having a kinship with similar populations in Indonesia and Malaysia, while there are over one hundred indigenous Austronesian languages spoken in the Philippines (McFarland, this volume). The most important indigenous ethnic groups include the Tagalogs on Luzon Island (the majority population in and around Manila), the Cebuanos (or ‘Visayans’) in the southern islands, and the Ilocanos from northern Luzon. Philippine society is also noticeably creolized, with significant groups of Philippine-Spanish, Philippine-Chinese, and even Philippine-American ‘mestizo’ groups in the community, particularly in the cities. McFerson comments that contemporary Filipinos are ‘virtually “a race of races” ’, and that although essentially Malay in racial composition, ‘they also have Negrito, Indonesian, Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Arab, European, and American “bloods” ’ (2002: 15). The first colonial power to rule the Philippines was Spain, who governed the Philippines from Mexico from 1565 until 1898. During this period, Catholicism became strongly established throughout Philippine society, and today eighty percent of the  Introduction 3 population claim to be Catholic. Despite this, various types of animistic and folk beliefs are still widely held, while there is also a substantial Muslim population in the south, in and around the island of Mindanao. The Philippines was occupied and colonized by the US after the Philippine-American War of 1899–1902, which immediately followed the Spanish-American war, when Spain also lost control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The United States essentially maintained colonial control over the Philippines until 1946, at which time the Philippines became an independent nation (a third group of colonizers were in fact the Japanese, who took control of the islands during World War II, from 1941–1944). Since then, the American government has continued to exert a strong influence over Philippine politics, which during the Vietnam War led the United States to give prolonged support to Ferdinand Marcos, whose presidency from 1965–1986 became a dictatorship. After the fall of Marcos as a result of the ‘People Power’ movement in 1986, Philippine domestic politics has continued to dismay many observers. Even notionally reformist governments, such as those of Corazon Aquino (1986–92) and Fidel Ramos (1992–98), have proved unable to tackle the widespread corruption throughout many sectors of society. Following Ramos, Joseph ‘Erap’ Estrada (1998–2001) was elected as a result of his popularity as a film actor, but was subsequently forced to step down and charged with ‘economic plunder’ in January 2001, when the current President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo took office. Politically, the Philippine democratic system is still far from stable, and national elections in the country are dogged by violence and electoral manipulation and fraud. Equally worrisome are the assassinations of over 800 left-wing politicians, social activists, and trade union leaders since Arroyo took power. In addition, so many journalists have also been murdered over the last decade that, by 2004, it was claimed that the Philippines was the second most dangerous location in the world for newsmen after Iraq (Mendoza, 2004). Economically and socially, there are vast differences in wealth between the upper classes of Philippine society (‘the oligarchs’) and the lower classes of the cities and provinces (the masa, or ‘masses’), at a time when increasing numbers of the rural poor are migrating to the cities. Numerous economic reports have indicated that the development of the nation has lagged behind that of comparable Asian societies, such as Malaysia, Thailand, and South Korea. One of the major foreign exchange earners for the society continues to be the export of human labor (particularly female labor), and an estimated eight million Filipinos now work overseas, often in low-paid jobs, as domestic helpers (in Hong Kong), as nurses (in the US and UK), or, in the case of males, as engineers, technicians, and merchant seamen. In the words of a recent BBC report, ‘[w]ith high literacy rates (87%) and good English speaking ability, Filipinos are arguably the country’s greatest export’ (Jinkinson, 2003). For those who remain in the Philippines, the prospects for 4 Kingsley Bolton and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista domestic employment are usually bleak, unless they have the support of a well- off and well-connected family. To complete this somewhat dismal picture, mention might also be made of the frequency of natural and man-made catastrophes, ranging from such natural disasters as drought, earthquake, and flood to fires, plane crashes, and shipwrecks, all of which have contributed to a national ‘culture of disaster’ (Bankoff, 2003). Philippine English The story of Philippine English has its historical origins in the US intervention of 1898, and the American teachers who arrived here toward the end of the Philippine-American War (see the chapters by Bernardo and Gonzalez in this volume). These first teachers, known collectively as the ‘Thomasites’ (after the US army transport ship Thomas), arrived as early as 1901 and were soon dispersed throughout the islands. They had an important impact, not only as teachers, but also as teacher-trainers, so that by 1921, 91 percent of all teachers were native-born Filipinos and, thus, ‘almost from the beginning, Filipinos learned English from Filipinos and the seeds of what we now