New TOS Human Behavior and Criminology PDF

1. Explain the dynamics of human behavior and stages of the human development based on: a. Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory (Erik Erikson) b. Cognitive Developmental Theory (Jean Piaget) c. Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner) d. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) e. Cognitive -Behavioral Theory (Aaron Beck) f. Humanistic Theory (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers) 2. Illustrate proficiency in managing individuals with mental and personality adisorders such as: a. Substance Use Disorders b. Schiziphrenia c. Depression d. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) e. Personality Disorders 3. Analyze the concept and theories of victimization, delving into the multifaceted aspects of victim roles, victim profiling, and cybercrime victimization. 4. Evaluate the strategies and provisions for victim's protection outlined in RA 9262 and RA 6981 (Witness Protection Program) HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Is a process in which a progressive series of changes occurs as a result of maturation and experience. According to Newman (2015), human development emphasizes the patterns of “constancy and change across the life span” and identifies the processes that account for such patterns. They Argue that development implies a process that happens over time and has a specific direction. PSYSCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES As one of the most popular theories of development, Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of SIGMUND FREUD who argued that childhood experiences and unconscious desires ultimately influence our behaviors as adults. S i g m u n d F r e u d - H e i s r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e FAT H E R O F PSYCHOANALYSIS. - He is known for his psychoanalytic theory. - According to him, criminality is caused by the imbalance of the three (3) components of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. - According to him there are three parts of personality: 1. ID – this stands for instinctual drives. It is governed by the “pleasure principle”. The id impulses are not social and must be repressed or adapted so that they may become socially acceptable. 2. EGO – this is considered to be the sensible and responsible part of an individual’s personality and is governed by the “reality principle”. It is developed early in life and compensate for the demands of the id by helping the individual guide his actions to remain within the boundaries of accepted social behavior; it is the objective, rational part of the personality. 3. SUPEREGO – serves as the moral conscience of an individual. It is structured by what values were taught by the parents, the school and the community as well as belief in God. It is largely responsible for making a person follow the moral codes of society. Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Each of these levels corresponds to and overlaps with Freud’s ideas of the id, ego, and superego. 1. CONSCIOUS All the mental processes and sensations of which you are aware 2. PRECONSCIOUS/SUBCONCIOUS Things you don’ t instantly know but can access b y association 3. UNCONSCIOUS That which is hidden such as traumatic events (repression) 2. FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT Stage 1: Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) During this stage, an infant source main source of interaction occurs through the mouth, and as such, rooting and sucking are specially important in this stage. The infant may develop a sense of trust and comfort with an adult who is providing this kind of oral stimulation Conflict occurs during the weaning process, and at this point, the child must less become dependent upon his/her caretakers; otherwise fixation may occur. Fixation – is the tendency to stay at a particular stage: The individuals troubled by the conflict that characterizes the stage and seeing to reduce it by means of the behavior characteristics of that stage. If this fixation is not resolved, then the child may grow up with issues concerning binge eating, drinking, nail biting or smoking. The individual may also have problems related to dependency and aggression. (Cherry 2015a) Stage 2: Anal Stage (18 Months to 3 Years) During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control and experiences pleasure in eliminating or retaining feces. Some parents praise and reward children who show correct behavior in this sense. These children eventually grow up to become productive and confident. ANAL RETENTIVE – if the child can control and eliminate feces. Becomes obsessed with perfection, order, cleanliness and control as an adults ANAL EXPULSIVE- extremely disorganized and chaotic Stage 3: Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) This stage is mainly characterized by a child’s focus on sexual interests, stimulation, and excitement in relation to genital area. It lays down the foundation of one’s gender identity. The patterns of identification arising from the phallic stage primarily determine the development of human character. (McLeod, 2008) Oedipus Complex (mommy’s boy) Oedipus refers to a 5th-century BC Greek mythological character Oedipus, who unwittingly kills his father, Laius, and marries his mother, Jocasta. Electra Complex (daddy’s girl) Stage 4: Latency Stage (5 or 6 years to puberty) This development stage begins around the same time when children enter school, and becomes more focused on their peer relationships. This is a period of exploration and place an important role in the development of confidence as well as social and communication skills. Stage 5: Genital Stage (puberty to adulthood) During this period, a child undergoes the psychological maturation of systems of sexual functioning and associated hormonal systems, thus leading to intensified drives and impulses. The main objective of this phase is the eventual separation from one’s attachment to his/her parents and the achievements of mature relationships as well as adults roles and duties. ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT It describes the influence of social experience on our development across the whole human lifespan. A major element of this theory is the “ego identity”, which is the “conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction.” According to Erikson, this ego identity constantly changes due to new information and experiences we accumulate through our daily interactions with others. Stage 1. Trust Vs. Mistrust (Infancy) This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. (HOPE) Stage 2. Autonomy Vs. Shame And Doubt (Early Childhood) This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. (WILL) Stage 3. Initiative Vs. Guilt (Play Age) During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction. (PURPOSE) Stage 4. Industry Vs. Inferiority (School Age) Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth. (COMPETENCE) Stage 5. Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) It occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational. Adolescents who establish a strong sense of identity can maintain consistent loyalties and values, even amidst societal shifts and changes. (FIDELITY) Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis: 1. Severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity) 2. Prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended time) 3. Aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution) Stage 6. Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood) T h i s s t a g e t a ke s p l a c e d u r i n g y o u n g adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. (LOVE) Stage 7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Middle Age) This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to society. (CARE) Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (Old Age) This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. (WISDOM) Piaget’s Theory And Stages Of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of intell e c t ual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thought Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment. At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence. Stage Age Goal Birth to 18-24 Sensorimotor Object permanence months Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought Adolescence to Formal operational Scientific reasoning adulthood The Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years The infant focuses on physical sensations and learning to c o o r d i n a t e i t s b o d y. Sensorimotor Stage Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: üThe infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring their environment). üDuring the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: OBJECT PERMANENCE; üself-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred imitation; and representational play. üThey relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally üAt about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear. The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 – 7 Years At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations, so the thinking is influenced by the way things appear rather than logical reasoning. A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that quantity remains the same even if the appearance changes. Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does. As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more important. Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate. Preoperational Stage Preoperational Stage Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: üToddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. üDuring this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself. üA child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought. üMoreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously. üInfants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s. The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 – 11 Years By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking. Concrete Operational Stage Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: üDuring this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events. üC h i l d re n b e g i n to u n d e rsta n d t h e co n c e pt o f co n s e r vat i o n ; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same. üDuring this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape). üDuring this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. üa major turning point in the child’s cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Over The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning. Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning. Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division and fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems. Formal Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: üConcrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints. üDuring this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions). üThey can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples. üAdolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in o n e h o u r ’s t i m e ? t h ey co u l d s p e c u l ate a b o u t m a ny p o s s i b l e consequences. Behaviorism by B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning, or instrumental conditioning, is a theory of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior that is punished will occur less frequently. Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior. Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior. Take note: Premack Principle Application also called the relativity theory of reinforcement and the differential-probability hypothesis, states that a more desirable activity (e.g., such as eating chocolate) can be used to reinforce a less desirable one (such as writing an essay). You could motivate your child to eat vegetables by offering an activity they love after they finish their meal. For instance, for every vegetable eaten, they get an extra five minutes of video game time. They value video game time, which might encourage them to eat vegetables. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (SLT) suggests that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others. His theory is regarded as the bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories, encompassing attention, memory, and motivational processes (Muro & Jeffrey, 2008) The SLT states that in response to observation, imitation, and modeling, learning can.occur even without changing behavior SLT processing The SLT suggests that we learn from one another throughout our lives via the following processes (Nabavi, 2012): Observation We observe other people’s behavior. Imitation Following observation, we assimilate and imitate the observed behavior. Modeling We are more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people we perceive as similar to ourselves. BEHAVIORS LEARNED THROUGH MODELING Bandura proposed that modeling or learning is composed of four mediational processes or conditions that must be met (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018; Nabavi, 2012): Attention We must pay attention to the model. Our attention increases when behavior is more striking, different, or prestigious, and when the model is more similar to ourselves. Retention We must be able to remember the observed behavior; this can be increased through rehearsal. Reproduction We must be capable of replicating the behavior just observed. Note that a novice may not be developmentally ready to reproduce the action. Motivation We must be motivated to demonstrate what we have learned. This can be influenced by both reinforcement and punishment. Modeling & role models The SLT demonstrates that humans learn and imitate behaviors observed in other people. The people observed are called models, and the process of learning is described as modeling. Bandura identified three basic model types involved in observational learning (Nabavi, 2012): Live model An individual is observed acting out or showing the behavior. Verbal instruction model The behavior is explained or described. Symbolic model A real or fictional character displays the behavior online, on TV, in a book, etc. A lecturer who attends and enjoys a training course may imitate and model the instructor’s technique and style to improve their teaching methods and student engagement. Similar modeling occurs when children watch parents read, students see mathematical problems solved, and bystanders witness an act of bravery (Bandura, 1986, 2006). Cognitive Behavior Theory by Aaron Temkin Beck According to Beck, "If beliefs do not change, there is no improvement. If beliefs change, symptoms change. Beliefs function as little operational units,” which means that one’s thoughts and beliefs (schema) affect one’s behavior and subsequent actions. He believed that dysfunctional behavior is caused due to dysfunctional thinking, and that thinking is shaped by our beliefs. Our beliefs decide the course of our actions. Beck was convinced of positive results if patients could be persuaded to think constructively and forsake negative thinking. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a form of talking therapy that can be used to treat people with a wide range of mental health problems. is beneficial for treating several psychological, psychiatric and medical disorders. Patients with psychological disorders like uncontrollable anger and compulsive gambling can be treated with this therapy. CBT is based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion) and how we act (behavior) all interact together. Specifically, our thoughts determine our feelings and our behavior. CBT Triangle The cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) triangle, commonly c a l l e d t h e ‘c o g n i t i v e t r i a n g l e ,’ provides a structured framework to understand the interplay between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It is a foundational element in the study and practice of cognitive behavioral therapy. Individuals can identify and avoid harmful patterns by recording and categorizing negative thoughts. While surface emotions might be apparent, deeper underlying emotions can influence reactions. Addressing these root emotions and modifying thought patterns can lead to positive behavioral changes, aiding in treating mental health issues like anxiety or depression. Humanistic Theory (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers) What is Humanism? Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual. Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumptions that people have free will and are motivated to achieve their potential and self-actualize. Abraham Maslow, often regarded as the Father of Humanistic Psychology, developed a theory based on humanism and existentialism. His work emphasized individual experiences as the central focus for understanding human behavior. Here are the key points from Maslow’s theory: Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs, which outlines different levels of human motivation. These needs are arranged in order of decreasing priority but increasing sophistication: THE NEEDS THEORY OF HUMAN MOTIVATION. 1. Physiological Needs: These include basic survival needs like hunger, thirst, oxygen, shelter, and sleep. Fulfilling these needs is the highest priority. 2. Safety Needs: After physiological needs, people seek safety, security, and stability. This involves creating structure, maintaining order, and ensuring physical safety. 3. Belongingness and Love: Once safety needs are met, individuals seek social connections, love, and acceptance. They strive for relationships, community involvement, and a sense of belonging. 4. Esteem: Esteem needs involve self-esteem (feeling valued by oneself) and the esteem of others (recognition and respect from others). 