Pharmacognosy I Lec#4 3 PDF

Homopolysaccharides Fructosans Inulin - Naturally occurring polysaccharide belonging to a group of dietary fibers known as fructans. - Composed of fructose units primarily linked by β-(2→1) glycosidic bon...

Homopolysaccharides Fructosans Inulin - Naturally occurring polysaccharide belonging to a group of dietary fibers known as fructans. - Composed of fructose units primarily linked by β-(2→1) glycosidic bonds with a terminal glucose - Widely distributed in the plant kingdom. - Asteraceae and Boraginaceae - Cichorium intybus, Helianthus tuberosus, Taraxacum officinale, Allium sativum, Allium cepa, Musa spp. - These compounds are found in the vacuole of the cell and are stored in the underground parts of plants (roots, bulbs, tubers or rhizomes). Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Homopolysaccharides Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Homopolysaccharides Fructosans Inulin - Inulin dissolves in water, forming a gel-like structure, which contributes to its role in promoting digestive health. - Inulin promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut, particularly Bifidobacteria. - It is only partially digested in the human gastrointestinal tract, making it a low-calorie food ingredient. - Humans lack the enzyme to hydrolyze β-(2→1) bonds, inulin passes into the large intestine undigested. - When inulin is administered IV, it is not metabolized and does not bind to plasma proteins.It is eliminated by the kidneys, not reabsorbed by the tubules, filtered by the glomeruli, and increases the osmotic pressure of the tubular fluid. - Inulin is commonly used in kidney function tests. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Homopolysaccharides Fructosans Inulin Plant name: Cichorium intybus Drog: Cichorii radix Family: Asteraceae - It contains 50-60% inulin when dried. - It has a bitter taste due to the presence of sesquiterpene lactones.It acts as a choleretic, cholagogue, and diuretic. - It is used for the symptomatic treatment of digestive issues. - After the roots are roasted, it is used as a coffee substitute in some countries outside of Turkey. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Homopolysaccharides Fructosans Inulin Plant name: Taraxacum officinale Drog: Taraxaci radix Family: Asteraceae - The amount of fructose in the roots reaches its peak (40%) in the spring, while inulin levels are highest in the autumn. - Dandelion root stimulates the production and flow of bile, aiding in the digestion of fats and improving overall digestive function. - Traditionally, dandelion root is considered a liver tonic. It helps detoxify the liver and has been used to treat conditions like jaundice, hepatitis, and liver congestion. It is believed to protect liver cells from toxins and promote overall liver health. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides - Composed of two or more different types of monosaccharide units. - Heteropolysaccharides contain a mixture of different monosaccharides such as glucose, mannose, galactose, arabinose, and uronic acids (glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid). - They may also include non-sugar components such as proteins, peptides, or sulfate groups Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Gums - Gums are complex hydrophilic carbohydrates, typically formed from the degradation of the cell wall or secreted by plants after injury. - Considered to be pathological products (extracellular formation: gummosis) - Gums are water-soluble or swell in water to form gels or viscous solutions. - Gums on hydrolysis yield a mixture of sugars and uronic acids - Most gums are non-toxic and biocompatible, which makes them suitable for pharmaceutical and food industries. - The molecular weights of the gums range from 20 000 to 2 000 000. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Group A (Exudate Gums) - consist of exudates that are released by plants due to injury or as a natural process. - Mostly composed of arabinose, galactose, and glucuronic acid. - Soluble in water - Biocompatible and non-toxic. - Widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries as emulsifiers, thickeners, and stabilizers. Gum Arabic (Acacia gum), Tragacanth, Ghatti Gum Group B (Seed Gums) - includes gums that are extracted from the endosperm of seeds. - galactomannan polysaccharides, known for their high water absorption and swelling properties. - Composed mainly of mannose and galactose Guar Gum, Locust Bean Gum Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Gums Group C (Marine Gums) - These gums are extracted from seaweed and marine algae. - Composed mainly of galactose derivatives. - Form gels in hot water and are used in gel formulations - High viscosity and stability in solutions Agar, Carrageenan, Alginates Group D (Microbial Gums) - consists of gums produced by microbial fermentation - High water-binding capacity - Stable over a wide range of temperatures and pH conditions Xanthan Gum, Gellan Gum Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Galactans - Natural polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds - Genera Chondrus, Gigartina, and Eucheuma - Structurally, carrageenans are sulfated galactans, composed of repeating units of galactose and 3,6-anhydrogalactose. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Galactans - Three main types of carrageenans, classified based on the degree of sulfation; Kappa (κ)- Carrageenan, Iota (ι)-Carrageenan, Lambda (λ)-Carrageenan. - particularly lambda-carrageenan, have demonstrated antiviral properties. They can inhibit the binding of certain viruses, including herpes simplex virus (HSV) and human papillomavirus (HPV), - Their gelling properties enable the slow release of active pharmaceutical ingredients - Carrageenans enhance the bioavailability of certain drugs by increasing the contact time of the drug with the mucosal surface. - Mild laxative in pharmaceutical formulations. - In food technology (kappa and iota)-carrageen (E 407) is used as gelling agent, stabilizer, crystallization inhibitor in ice cream. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  North Atlantic coast Plant name: Chondrus crispus Family: Gigartinaceae Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Agar - Derived from the cell walls of red algae (Rhodophyta) - It is a polyholoside obtained from especially from Gelidium species. - Gelidum corneum, G. amansii, G. cartilagineum, Gracilaria confervoides, G. lichenoides, Gelidiella and Pterocladia species. - It is composed of two main components: agarose (a polysaccharide) and agaropectin. Agarose: The gelling component of agar. It is a linear polymer made up of repeating units of agarobiose (a disaccharide consisting of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose). Agaropectin: A non-gelling component that contains sulfate and pyruvate groups, making it less structurally rigid than agarose. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Agar Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Agar - Agar is used in the preparationof Microbiological culture media - As an emulsifying agent and in the treatment of chronic constipation - Used in topical formulations (ointments, creams, and gels) as a thickener - Agarose gel electrophoresis is widely used for the separation of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) based on size. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Musilages Gums Mucilages Pectin Hemicelulose Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Gums Drogs of Gums Gummi Arabicum, Gum Arabic, Acacia Gum - Exudate from the stems and branches of Acacia Senegal (Mimosaceae) - Group A - Carboxyl groups in Gum Arabic exist as calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺), and potassium (K⁺) salts. - Arabian gum contains 10-15% moisture, along with tannins and oxidase enzymes. - Doesnt contain starch - Due to the presence of oxidase enzymes, Gum Arabic catalyzes oxidation reactions, leading to degradation of certain compounds, causing chemical incompatibility. To mitigate this, Gummi Arabicum desenzymatum is prepared by enzyme removal, ensuring greater chemical stability. - excipient in solid oral dosage forms. - Gum Arabic (E414) functions as a stabilizer and emulsifier Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides / Gums Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides / Gums Tragacanth Gum, Tragacantha - Exudate from the root or stem - Astragalus gummifer, A. microcephalus, and A. kurdicus (Fabaceae) produce tragacanth gum through the process of scratching the trunk and branches or by injury from insects or similar causes. The gum paste solidifies when exposed to air. - Unlike gum arabic, tragacanth gum does not contain oxidase but includes 3% starch and 3-4% minerals. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides / Gums Tragacanth gum is composed of two polyholosides; Tragacanthin makes up 30-40% of the gum. Its structure is based on bound arabinogalactan with (1→6, 1→3) linkages. It is neutral, soluble in a water-alcohol mixture, and forms a colloidal solution in water. Bassorin (tragacanthic acid) constitutes 60-70% of the gum. It is formed by the bonding of xylose, fucoxylose, and galactoxylose to the main chain of (1→4) linked galacturonic acid molecules, giving it acidic properties. Bassorin precipitates in ethanol, and it swells in water to form a gel. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides / Gums Tragacanth gum, when in leaf form, is flat, nail-like, fan-shaped, streaky, and curved. It is categorized into five different grades based on quality: 1.Fjord: White, translucent, and thin. 2.White: Thicker, but still white in color. 3.Piano: Yellowish, with black spots. 4.Yellow: Heavily stained with a dirty, blackish color. 5.Chalu or Muddy: Dark brown and earthy, often collected in rainy weather. These five grades are recognized by their distinct names, with fjord being the highest quality. In pharmaceutical applications, fjord and white grades are typically used. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides / Gums Guar Gum Ceratonia siliqua (Caesalpiniaceae) Drog: Ceratoniae semen - Composed of galactomannan polysaccharides - Swells in water to form a thick solution - It is soluble in cold water, forming a viscous solution. - Acts as a controlled-release agent in drug delivery systems due to its hydrophilic properties. - It may reduce postprandial blood sugar levels by slowing carbohydrate digestion. - Guar gum can help reduce cholesterol levels by binding to bile acids in the intestine. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides / Gums Guar Gum Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fabaceae) Drog: Foenugraeci semen, Trigonellae semen - 30% protein, 7% lipid, volatile compounds that give their scent, cellulose, hemicellulose, galactomannan and saponoside. - known as fenugreek - significant ability to lower blood glucose levels by enhancing insulin secretion and improving insulin sensitivity - The fiber content, particularly galactomannan, slows carbohydrate absorption in the intestines. - Regular intake of fenugreek has been shown to lower LDL cholesterol levels while maintaining or improving HDL levels. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Mucilages - Mucilages are often found in seeds, leaves, and roots of plants. - Unlike gums, mucilages are non-sticky substances and are not pathological products. They are naturally occurring compounds within the plant's structure, located in specialized mucilage cells. - Complex heteropolysaccharides composed mainly of sugars like arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose, along with uronic acids (like galacturonic acid). - Their ability to form gels is attributed to their polymeric structure, which absorbs water and creates a viscous mass. - Due to the laxative properties of mucilage-containing drugs, they are also used externally as an emollient poultice. - Neutral and acidic Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Neutral Mucilages Neutral mucilages are characterized by the absence of uronic acids in their structures, indicating that they do not possess acidic properties. Glucomannans are polysaccharides composed of glucose and mannose units linked by β- (1→4) glycosidic bonds, predominantly consisting of D-mannose. These compounds yield a highly viscous solution when dispersed in water. Glucomannans are integral components of hemicellulose and are predominantly located in the subterranean parts of monocotyledonous plants. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Neutral mucilages drogs Tubera Salep - Dried tubers of various species of orchids - Orchis mascula and Dactylorhiza spp. (Orchidaceae) - exhibits high mucilage content, which can create a viscous gel when mixed with water. - The - The glucomannan content in Salep, derived from various geographical regions, exhibits variability, ranging from 40% to 50%. - In the Muğla-Milas region, Salep obtained from Orchis anatolica demonstrates a superior quality, with mucilage content measured at 57%. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides - Salep is traditionally utilized as an antidiarrheal agent, particularly in pediatric applications. - The Salep drink exhibits demulcent and cough-suppressant properties, making it beneficial for alleviating symptoms of respiratory conditions such as the common cold - Due to its high cost, Salep powder is often adulterated with starch - To protect the native Orchidaceae species cultivated in Türkiye, the export of Salep has been prohibited since 1974. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Acidic musilages - Acidic mucilages are typically composed of complex polysaccharides containing sugar units such as galactose, rhamnose, arabinose, and xylose. - The key distinguishing feature is the presence of uronic acids (e.g., galacturonic acid, glucuronic acid), which contribute to their acidic nature. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Drogs of Acidic Mucilages Plant name: Plantago ovata Drog name: Plantaginis ovatae semen (Ph.Eur.) Family: Plantaginaceae - Psyllium husk contains a high amount of acidic mucilage composed of arabinoxylans. - Mucilage (10-30%) - Bulk-Forming Laxative Plant name: Plantago lanceolata Drog name: Plantaginis lanceolatae herba Family: Plantaginaceae - Aerial parts of Plantago lanceolata - 6-7% mucilage (D-galactose, L-arabinose and 40% uronic acids) - Used as a demulsant in mouth-throat inflammation and cough. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Plant name: Linum usitatissimum Drog name: Lini semen (Ph.Eur.) Family: Linaceae - The flax plant is cultivated for its fiber, fixed oil, and mucilage - Flax seeds (Lini semen) contain 3-19% mucilage in the outer layer of the seed coat - Additionally, flaxseed contains cyanogenic glycosides (linustatin and neolinustatin), lignans, and phenolic compounds - Internally, flaxseed is used as a laxative, especially as a mechanical laxative due to its mucilage content, and for treating inflammation in the large intestine and stomach lining - Externally, it is applied as a poultice to reduce localized inflammation Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Heteropolysaccharides Plant name: Malva sylvestris Drog name: Malvae flos (Ph.Eur.) / Malvae folium Family: Malvaceae - The mucilage content in the leaves ranges from 15-20% - Upon hydrolysis, this mucilage releases D-galacturonic acid, galactose, and arabinose - Infusions of the leaves are used as a demulcent, providing soothing relief for conditions such as colds and coughs. - It is administered orally as a demulcent for colds and spastic colitis - Topically, it is used to relieve dermatological itching, as an emollient for chapped skin, and to soothe insect bites - In the treatment of oral cavity irritations and sore throat, it is used as a gargle or in lozenge form, and is also included in the formulation of cough teas. Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Plant name: Althea officinalis Drog name: Altheae folium (Ph.Eur.) / Altheae radix (Ph.Eur.) Family: Malvaceae - The roots are harvested in autumn from plants that are two years old or older. - The bark is peeled and then dried either whole or after cutting - Mucilage is present in specialized mucilage cells within the parenchyma tissue. - Mucilage isolated from the roots has demonstrated antitussive (cough-suppressing) activity. - The leaves and roots are traditionally used for treating coughs and bronchial diseases - Externally, it is applied as a wound healer, and internally, it is used for treating gastrointestinal and urinary tract inflammations Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Plant name: Tilia cordata Drog name: Tiliae flos (Ph.Eur.) Family: Tiliaceae - Mucilage is present in specialized mucilage cells within the parenchyma tissue of both the flower and the bract - The drug contains 6-8% mucilage - The mucilage content reaches its peak after the buds open, typically in April and May. - The mucilage concentration is higher in the flowers compared to the bracts. - It is used in infusions to promote sweating and to treat respiratory tract conditions associated with colds, fevers, coughs, and the flu (decoction) - Mild sedative for managing sleep disorders (infusion) Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4  Infision Decoction Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4 Pharmacognosy I Instructor: Sule Nur KARAVUS Fall 2024-Lecture #4