call Philippine English began’ (Gonzalez, 1997: 26–27). By 1918, the census report noted that around 47 percent of the population claimed to speak English, and 55.6 percent claimed the ability to read and write the language. Official American involvement in the teaching of English persisted until the outbreak of war with the Japanese in December 1941, by which time census results indicated that around 27 percent of the population claimed to be able to speak English. Judging by the experience of other colonized nations, the extent to which English had been adopted within the society by that time was remarkable, and Gonzalez comments that: The rapid spread of the English language in the Philippines was unprecedented in colonial history, for within the space of 41 years, the American regime had done more to spread English than the Spanish Government did in 333 years (1565–1898) of colonization, for at the end of the Spanish Period, only 2% spoke Spanish. (Gonzalez, 1997: 28) In the post-independence era after 1946, English was retained as an official language in government and education, but was increasingly used alongside the national language, first termed Wikang Pambansa (‘national language’), then later ‘Pilipino’, and ‘Filipino’. Over the decades, Philippine English began to develop as a ‘variety’ of English in its own right, associated with a distinct accent, a localized vocabulary, and even a body of creative writing by Philippine writers in English. From the 1960s onwards, local linguists began to describe this localized variety in some detail, despite anxieties among some educators  Introduction 5 and policy-makers that the recognition of ‘Philippine English’ somehow involved the acceptance of a less-proficient variety of the language (Bautista, 1997). However, the latest results from a Social Weather Stations (2006) survey suggest that some 65 percent of the population claim the ability to understand spoken and written English, with 48 percent stating that they write English, but with only 32 percent reporting that they speak the language. The same report then goes on to explain that these totals indicate a marked decline in English proficiency compared to results from 1993 and 2000 (Social Weather Stations, 2006). Ironically, this decline (perceived or real) in English proficiency has come at a time when the utility of the language and the demand for English are probably at an all-time high, as a result of the remarkable growth of the call center industry and related BPO (business processing outsourcing) operations, including legal and medical transcription, that have mushroomed in the Philippines since the year 2000. The total of employees in the call center industry in 2001 was around 2,000, but by 2006 that figure had risen astonishingly to some 200,000 jobs. One recent report noted that today ‘[t]he call center business is the fastest growing industry in the country … [m]ore than 100 centers around the country have created a new class of relatively affluent and independent young Filipinos’ (Greenlees, 2006). The recent growth of call centers is providing opportunities for college graduates on an unprecedented scale, with many in this industry calling for an increased emphasis on English proficiency in the public school system as well as in private sector training schemes. Nevertheless, despite the obvious utility of English in employment, the power and prestige of the language continue to raise concerns among Filipino intellectuals. One such concern has been that, historically, the retention of English in the postcolonial period has exacerbated social inequality and hindered the creation of an authentic sense of nationalism among Filipinos. According to Tollefson’s (1991) critique of Philippine language policy, ‘[t]he key question in the politics of language in the Philippines is: what language(s) should be used in education and in the exercise of commerce, mass media, politics and government?’, as the issue of language planning ‘has a crucial impact upon access to economic resources, to policy-making institutions, and to political power’ (1991: 141). Tollefson then presents a critique of the politics of language from the 1960s to the 1990s. This includes discussion of the communist New People’s Army’s promotion of ‘Pilipino’ (as it was then called) to ensure that ‘the national language, art, and literature shall be given revolutionary content’, Marcos’ promotion of English in order to match the needs of the Philippine economy so that ‘most students had to be educated for low-paying jobs requiring a little English’, and the language policies of the Aquino administration, which left English in a ‘dominant position’ (143–61). 6 Kingsley Bolton and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista The issue of English in relation to the national language has been regularly debated in past decades. Rolando Tinio, writing in the 1980s, argued that reliance on English contributed to the colonized mentality of the Filipino people, whose ‘greatest setback is not our colonial past but our education and development of consciousness in a colonial language’, explaining that: The dismal result of national dissemination of English in the Philippines — Filipinos still exclaim with joy, “We are the third largest English-speaking country in the world!” — can be seen in the fact that the educated elite and unlettered masses, though no two kinds of people could be more dissimilar, are yet similar in one regard — both tend to see the world through American eyes, accepting the