5. Self-Actualization: At the top of the hierarchy, self-actualization represents the pursuit of personal growth, creativity, and realizing one’s full potential. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist best known for his views on the therapeutic relationship and his theories of personality and self-actualization. Rogers (1959) believed that for a person to “grow”, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self- disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self- actualization took place. Rogers’ Person-Centered Therapy Client-centered therapy (later re-named ‘person-centered’), a non-directive therapy, allowing clients to deal with what they considered important, at their own pace. This method involves removing obstacles so the client can move forward, freeing him or her for normal growth and development. By using non-directive techniques, Rogers assisted people in taking responsibility for themselves. He believed that the experience of being understood and valued gives us the freedom to grow, while pathology generally arises from attempting to earn others’ positive regard rather than following an ‘inner compass’. A. Personality Development Central to Rogers’ personality theory is the notion of self or self- concept. This is “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.” It encompasses an individual’s self-image (how they see themselves), self-esteem (how much value they place on themselves), and ideal self (the person they aspire to be). The closer our self-image and ideal self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self- worth. Discrepancies between self-concept and reality can cause incongruence, leading to psychological tension and anxiety. The self-concept includes three components: 1. Self-worth Self-worth (or self-esteem) is the value or worth an individual places on themselves. It’s the evaluative aspect of self-concept, influenced by the individual’s perceived successes, failures, and how they believe others view them. 2. Self-image Self-image refers to individuals’ mental representation of themselves, shaped by personal experiences and interactions with others. 3. Ideal self The ideal self is the version of oneself that an individual aspires to become. B. Positive Regard And Self Worth - How we think about ourselves C. Unconditional Positive Regard - accept and loves by other persons for what he or she is, and refrain from any judgment or criticism. D. Conditional Positive Regard - expression of acceptance and approval by others (often parents or caregivers) only when an individual behaves in a certain acceptable or approved way. E. Incongruence – when a person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and the experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. F. Congruence - Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence. G. Self Actualization - to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of “human-beingness” we can. Take note: Self-actualization is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be). If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-actualization to take place. The Fully Functioning Person Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing. In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve. It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing. Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person: 1. Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms). 2. Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment). 3. Trust feelings: feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices. 4. Creativity: creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences. 5. Fulfilled life: a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences. Human Behavior Anything an individual does that involves self-initiated action and/or reaction to a given situation/stimulus. The sum total of man's reaction to his environment or the way human beings act. It is composed of adoptive adjustments people make as they cope with one another, problems, opportunities, and working together-aspects in a given situation. Refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person to adapt and fit society’s values and ideas of what is right and wrong. It also refers to a range of actions demonstrated by humans in conjunction with their environment and in response to various stimuli, whether conscious or subconscious, internal or external, voluntary or involuntary and overt or covert. Human Beings Human beings are intelligent social animals with the mental capacity to comprehend, infer and think in rational eways. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY In general, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. This means that psychologists use the methods of science to investigate all kinds of behavior and mental processes, from the activity of a single nerve cell to the social conflict in a complex society (Bernstein, et al, 1991). In particular, criminal Psychology is a sub-field of general psychology where criminal behavior is only, in part by which phenomena psychologists choose to study. 2 Common Seen Behavior Normal Behavior (adaptive or adjusted behavior) – the standard behavior, the totality accepted behavior because they follow the standard norms of society. Understanding criminal behavior includes the idea of knowing what characterized a normal person from an abnormal one. A normal person is characterized by: Efficient perception of reality, Self-knowledge, Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior, Self-esteem and acceptance, Productivity, Ability to form affectionate relationship with others. Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive/maladjusted behavior) - A group of behaviors that are deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard behavior of society. KINDS OF BEHAVIOR Overt or Covert Behavior - Behaviors that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable are overt behaviors. On the other hand, covert behavior are behaviors that are hidden – not visible to the naked eye. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior - Behavior is conscious when acts are with in the level of awareness. It is unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s subconscious – unaware. Simple or Complex Behavior - These are acts categorized according to the number of neurons involved in the process of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of neurons while complex behavior involved more number of neurons, a combination of simple behaviors. Rational or Irrational Behavior - There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and there is irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when a man loses his sanity and laugh out loud at nobody or nothing in particular. Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior - Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition or will such as when we discriminate, decide or choose while involuntary behaviors refers the bodily processes that foes on even when we are awake or asleep like respiration, circulation and digestion. Two Basic Types of Behavior a. Inherited (Inborn) Behavior – It refers to any behavioral reactions or reflexes exhibited by people because of their inherited capabilities or the process of natural selection e.g., the survival of species who are dependent on behaviors like breathing, digesting food, mating and depending oneself. b. Learned (Operant) Behavior – It involves knowing or adaptation that enhances human beings’ ability to cope with changes in the environment in ways which improve the chances of survival. It may be acquired through environment or training e.g., good command of English, logical problem-solving technique, job skills, and other learned expertise that give people more control over their lives. It is this behavior that sets human being apart from other animals. Classifications of Human Behavior Habitual – It refers to motorized behavior usually manifested in language and emotion. Instinctive – It is generally unlearned and simply comes out of man’s instinct which can be seen among instinct survival behaviors. Symbolic – It is a behavior that is usually carried out by means of unsaid words and shown through symbols or body signs. Complex – It is a behavior that combines two or more of the classified ones. Views/Perspective in Human Behavior 1. Neurological View – It deals with human actions in relation to events taking place inside the body such as the brain and the nervous system. 2. Behavioral View – It emphasizes on external functions of the human being that can be observed and measured. 3. Cognitive View – It is concerned with the way the brain processes and transforms information into various ways. 4. Psychoanalytical View – It emphasizes unconscious motives that originate from aggressive impulses in childhood. 5. Humanistic View – It focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom of choice and motivation toward self-actualization. Causes of Human Behavior Sensations – these are feelings or impressions of a stimuli that maybe delivered via the following sources: olfactory – smell cutaneous – touch auditory – hearing gustatory – taste visual - sight Perception – this refers to one’s knowledge of various of stimuli from the environment or external sources. Awareness – this is a psychological activity that occurs in accordance with interpretation and experience of various stimuli. Personality Dimensions that affect Human Behavior (P-E-N Model of Personality by Hans Eysenck) Types Characteristics effects Extraversion Frequently seeks stimulation, Gets people in trouble, has excitement, and thrills the greatest role in crime and delinquency Neuroticism Intensely reacts to stress, Enhances habits and generally moody, touchy, influences the individual to sensitive to slights and behave in ways that are anxious or nervous considered anti-social Psychoticism Cold, cruel, social insensitivity, Impulse aggressive individual disregard for danger, without appreciable troublesome behavior, dislike conscience or sense of of others, attraction towards morals the unusual. DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR The answer to these questions requires the study and understanding of the influences of HEREDITY and ENVIRONMENT. As cited by Tuason: Heredity (Biological Factors) This refers to the genetic influences, those that are explained by heredity, the characteristics of a person acquired from birth transferred from one generation to another. It explains that certain emotional aggression, our intelligence, ability and potentials and our physical appearance are inherited. It is the primary basis of the idea concerning criminal behavior, the concept that “criminals are born”. Environmental Factors (Socio-Cultural Influences) Family Background It is a basic consideration because it is in the family whereby an individual first experiences how to relate and interact with another. The family is said to be the cradle of personality development as a result of either a close or harmonious relationship or a pathogenic family structure: the di stu rb ed fam i l y, b ro ken fam i l y, sep arated o r maladjusted relations. Pathogenic Family Structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such as: THE INADEQUATE FAMILY – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary problems of family living. It lacks the resources, physical of psychological, for meeting the demands of family satisfaction. THE ANTI-SOCIAL FAMILY – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the influence of parents to their children. THE DISCORDANT/DISTURBED FAMILY – characterized by non- satisfaction of one or both parent from the relationship that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value differences as common sources of conflict and dissatisfaction. THE DISRUPTED FAMILY – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce, separation or some other circumstances. Childhood Trauma The experiences, which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing developmental processes. The development processes are being blocked