American yardstick as the proper standard for measuring any kind of culture or life. (Tinio 1990: 86) For Tinio, the issue of English and ‘where English fails’ (in the words of his book’s subtitle) is a matter of postcolonial concern crucially linked to a national culture and national pride. For Tollefson, the promotion of English is less an issue of nationalism and more a problem of economic and social equity, as ‘[t]he impact of using English as the language of government, education, business, technology, and the media is to sustain economic inequalities within Philippine society’ (Tollefson, 1991: 163). Thus questions of power and inequality overlap with the ‘language rights’ of Filipino citizens, as ‘a commitment to democracy means the use of the mother tongue at work and school is a fundamental human right’ (211), although somewhat inexplicably in Tollefson’s analysis, the 100-plus ‘mother tongues’ of Filipinos are equated with Tagalog-based Filipino. In the decade or so since the critiques of English from Tinio and Tollefson, many of the social and political issues they raise continue to permeate the intellectual debates on language issues, although the current Arroyo administration has tended to uncritically promote English, at least in official rhetoric. Issues related to both the social stratification of English and questions of national identity also surface throughout many of the chapters in this volume. Philippine English: Linguistic and literary perspectives As indicated in our opening remarks above, one clear aim of this book project was to bring together a volume of record which surveyed not only linguistic approaches to Philippine English but the approaches of literary scholars as well. The justification for this was rather clear to us as editors, as the emergence of Philippine English as a variety of the English language has been paralleled by recognition accorded to Philippine writers in English over recent years, with  Introduction 7 such novelists as F. Sionil Jose, Nick Joaquin, and Jessica Hagedorn and others attracting substantial international interest. The chapters in this volume are grouped into the four parts of the book. Part I, ‘The Sociolinguistic Context’, comprises six chapters. The first three chapters from Gonzalez, Bernardo, and Dayag describe the origins and development of English in Philippine society, education, and media, while those that follow from Tupas, Manarpaac, and Rafael raise a number of theoretical questions of mixed provenance (linguistic, literar y, anthropological). Part II ‘Linguistic Form’ focuses on linguistic description, with one chapter on Philippine languages from McFarland, followed by contributions from Tayao, Bolton and Butler, and Bautista on Philippine English accents, vocabulary, and grammar. The final chapter in Part II, from Lockwood, Forey and Price, includes a detailed discussion of the forms of English, with reference to accent, vocabulary, grammar and discourse, occurring in the call-center context. Part III, ‘Philippine Literature in English’, comprises seven contributions. The first from Martin discusses literary education and early Philippine writing in the American colonial period, while the second from Tope provides a stylistic analysis of the ‘abrogation’ and ‘appropriation’ of language by Philippine English writers. The following three chapters from Abad, Hidalgo, and Hau survey the genres of short fiction, poetry, and the novel, while the contribution from Yuson charts the importance of diasporic Filipino writers in the US and elsewhere. The last contribution in this section, from Dumdum, Mo, and Mojares, highlights the fact that literary creativity is not confined to Manila, and that other regions, including the Visayas, have their own histories of English. In Part IV, Bautista’s research bibliography provides a detailed guide to the academic literature in the field. Conclusion In current discussions of globalization, it has become commonplace to recognize the increasing multilingualism of societies, as the national languages and monolingualism of Western societies in particular are transformed by patterns of immigration, as well as the new literacies of electronic communication. Debates on language policies, however, in many postcolonial contexts still tend to contest the opposition between English as the former colonial language (and/or global lingua franca) and a national language, typically lauded as the authentic voice of the people. A recent book by Anderson (2005), however, reminds us that in the era of the Philippine nationalist leader Jose Rizal (executed by the Spanish in 1896), the politics of language took a rather different form: 8 Kingsley Bolton and Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista In the late nineteenth century there was as yet no ugly, commercially debased “international language”. Filipinos wrote to Austrians in German, to Japanese in English, to each other in French, or Spanish, or Tagalog, with liberal interventions from the last beautiful international language, Latin. […] Filipino leaders were peculiarly adapted to this Babelish world. The language of the political enemy was also their private language, though understood by less than 5 percent of the Philippine population. Tagalog, the native language used in Manila and its immediate periphery, was not understood by most Filipinos, and in any case was useless for international communication. Many speakers of rival local languages, especially Cebuano and Ilocano, preferred Spanish, even though this language was, in the Philippines, a clear marker of elite, even collaborationist status. (Anderson, 2005: 5) At another level, Anderson notes that the Spanish word Filipino had a very different denotation in Rizal’s day, and referred only to the locally-born but ‘pure Spanish’ population. Rizal himself was no Filipino but rather an Indio and ilustrado, as it was not until later in the American colonial period that the term ‘Filipino’ came to refer to all the inhabitants of the islands. Today, in the Filipino diaspora, the Pinoy population of the United States exceeds two million, some eight million workers take their English with them overseas, and Anderson’s ‘ugly and commercially debased language’ provides hundreds of thousands of jobs for lower middle-class Filipinos. The story of English in the Philippines is barely a century old, but seems set to continue. It is our hope that this volume will enable students and scholars to explore at least some of the complexities of this subject, from both linguistic and literary perspectives. References Anderson, Benedict (2005) Under Three Flags: Anarchism and the Anti-Colonial Imagination. Pasig City: Anvil. Bankoff, Greg (2003) Cultures of Disaster: Society and Natural Hazard in the Philippines. London, New York: Routledge/Curzon. Gonzalez, Andrew (1997) The history of English in the Philippines. In English Is an Asian Language: The Philippine Context. Edited by Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista. Manila: The Macquarie Library, pp. 25–40. Greenlees, Donald (2006) Philippine call center business booms. International Herald Tribune. November 20, 2006. Internet edition. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/ 11/20/business/call1.php. Accessed April 8, 2007. Jinkinson, Beth (2003) Empowering the Philippines’ diaspora. BBC News World Edition. http://news.bbc.co. uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/2725211.stm. Accessed April 8, 2007. McFerson, Hazel M. (2002) Filipino identity and self-image in historical perspective. In Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines. Edited by Hazel M. McFerson. Westport, Connecticut; London: Greenwood Press, pp. 13–41.  Introduction 9 Mendoza, Diana (2004) Philippines: Dangers of journalism. Z Net/Inter Press Service. http://www.zmag.org/ content/ showarticle.cfm?ItemID=6111. Accessed April 8, 2007. Quimpo, Nathan G. (2003) Colonial name, colonial mentality and ethnocentrism KASAMA 17(3). July–August– September 2003. Internet edition. http:// cpcabrisbane.org/Kasama/2003 /V17n3/Colonial Name.htm. Accessed April 8, 2007. SWS (2006) Social weather survey: National proficiency in English declines. Social Weather Stations report. Internet version. http://www.sws.org.ph/pr060418.htm. Accessed April 8, 2007. Tinio, Rolando S. (1990) A Matter of Language: Where English Fails. Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. Tollefson, James W. (1991) Planning Language, Planning Inequality: Language Policy in the Community. London: Longman. Index Abad, Antonio 358 Angeles, Carlos A. 286–7, 294, 342 Abad, Gémino H. 7, 77, 263, 269–70, 272, Anvil-Macquarie Dictionary 58, 184–7; see 279–98, 308, 359 also dictionaries Abad-Jugo, Cyan, see Jugo, Cyan Abad Apeles, Teena 350 abrogation 267–71 Apostol, Gina 310, 349 Achebe, Chinua 97, 264 appropriation 271–6 acrolect 20, 159–66, 168–70, 172–4, 231–2; Aquino, Belinda A. 346 see also basilect; edulect; lects; mesolect Aquino, Benigno ‘Ninoy’ 111, 308 Adlawan, Tem 365 Aquino, Cesar Ruiz 295, 305 Adler, Martha A. 319 Aquino, Corazon C. 3, 5, 22, 115, 308 Adolphs, Svenja 219 Aquino, Cory, see Aquino, Corazon C. Agcaoili, T. D. 304–5 Aquino, Milagros R. 58 Agoncillo, Teodoro A. 108, 110, 124 Arañas, Patria Garcia 201 Aguila, Cesar 310 Arcellana, Francisco 293, 299, 302–5, 313, Aguilar, Jose V. 30 342 Agustin, Jim Pascual 295, 347 Arcellana, Juaniyo 295 Ahmad, Aijah 68, 78 Arguilla, Manuel E. 95, 293, 295, 303, 313 Ahmed, Zubair 225 Ashcroft, Bill 67–9, 261–2, 267–8, 271 Alberca, Wilfredo L. 14, 19, 58, 158, 169, 201 Asian Englishes 21, 24, 61, 67–86, 157, Alberto, P. L. 267 180, 183, 204, 217, 220, 225, 234 Alcantara, Gene 347 Ateneo de Manila University 307, 309, Alegre, Edilberto N. 255 321; see also universities Alias, Denise Chou 123 Aureus, Carlos 308 Alip, Eufronio M. 257 Australian English 176, 178 Almario, Virgilio 123 Austronesian languages 2, 18, 131–56, 222 Alumit, Noel 345–6 authors, see Philippine English literature: Alvarez, Ivy 347 Cebuano writers Alzona, Encarnacion 318 Ayala, Jose V. 305 Amansec, Lilia Pablo 305, 307 Azurin, Arnold Molina 96–7 America 24, 131, 146, 148, 177, 248, 282, 284, 293, 302, 321, 323, 325–6, 329, Bacho, Peter 349 342, 346, 348; see also United States Baguingan, Gloria D. 36 Anderson, Benedict 7–8, 76, 115, 123, Bailey, Richard 264 322, 324 Bain, Peter 220, 228 396 Index bakla 120–2 BPO; see Business Processing Outsourcing bakya 105–10, 302, 311 operations Baldauf, Richard B. 189 Brainard, Cecilia Manguera, see Manguera- Bankoff, Greg 4 Brainard, Cecilia Banzon, Isabela, see Mooney, Isabela Brathwaite, Edward Kamau 261, 267–8 Banzon Bresnahan, Roger J. 320 Barot, Rick 350 Brew, Frances P. 235 basilect 20, 158–70, 172–4, 232; see also Brillantes, Gregorio 304, 306 acrolect; edulect; lects; mesolect Brion, Rofel G. 324 Batacan, Felisa H. 347 Brocka, Lino 311 Bauer, Laurie 176 Brooks, Cleanth 285 Bautista, Cirilo F. 18, 24, 285–6 Brown, Penelope 60 Bautista, Ma. Lourdes S. 1–9, 19–21, 34, Brutt-Griffler, J. 157 41, 55–6, 58, 70, 74, 77, 93, 96, 158–9, Bulosan, Carlos 16, 