sometimes by parental deprivation as a consequence of parents or lack of adequate maturing at home because of parental rejection, overprotection, restrictiveness, over permissiveness, and faulty discipline. OTHER DETERMINANTS In order to further understand and provide answers on the question that why do some people behave criminally, it is important to study the other determinants of behavior. These are needs, drives and motivation. Needs and Drives Need, according to a drive reduction theory, is a biological requirement for well being of the individual. This need creates drives – a psychological state of arousal that prompts someone to take action (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Drive therefore is an aroused state that results from some biological needs. Motivation Is defined as behavior instigated by needs within the individual and directed towards a goal that can satisfy the needs. Motivation may also be regarded as explanation for action which influences behavior in many ways. All definitions of motivation have certain things in common such as: it comes from within; it is directed towards a goal; and it arouses interest in the activity. Frustration Is a negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented form reaching a goal. Is an unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic activity resulting from a blocked goal. External frustration- is a distress caused by outward perceivable conditions that impedes progress toward a goal. Internal/Personal Frustration- caused by the individual’s inner characteristics that impedes progress toward a goal. Frustration Aggression Theory – this is an example of frustration turning into aggression. Aggression is a maliciously behavior or attitude towards someone or something, usually triggered by frustration. What is the Hypothesis of Catharsis? also known as “purging or cleansing” In psychotherapy, catharsis refers to the process of consciously experiencing deep emotions that have previously been repressed, thus moving them to the surface and allowing them to come out. Frustration Tolerance It is the ability to withstand frustration without developing inadequate modes of response such as being emotionally depressed or irritated, becoming neurotic or becoming aggressive. Broad Reactions to Frustration Fight – It is manifested by fighting the problem in a constructive and direct way by means of breaking down the obstacles preventing the person reaching his goals. Flight – It can be manifested by sulking, retreating, becoming indifferent and giving up Coping Mechanism It is defined as the way people react to frustration. People differ in the way they react to frustration. This could be attributed to individual differences and the way people prepared in the developmental task they faced during the early stages of their life Different Types of Reaction to Frustration Direct approach – It can be seen among people who handle their problems in a very objective way. They identify first the problem, look for the most practical and handy way to solve it and proceed with the constructive manner of utilizing the solution which will produce the best results. Detour - When an individual realizes that in finding for the right solution of the problem, he always end up with a negative outcome or result. Thus, he tries to make a detour or change direction first and find out if the solution or remedy is there. Substitution - Most of time resulted to in handling frustration when an original plan intended to solve the problem did not produce the intended result. Thus, the most practical way to face the problem is to look for most possible or alternative means. Withdrawal or retreat -It is corresponding to running away from the problem or flight which to some is the safest way. Developing feeling of inferiority – It comes when a person is unable to hold on to any solution which gives a positive result. Being discouraged to go on working for a way to handle a frustration could result to diminishing self confidence until the time when inferiority complex sets in. Aggression - It is a negative outcome of a person's inability to handle frustration rightly. Manifestation in physical behavior can be observed in one's negative attitudes towards life both in the personal and professional aspect. Use of Defense Mechanism – It is the most tolerated way of handling frustration. It is a man’s last result when a person attempts to overcome fear from an anticipated situation or event. Defense Mechanism – It is an unconscious psychological process that serves as safety valve that provides relief from emotional conflict and anxiety. Defense Mechanism Displacement – A strong emotion, such as anger is displaced onto another person or object as the recipient of said emotion (anger) rather than being focused on the person or object which originally was the cause of said emotion. Rationalization – It is the defense mechanism that enables individuals to justify their behavior to themselves and others by making excuses or formulating fictitious, socially approved arguments to convince themselves and others that their behavior is logical and acceptable. Compensation – It is the psychological defense mechanism through which people attempt to overcome the anxiety associated with feelings of inferiority and inadequacy in one is of personality or body image by concentrating on another area where they can excel. Projection – It manifests feelings and ideas which are unacceptable to the ego or the superego and are projected onto others so that they seem to have these feelings or ideas which free the individual from the guilt and anxiety associated with them. Reaction formation – It is defined as the development of a trait or traits which are the opposite of tendencies that we do not want to recognize. The person is motivated to act in a certain way but behaves in the opposite way. Consequently, he is able to keep his urges and impulses under control. Denial – When a person uses this, he refuses to recognize and deal with reality