284, 287, 300, 304, 183–4, 187, 190, 201–18, 220, 222, 310, 321, 328, 340–1, 349 225–6, 234, 266–8, 273, 330, 371–94 Bunao, G. Burce 305 Benitez, Paz Marquez 95, 247, 255, 303 Business Processing Outsourcing (BPO) Benjamin, Walter 318 operations 5, 219–42 BEP, see Bilingual Education Policy Butler, Susan 7, 57–8, 175–200, 220 Bernad, Miguel A. 96, 246–7, 279–81, 290–1, 329 Cabalquinto, Luis 295, 344 Bernal, Ishmael 311 Cabico, Reggie 345 Bernardo, Allan B. I. 4, 7, 29–48, 74–6 cacique democracy 115 Berns, Margie 68 Cairns, David R. 235–6 Beyer, H. Otley 182 Calalang, Casiano 254–5 Bhabha, Homi K. 68 call centers: industry 5, 23, 76, 219–42; Biala, Arlene 350 communication 228–30; communication bibliographical resources 371–94 problems 230–1; discourse and strategic Bicol, see Bikol competence 235–7; language accuracy Bicolano, see Bikol 234–5; phonological aspects 231–3 Bikol 131–56, 180, 338 Calleja, Marissa O. 36, 43 bilingual education 17, 31–2, 307, 319, Calucag, Ernesto B. 23 370–82, 376–82; see also Bilingual Cameron, Deborah 219–20 Education Policy of 1974 Campomanes, Oscar V. 95, 314 Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) of 1974, Canagarajah, Suresh 67, 78 the 32, 40, 42, 74, 90–1, 107, 159, 330; Canale, Michael 230 see also bilingual education Canieso-Doronila, Maria Luisa 74 bilingualism 20, 39, 291, 376–82; see also Cannell, Fenella 125 multilingualism Carbo, Nick 339, 344–5 Bismonte, Marie 345 Cariño, Maria Luisa A., see Igloria, Luisa Black, Jan Knippers 69, 72 Carnoy, Martin 38 Blair, Emma Helen 182, 318 Carunungan, Celso Al 321 Blake, Frank R. 188–9 Casambre, Nelia G. 158, 201, 208 Blanco, Marivi Soliven 308, 350 Casanova, Pascale 330 Bloomaert, Jan 81 Casper, Leonard 285, 294, 305–6, 313, Bloomfield, Leonard 154 331, 343–4 Bobis, Merlinda 295, 310, 347 Casper, Linda Ty 306, 308, 321, 328, 343, Bolton, Kingsley 1–9, 55, 57–8, 67–9, 80, 346 159, 175–200, 220, 225  Index 397 Castillo, Erwin 305, 307, 364 David, Joel 125 Cebu 107 Davis, Rocio G. 342–3, 347 Cebuano writers 357–68 Dayag, Danilo T. 7, 22, 49–66 Cebuano, Cebuanos 2, 8, 21, 63, 131–56, Dayrit, Joy 308 163, 188, 222, 247, 319, 338–9, 343, 362 Daza, Julie Y. 123 census 4, 14, 21, 319 de Guzman, Estefania S. 36 Cerenio, Virginia 346, 349–50 de Jesus-Chua, Noelle Q. 347 Chai, Arlene J. 310, 321, 347 de la Paz, Oliver 345–6 Chang, Chih-Mei 43–4 De La Salle University 294, 309, 321; see Cheah, Pheng 322 also universities Chu, Yiu Wai 68 de los Santos, Marisa 346 Churchill, Bernardita 14 de Ocampo, Nick 116 cinema, see Philippine cinema (film) de Ungria, Ricardo M. 295 class, see social class Dei, George J. Sefa 67 code-mixing 40, 93, 144–5, 383–5 Dekker, P. Gregory 36 code-switching 20–2, 40–1, 50, 52, 55, 59, del Mundo, Clodualdo, Jr.124 101–28, 144–5, 151, 215–16, 220, 265–6, Delbridge, Arthur 21 268, 271–2, 319, 329, 383–5 Demetillo, Ricaredo 294, 342 Collins COBUILD Dictionary 204, 210–11, diaspora, see Filipino diaspora 213; see also dictionaries dictionaries, see Anvil-Macquarie Dictionary; colonial education 245–60 Collins COBUILD Dictionary; Merriam- colonial literary canon 247–55 Webster’s Dictionary; Webster’s Dictionary colonial period 13–16 Dimalanta, Ophelia A. 18, 295, 340, 342 colonialism 13–16, 23, 33–5, 67–86, 87– Dirks, Nicholas B. 81 100, 106, 177, 245–78, 280, 299, 318, Dirlik, Arif 68–9, 78 339–40, 348, 365; see also Spanish Dissanayake, Wimal 68 colonialism Dizon, D. Paulo 304 communists 326, 328, 332 Dominguez, Carol 224, 227 competence, see English language Doronila, Amando 34 competence Dumdum, Simeon 7, 291, 295, 357–68 Constantino, Ernesto A. 154 Dyen, Isidore 154 Constantino, Renato 31, 33–4, 76, 247, 306 corpus linguistics 201–18 Eagleton, Terry 322 Cortes, Carlos 308 economy 3 Coulmas, Florian 89–90, 188 EDSA revolt, the 115, 116, 122, 328 Croghan, Richard 307 education 22, 29–48, 77, see also languages Cruz, Andres Cristobal 305 in education Cruz, Isagani R. 16, 18–19, 97, 124, 183, edulect 20–1; see also acrolect; basilect; 190, 331, 372 lects; mesolect Cu, Ernest L. 223 Eggins, Suzanne 230 Culler, Jonathan 317, 322 English and indigenous languages 143–4 culture 261–78, 322–3, 360 English as a medium of instruction 279 English language competence 224 da Costa, Rafael Zulueta, see Zulueta da English language media 49–66; see also Costa, Rafael language and the media Dalisay, Jose Y., Jr. 97, 308, 311, 313–4, 326 Enriquez, Antonio Reyes 265–6, 307–8, Dato, Luis G. 283–4, 293 313, 328 Dato, Rodolfo 282, 293 Enriquez, Emigdio Alvarez 320 398 Index Enriquez, Virgilio G. 33, 35 Gamalinda, Eric T. 295, 310, 320, 327, Errington, Ellen 36 344, 349 Escober, E.R. 350 Gambito, Sarah 345 Espina, Lina 304 Garcellano, Rosario 307 Espiritu, Clemencia C. 36 Garcia, Neil C. 125, 295 Estioko, Leonardo 246 Garcia, Rodney Dakita 346 Estrada, Bayardo E. 287 Gentleman, Amelia 225 Estrada, Joseph ‘Erap’ 3, 22, 57, 124–5 Genuino, Cecilia 60 Evans, Glenn H. 179, 190 Gledhill, John 69 Evasco, Marjorie 18, 287, 295 globalization 7, 34, 37–9, 44, 68–72, 76–7, 79, 226, 237–8, 291, 309, 311, 329 Faigao-Hall, Linda 344–5 Gloria, Eugene 295, 346 Fanon, Frantz 69, 71, 300 Go, Stella P. 77 Feak, Christine B. 204 Golay, Frank Hindman 318 Fee, Mary Helen 251 Gonzales, Sydney D. 60 Feria, Dolores Stephens 300 Gonzalez, Andrew B., FSC 4, 7, 13–27, 32, Fernandez, Doreen G. 255 34–5, 58–9, 74–5, 77, 90–1, 94, 99, 107, Fernando, Gilda Cordero 304–5 123–4, 143, 154, 158–9, 169–70, 177, Fernando, Lloyd 264 189, 201–2, 204, 216, 220, 225, 266, Ferrer, Jamie 224 319–20, 330–1 fiction, see Philippine English literature: Gonzalez, N. V. M. 16, 95, 99, 293, 299– fiction 301, 303–6, 312–3, 320–1, 323, 326, Filipinisms 18, 201, 268, 274 342–3, 360, 363–4 Filipino (language) 4, 6, 16, 20–2, 40, Gonzalez, Romina 308 88–91, 107, 262, 338–9, 343 Gonzalves, Theodore S. 346 Filipino (people) 2–8, 104, 114, 247, 322, Goss, Jasper 78 326 Gotera, Vince 346 Filipino diaspora 1, 8, 310, 321, 332, 337– Graff, Gerald 248 55 Greenbaum, Sidney 80 Filipino-American War, see Philippine- Greenleaf, Robert 224 American War Greenlees, Donald 5 Filipino-English code-switching 41 Grefalda, Reme-Antonia 346 film, see Philippine cinema (film) Griffiths, Gareth 261 Florentino, Alberto S. 337 Grimes, Barbara F. 154 Flores, Nona C. 350 Grosjean, Francois 40 Fojas, Felix 346 Groyon, Vicente III 309 Forey, Gail 7, 219–42 Gruenberg, Estrellita V. 320 Francia, Luis H. 94–5, 295, 344–5 Guerrero, Amadis Ma. 307 Freer, William B. 179–80, 190 Guerrero, Leon Ma. 331 Frei, Ernest J. 188–9 Guerrero, Milagros C. 108 Freire, Paulo 250 Guerrero, Rafael Maria 123–4 Friedman, Jonathan 72, 78, 81 Guha, Ranajit 69 Fuson, Karen C. 43 Gumbel, Peter 72, 81 Gustilo, Leah E. 60 Galang, M. Evelina 310, 343, 346 Galang, Zoilo M. 95, 321, 323 Hagedorn, Jessica 7, 20, 24, 101–2, 104, Galdon, Joseph 306, 313 113, 117, 123, 310, 321, 328, 343–4 Gallman, Andrew F. 154 Hakuta, Kenji 39–40  Index 399 Halleck, Reuben P. 249 Irving, Washington 248, 250, 252 Halliday, Michael 230 Ishiguro, Kazuo 340 Hansen, Miriam 123 Hau, Caroline S. 7, 74, 123, 317–36 Jambalos, Thelma V. 201–2 Headland, Janet D. 154 Jannedy, Stephanie 162 Headland, Thomas N. 154 Japanese (language) 16, 107, 363 Heller, Monica 81 Japanese (people) 304, 348, 365–6 Hernandez, Jose M. 256–7 Javellana, Stevan 304, 321, 325 Hidalgo, Antonio 308 Javier, Paolo 345 Hidalgo, Cesar A. 88–9, 99, 188 Jinkinson, Beth 3 Hidalgo, Cristina P. 299–316, 321 Joaquin, Nick 7, 24, 95, 123, 269–70, 281, Hiligaynon 30, 131–56, 188, 283, 319, 338 285–7, 291, 303–4, 306, 313, 320, 326–7, Holborow, Marnie 73, 78 359, 363, 366 Hollander, John 291 jolography 275–6 Holliday, Adrian 78 Joos, Martin 19–20, 216 Holthe, Tess Uriza 345–6 Jose, F. Sionil 7, 18, 24, 304–6, 308, 320–1, Hong Kong English 177, 201–2, 208, 326–8 216–17 Jugo, Cyan Abad 308 Hood, Susan 237 Jurich, Sonia 38 Hufana, Alejandrino G. 287–8, 291, 295 Huggan, Graham 329 Kachru, Braj 67–70, 73–4, 78, 80, 220, Huk rebellion, the 328 225, 262, 266 Hutton, Christopher 67, 80 Kalaw, Maximo M. 95, 323 hybridity 348 Kandiah, Thiru 77–8 Hymes, Dell 78 Kapampangan 131–56 Kaplan, Robert B. 189–90 ICE, see International Corpus of English Katigbak, Luis 308 identity 2, 15, 24, 33, 63, 74, 90, 104–9, Kimura, Masataka 325 115, 117, 119–20, 122–3, 159, 225, Kramer, Paul A. 192 261–5, 306–7, 324 Kroeber, Alfred L. 182 Igloria, Luisa 295, 346 Kubota, Ryuko 235 Igorrote 180 Kuipers, Joel C. 188 ikabod 110–15 Kwon, Youngshim 43 Ilio, Dominador 270, 294 Ilocano, see Ilokano Lacaba, Jose F. 109–10, 112, 306 Iloilo 107 Lacaba, Kris 275 Ilokano, Ilokanos 2, 131–56, 338 Lacuesta, Angelo 308 ilustrados 8, 103, 123–4, 186, 301, 312, 318, Lacuesta, Lolita R. 124 332, 339, 358 language and the media: 49–66; television imperialism 365 49–51; vocabulary 55–8; see also India 71, 78, 212, 216, 225–6, 264, 363–5 English language media indigenous languages 1–2, 23, 88–91, 99– language attitudes 382–3 100, 131, 157, 187–8, 247, 289, 371; see language planning 5, 374–6 also English and indigenous languages language policies 5–7, 29–48, 87–100, Infante, J. Eddie 124 374–6 Institute of National Language, see Surian language rights 6 ng Wikang Pambansa language surveys 5, 30, 159, 247, 249–51 International Corpus of English (ICE) language training 221–3 201–18 400 Index languages in education: 29–48, 376–82; Macken-Horarik, Mary 230 English 14, 29–48, 74–8 Macquarie Dictionary 184–7 languages of instruction, see medium of Madrid, Renato 307–8, 313 instruction Madrunio, Marilu R. 61 Lara, Susan 308 magazines 54–5, 311 Laslo, Pablo 293 Magindanao 132 Laurel, R. Kwan 332 Majul, Cesar Adib 13 Laurilla, Mildred Rojo 61 Manalang-Gloria, Angela C. 264–5, 283–4 Lauter, Paul 248 Manalansan, Martin 125, 350 Laya, Juan C. 320, 325, 363 Manalo, Paolo 274–5, 295 lects 20–1; see also acrolect; basilect; Manarpaac, D. V. S. 7, 87–100 edulect; mesolect Manguera-Brainard, Cecilia 310, 343, Legaspi, Joseph O. 345 345–6 Lehner, Al 235 Maniquiz, Mike 350 Levinson, Stephen 60 Manlapaz, Edna Z. 287, 292–3 lexicon of Philippine English, see Maranan, Edgardo B. 295, 347 Philippine English: lexicon Maranao 132, 140 Lim, Jaime An 295, 308, Marcelo, Nonoy 111–4 Lim, Paulino, Jr. 24, 346 Marcos Regime, the, see Marcos, Ferdinand Lim, Shirley Geok-Lin 329 Marcos, Ferdinand 3, 5, 88–9, 96–7, 107, Lim-Wilson, Fatima 295, 345–6 110–1, 114–5, 125, 306–8, 325–6, 328, Lin, Angel M. Y. 77 331, 338, 344, 348 linguistic imperialism 67, 91–4, 267 Markus, Gyorgy 322 Linmark, R. Zamora 349 Marquardt, Frederic S. 179 literature, see Philippine English literature Martin, Dalmacio 246 Litiatco, Alfredo 16, 293 Martin, Isabel P. 7, 29, 245–60 Llamzon, Teodoro A. 19–21, 58, 96, 158–9, Martin, James 230, 237 168–9, 201, 220, 231, 266 Martinez, David C. 350 Lloyd, David 322 Martinez, Norma D. 158 Lo Bianco, Joseph 40 mass media 49–66, 107; linguistic research Lockwood, Jane 7, 219–42 58–63; see also English language Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth 245–6, media; language and the media; 248–50, 253 magazines; newspapers; Philippine Lopez, Cecilio 134 cinema; radio; television Lopez, Salvador P. 15, 284, 