because of strong inner needs. is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred. Repression – It is an unconscious process whereby unacceptable urges or painful traumatic experiences are completely prevented from entering consciousness. Suppression – It is sometimes confused with that of repression. It is a conscious activity by which an individual attempts to forget emotionally disturbing thoughts and experiences by pushing them out of his mind. Identification - An individual seeks to overcome his own feelings of inadequacy, loneliness or inferiority by taking on the characteristics of someone who is important to him. An example is a child who identifies with his parents who are seen as models of intelligence, strength and competence. Substitution - Through this defense mechanism, the individual seeks to overcome feelings of frustration and anxiety by achieving alternate goals and gratifications. Fantasy – this is resulted to whenever unfulfilled ambitions and unconscious drives do not materialize. when we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings. Regression – A person reverts to a pattern of feeling, thinking or behavior which was appropriate to an earlier stage of development. Sublimation – It is the process by which instinctual drives which consciously unacceptable are diverted into personally and socially accepted channels. It is a positive and constructive mechanism for defending against own unacceptable impulses and needs. OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISM ACTING OUT – this means literally acting out the desires that are forbidden by the superego and yet desired by the ID. A person who is acting out desires may do it in spite of their conscience or may do it with relatively little thought. AIM INHIBITION – We lower our sights, reducing our goals to something thaw we believe is actually more possible or realistic. Ø A person who sexually desires another person but is unable to fulfill that desire (for example the other person is married) convinces themselves that all they really want is to be friends. Ø A person who wants to be a veterinarian does not get sufficient exam grades, so becomes a vet's assistant instead. ALTRUISM – Avoid your own pains by concentrating on the pain of others. ATTACK – “The best form of defense is attack” is a common saying and is also a common action, and when we feel threatened or attacked, we will attack back. AVOIDANCE – we simply find ways of avoiding having to face uncomfortable situation, thins or activities COMPARTMENTALIZATION – separating thoughts that will conflict with one another. This may happen when there are difference beliefs or even when there are conflicting values. ØA person who is very religious and also a scientist holds the opposing beliefs in different cognitive compartments, such that when they are in church, they can have blind faith, whist when they are in the laboratory, they question everything. ØThere is sometimes honor amongst thieves, where together they act as honest people. Thieves also may be very honest in their family lives. ØMy son is an angel in school and a demon at home. CONVERSION – tensions manifest themselves in physical symptoms. Extreme symptoms may include paralysis, seizure while lesser symptoms includes tiredness, headaches etc. Compensation : making up for a weakness in one area by gain strength in another. ØPeople who feel inferior because they are short may train hard to be very strong. ØPeople who are not intellectually gifted may turn their attention to social skills. DISSOCIATION – separating a set of thoughts or activities from the main area of conscious mind, in order to avoid the conflict that this would cause. EMOTIONALITY – when we become stressed or tension is caused, a number of negative emotions may start to build, including anger, frustration, fear, jealousy and so on. When we display these emotions it can affect others around us, arousing similar or polar feelings. HELP-REJECTING COMPLAINING – when helpful suggestions or other comfort is offered, however, they reject his and return to their complaint. INTELLECTUALIZTION – refers to ‘flight into reason’ where the person avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic. Jargon is often used as a device of intellectualization. By using complex terminology, the focus becomes on the words and finer definitions rather than the human effects. ØA person told they have cancer asks for details on the probability of survival and the success rates of various drugs. The doctor may join in, using 'carcinoma' instead of 'cancer' and 'terminal' instead of 'fatal'. INTROJECTION – occurs when we take on attributes of other people who seem better able to cope with the situation than we do. ØI have to give a presentation but feel scared. I put on the hat of Abraham Lincoln and imagine I am confidently giving an important address to the nation. ØA child is threatened at school. They take on the strong-defender attributes that they perceive in their father and push away the bully. ØA business leader sets high moral standards within the company. Many others follow her lead. PASSIVE AGRESSION – attacking others through passive means PROVOCATION OR FREE-FLOATING – provoke others into some kind of reaction. The attention can then be put on the other person and away from the originator’s stress SELF-HARMING – the person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in some way or otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm SOMATIZATION – psychological problems turns into physical and subconscious mind. Examples are skin rashes, heart problems etc. ØSomatization occurs where a psychological problem turns into physical and subconscious symptoms. This can range from simple twitching to skin rashes, heart problems and worse. ØA policeman, who has to be very restricted in his professional behavior, develops hypertension. TRIVIALIZING – one way of trivialize is to make something a joke, laughing it off. Making small what is really something big. When we are faced