293, 295, 303, Matthiessen, Christian 230 305, 313, 324, 329 Mazrui, Alamin M. 78–9 Lowenberg, Peter H. 68, 211 Mazrui, Ali 263 Lukacs, Georg 326 McArthur, Tom 80 Lumbera, Bienvenido 246–7, 269, 295, McDermott, Ray 188 300–1, 312 McFarland, Curtis D. 2, 7, 131–56, 190 Lumbera, Cynthia Nograles 246–7, 269, McFerson, Hazel M. 2, 192 300–1, 312 McKinley, William 29, 318 lyric poetry 254 McKinnon, William D. 13, 246 McPhate, Mike 225 Mabanglo, Elynia Ruth 346 Medalla, David Cortes 347 Mabini, Apolinario 13 media in English, see English language Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria 3, 22, 224, 338 media Macedo, Donaldo 250 media, see mass media  Index 401 Medina, Loreta M. 347 New Zealand English 176 medium of instruction 29–48, 88, 318, New, W. H. 261 361; see also English as a medium of Newell, Leonard E. 189 instruction newspapers 22, 53–4, 59–63, 312 Melendrez-Cruz, Patricia 35 Nezhukumatathil, Aimee 345 Melvin, Reine Arcache 310, 347 Ngugi wa Thiong’o 261 memorization 17, 250–1 Nielo, Alberto M. 294 Mencken, H. L. 176 Nkrumah, Kwame 71 Mendoza, Diana 3 Nolledo, Wilfrido D. 305–6, 329, 342 Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary 187, 190; see novel, see Philippine English literature: also dictionaries novel mesolect 20, 158–70, 172–4, 231–2; see also acrolect; basilect; edulect; lects Ocampo, Ambeth 124 mestizos/as 2, 103–5, 111, 113, 117, 123 Okamoto, Yukari 44 Miller, Kevin F. 43 Olega, Jesus C. 293–4 Millward, C. M. 153–4 Ondaatje, Michael 340 mimicry 253–6 Ong, Charlson 308, 320–1, 327, 332 Minahal, Maiana 350 Ong, Han 349 Miraflor, Norma 305, 310, 347 Ordoñez, Elmer A. 33, 226 Miura, Irene T. 43 Ordoñez, Victor 346 Mo, Timothy 7, 340, 357–68 Orsini, Francesca 330 Mojares, Resil 7, 300–2, 307, 319, 328–9, Osmubal, Papa 347 331, 357–68 Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) 37–8 Monroe, Paul 13–14, 30, 35, 247, 251 Mooney, Isabela Banzon 264–6, 273–4 Palanca, Clinton 308 Moro 180 Pallesen, A. Kemp 154 mother tongue 6, 31–6, 157, 217, 221–2, Pangasinan 131–56 268, 357 Parakrama, Aljuna 73, 78 Mulholland, Kate 220, 228 Pascasio, Emy M. 34 multilingualism 7, 20–1, 23, 40, 44, 317, Pascual, Wilfredo O., Jr. 347 371; see also bilingualism Patalinjug, Ricardo 307 Murray, Sabina 349 Paterno, Ma. Elena 265–6, 308 Paterno, Pedro 332 Naipaul, V. S. 360 Peñaranda, Oscar 345–6, 349 Nation, James 268 Peña-Reyes, Myrna 295, 346 national language 4, 89–91; see also Wikang Pennycook, Alastair 39, 67, 69, 73, 78, 80 Pambansa pensionados 15, 76, 292, 339 National Language Law (1936) 16 Perez, Gilbert S. 179 nationalism 5, 21, 31, 74, 87–100, 106, Philippine cinema (film) 115–22 108, 190, 261–78, 322–6 Philippine Commonwealth, the 16 native languages 8, 30, 40–1, 88, 131–58, Philippine English language: 13, 18, 220; 168–9, 231, 245–7, 257–8, 267–70, borrowings 179–80; competence 22–3; 283, 291, 302, 322, 339–40 consonants 162–3, 172; decline of Navarro, Rene J. 347 English 30–1; features 385–91; Nayyar, Deepak 72 grammar 18–19, 201–18; history 13–27; Nepomuceno, Joseph 345 intonation 166–7; lexicography 175– Nero, Shondel J. 157 200; lexicon 18–19; linguistic features new Englishes 157, 176–8, 190, 216, 266, 129–241; morphology and syntax 371 402 Index 201–18; phonology 18–19, 157–74; Protacio-Marcelino, Elizabeth 33, 35 proficiency 37–8, 219, 224; segmental Puatu, Mar V. 310, 346 phonology 161–4, 168–9; social public schools 20 stratification 6; sociolinguistics 11–127; Purser, John T. 285 standard of English 224–6; stress 164–6, 174; suprasegmental phonology 164–7, Quezon, Manuel L. 88, 103, 189, 295, 329 169–70; vocabulary 175–200; Quijano de Manila 123 vocabulary in the media 55–8; vowels Quimpo, Nathan G. 2 163–4, 173; see also English language Quirk, Randolph 57, 80, 209 media; language and the media Philippine English literature: 7, 14–15, 18, radio 22, 51–2 94–6, 243–367, 391–3; Cebuano Rafael, Vicente L. 7, 101–28, 345–6, 361, 363 writers 357–68; colonial period 245– Rajagopalan, Kanavillil 78 60; diasporic literature 337–56; fiction Ramanathan, Vaidehi 71, 77–8 317–36; history 300–10; history of Ramos, Fidel V. 3, 22, 115, 320 poetry 279–98; novel 317–36; poetry Ramos, Geoffrey P. 223 279–98; short story 299–316 Ramos, Maximino 30, 36 Philippine languages: 131–56; borrowed reading materials 17, 322 phrases from English 150–2; borrowed Realuyo, Bino A. 310, 321, 343–5 words with Tagalog affixes 148–50; Recto, Claro M. 358 borrowing from English 145–8; Reich, Robert B. 38 borrowing from Philippine languages Reid, Lawrence A. 154 179–80; groupings 140–2; language Remoto, Danton 125, 295 change 138–9; phonology 133–4; Reyes, Barbara J. Pulmano 350 syntax 134–8; see also indigenous Reyes, Emmanuel 120, 124 languages Reyes, Melissa Lopez 36, 43 Philippine-American War 3–4, 13, 191, Reyes, Myrna Peña, see Peña-Reyes, Myrna 301, 328 Reyes, Soledad S. 319 Philippines: ethnic groups 2; geography 2; Reyes, Virgil 347 literature 245–60; sociolinguistics Rivera, Aida R. 304, 308 11–127; see also Philippine languages Rividad, Emma 327 Phillipson, Robert 39–40, 67, 80, 91–5 Rizal, Jose 7, 8, 13, 103, 123, 199, 290, 301–2, pidgin 20 312, 318, 324–5, 331–2, 339, 358, 366 Pilipino 4, 21, 32, 81, 88, 89, 107, 143, Robertson, James A. 182, 318 144, 181, 189, 258, 295, 329, 332 Robinson, Jay 115, 264 Pineda, Jon 345 Rodas, Jovita Zimmerman, see Zimmerman Pineda, P. B. 40–1 Rodas, Jovita Platt, John 268 Rodriguez, Gloria F. 321 Poe, Edgar Allan 252 Roley, Brian Ascalon 310, 349 poetry, see Philippine English literature: Romero, Ma. Corona S. 201 poetry Rosal, Patrick 345 Polotan, Kerima 304, 306–7, 320, 327 Rosca, Ninotchka 20, 24, 306–7, 310, 313, postcolonialism 67–86, 87–100, 261–78, 321, 328, 343–4 322 Rose, David 230 Prah, Kwesi K. 71, 81 Rose, Ed 220 Prator, Clifford H. 17, 29, 31, 166 Ross, Bruce Clunies 329 Price, Helen 7, 219–42 rote learning 17, 250–1 private schools 20 Rotor, Arturo 16, 255, 284, 303  Index 403 Ruiz, Rochita C. 347 Snyder, Edward D. 249 Rushdie, Salman 309, 340 Snyder, Franklyn B. 249 social class 3, 5, 8, 53, 72–4, 76–9, 81, 97–8, Sabado, Joseph 345 106, 108, 113–6, 119, 122, 124–5, 143, Saguisag, Lara 308 178, 216, 270, 291, 317, 325–8, 329– Said, Edward 67 30, 338 Salamanca, Bonifacio 30 sociolinguistics 13–127 Salanga, Alfrredo Navarro 288–9 sociology of language 374–6 Saleeby, Najeeb Mitry 30, 35 Soliongco, I. P. 248 Salmi, Jamil 38 Spain 104, 106, 301, 348 Samar-Leyte 132 Spanish (language) 87, 89, 105–9, 111–2, Samson, Antonio 326 148, 179–80, 246, 283, 358–60, 362 San Juan, Epifanio, Jr. 33, 71, 78, 295 Spanish (people) 2, 89, 365 Sanchez, Wilfredo Pascua 305, 350, 364 Spanish colonialism 178 Santos, Bienvenido N. 16, 285, 286–7, 303, Spanish-American War 3, 87 306, 309–10, 321, 326–7, 342–3, 349 spoken English 14 Santos-Taylor, Marcelline 350 Sta. Ana, Alan 158 Sarmiento, Menchu 308 Standard American English 225 Sarreal, Nadine 310, 347 standard English 264–71 Sartre, Jean-Paul 71, 306 standardization 20–1 Schneider, Edgar W. 204 Stapleton, Lara 343, 345 Schumacher, John N. 318 Starnes, Sofia M. 346 Schwab, Irene 78 Stickmon, Janet 350 Segovia, Lorna Z. 330 Stigler, James W. 43 Selden, Raman 258 Stiglitz, Joseph E. 69 Sering, Tara F. T. 309, 314 Strobel, Leny Mendoza 345–6 Sernau, Scott 69, 71, 72 Subido, Abelardo 293 Shakespeare, William 246, 248, 250, 253, Sullivan, Louis R. 182 329 Surian ng Wikang Pambansa (Institute of Shannon, George Pope 253–4 National Language) 40 Shaw, Angel 344–5 Svalberg, Agneta M. L. 234 Shohat, Ella 69, 78 Swain, Merrill 230 short fiction, see Philippine English Swales, John M. 204 literature: short story systemic functional linguistics 230 Short Message Service (SMS) 338–66 short story, see Philippine English literature: Tabios, Eileen 345 short story Tabor, Myrna G.A. 183 Sibayan, Bonifacio P. 17, 30, 32, 34–5, 40, Tadiar, Neferti Xina 326 74–7, 88, 94, 266, 330 Tagalog 2, 16, 21, 88–9, 98, 105–9, 111–2, Silbey, David J. 191 118, 131–56, 180, 215, 300–1, 338–9, Siliman University 309, 321; see also 343, 363 universities Taglish 1, 50, 52, 55, 101–28, 144–5, 319, Sitoy, Lakambini 308 329, 338, 367 Sivaramakrishnan, K. 69 Tahimik, Kidlat 116 Skinner, Michelle Cruz 310, 343, 346, 350 Talib, Ismail 267, 270, 275 Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove 39–40, 79 Tarrosa-Subido, Trinidad L. 283–4, 293 Slade, Diane 230 Tayao, Ma. Lourdes G. 7, 19, 58, 157–74, SMS, see Short Message Service 220, 231–3 404 Index Taylor, Philip 220, 228 Vaux, James Hardy 178 teaching of literature 245–60 Vega, Joel H. 347 television 22, 49–51 Ventura, Rey 347 Teodoro, Luis V. 307 Vilches, Ma. Luz 41 Terra, Perfecto, Jr. 347 Villa, Jose Garcia 15–16, 95, 256, 281, 283–7, texting, see SMS (Short Message Service) 289, 293–4, 300, 302–3, 305–7, 310, Tharp, James A. 154 313, 341–3, 349, 363 Thomas, Paul 322 Villacorta, Wilfrido V. 90–1 Thomasites, the 4, 14, 177, 179 Villanueva, Marianne 310, 345–6 Thompson, Roger M. 319, 329 Villareal, Corazon D. 79, 268 Thornton, William H. 72 Villena, Rosemarievic G. 36 Thumboo, Edwin May 264, 266, 272 Viray, Francisco 16 Tiempo, Edilberto K. 304, 306, 332, 342 Viray, Manuel A. 293, 295, 304, 342 Tiempo, Edith L. 97, 285–7, 290, 294, 304, Virtusio, Genaro 256 309, 320, 342 Visayan English 366 T i e m p o - To r r e v i l l a s , R o w e n a , s e e Visayans, see Cebuanos Torrevillas, Rowena Tiempo Tiffin, Helen 261 Wagemakers, Ella Sanchez 347 Tinio, Rolando S. 6, 268–9 Wagner, Daniel A. 81 Tinio, Victoria L. 74 Walcott, Derek 263, 268 Tollefson, James W. 5–6, 35, 74–5 Walton, Charles 154 Tope, Lily Rose 7, 261–78 Warren, Robert P. 285 Torres, Emmanuel 288, 290–1, 295, 310–1 Webster, Noah 253 Torrevillas, Rowena Tiempo 295, 307, Webster’s Dictionary 57–8, 175, 181–2, 190–1, 310, 346 195; see also dictionaries Tupas, T. Ruanni F. 7, 35, 67–86, 220, 225–6 Wee, Lionel 81 Turner, George W. 176 Weisser, Edna 347 Ty-Casper, Linda, see Casper, Linda Ty White, Peter 230, 237 Wickberg, Edgar 123 UNESCO 38, 246 Wikang Pambansa (national language) 4, United States 13–16, 23, 29, 74, 245–60, 16, 107 321, 326, 337; see also America Williams, Raymond 324 universities, see Ateneo de Manila Witt, L. Alan 220 University; De La Salle University; Worcester, Dean C. 182 Siliman University; University of Santo world Englishes 67–86, 176 Tomas; University of the Philippines Wright, Gillian 220 University of Santo Tomas 257, 309, 321, writers, see Philippine English literature: 340; see also universities Cebuano writers University of the Philippines 13–14, 189, written English 14, 19 253–4, 256, 279, 299, 301–2, 309, 321, Wurfel, David 33 341, 358; see also universities UP, the, see University of the Philippines Yabes, Leopoldo Y. 302–4, 313 Uranza, Azucena Grajo 270, 320, 328 Yap, Fe Aldave 181–2 Yeo, Robert 263 Valeros, Florentino B. 320 Young, Robert J. C. 68–71 Valle, Charles 345 Yuson, Alfred A. 7, 289–90, 295, 307–8, varieties of English 224–6, 263–6 313, 320, 327, 337–56  Index 405 Zabus, Chantal 268 Zafra, Jessica 308, 311 Zaide, Gregorio F. 279 Zimmerman Rodas, Jovita 346 Zorc, R. David Paul 154, 189 Zulueta da Costa, Rafael 16, 272, 284–5, 287, 294