with a disappointment over something that is important to us, we are faced with the problem of having our expectations and predictions dashed. ØI lose a lot of money gambling. I tell myself that I didn't need it anyway. ØA girl rejects the advances of a boy. He tells his friends that she isn't that pretty anyway. UNDOING – performance of an act to ‘undo’ a previous unacceptable act or thought. ØA man who has been unkind to his wife buys her flowers (but does not apologize). Idealization: Playing up the good points and ignoring limitations of things desired. Idealization is the over-estimation of the desirable qualities and underestimation of the limitations of a desired thing. We also tend to idealize those things that we have chosen or acquired. ØA teenager in awe of a rock star idealizes their idol, imagining them to have a perfect life, to be kind and thoughtful, and so on. They ignore the star's grosser habits and rough background. ØA person has bought an exotic foreign holiday. They dream about how perfect their vacation will be, not thinking about insects, heat, crime etc. ØI buy a sports car and look admiringly at its sleek lines. I ignore the fact that it drinks fuel and is rather uncomfortable. ØA person in a religious cult idealizes the cult and its leader, assuming they are perfect and that the outside world is very poor in comparison. Projection : The process of shifting the responsibility for an act or thought from oneself to another person. Attributing unwanted impulse and feeling to someone else. ØI do not like another person. But I have a value that says I should like everyone. So I project onto them that they do not like me. This allows me to avoid them and also to handle my own feelings of dislike. ØAn unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity. ØA woman who is attracted to a fellow worker accuses the person of sexual advances. Rationalization: creating logical reasons for bad behavior. ØA person evades paying taxes and then rationalizes it by talking about how the government wastes money (and how it is better for people to keep what they can). ØA person fails to get good enough results to get into a chosen university and then says that they didn't want to go there anyway. ØA parent punishes a child and says that it is for the child's 'own good'. ØI trip and fall over in the street. I tell a passer-by that I have recently been ill. Repression: Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into unconsciousness. Repression is the most direct method of dealing with anxiety; ØA child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships. ØA woman who found childbirth particularly painful continues to have children (and each time the level of pain is surprising). ØA man has a phobia of spiders but cannot remember the first time he was afraid of them. Suppression: Involve the individual’s and conscious attempt to stop anxiety – provoking thoughts by simply not thinking about them. ØAn older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and quickly suppresses the thought. Sublimation: channeling psychic energy into acceptable activities. Sublimation is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. ØA person with strong sexual urges becomes an artist. ØA surgeon turns aggressive energies and deep desires to cut people into life- saving acts. Fantasy: When we cannot achieve or do something that we want, we channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic imaginings. ØA man who is attracted to a beautiful woman but who realizes that she is unattainable fantasizes about seducing her (or being seduced by her). ØA boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of shooting the teacher (remember the movie 'If’). Conflict Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior (Berstein, et al, 1991). APPROACH-AVOIDANCE Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities that cannot be pursued simultaneously. Double Avoidance Conflict – a person faces two undesirable situations in which the avoidance of one is the exposure to the other resulting to an intense emotion. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person faces situation having both a desirable and undesirable feature. It is sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some positive features must be accepted regardless which course of action is chosen. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a situation in which a choice must be made between two or more alternatives each has both positive and negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve because the features of each portion are often difficult to compare. Stress Refers to the consequence of the failure of an organism- human or animal – to respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats, whether actual or imagined. Is a form of the Middle English “Destresse”, derived from vial Old French from the Latin “Stringere”, to draw tight. This term was first employed in a biological context by Hans Selye in 1930’s. Stress can thought of as any event that strains or exceeds an individual’s ability to cope. Stressor Is anything (physical or psychological) that produces stress (negative or positive) 2 Types of Stress Eustress - moderate or normal psychological stress interpreted as being beneficial for the experiencer. Distress - unable to completely adapt to stressors and their resulting stress and shows maladaptive behaviors. Depression Is an illness that causes a person to feel sad and hopeless much of the time. Different forms of Depression Major Depressive Disorder – a combination of symptoms that interfere with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy once pleasurable activities. Disabling and prevents a person from functioning normally. Dysthymic Disorder (Dysthymia) – described as having persistent but less severe depressive symptoms than major depression. Psychotic Depression – occurs when a severe depressive illness is accompanied by some form of psychosis, such as a break with reality, hallucinations and delusions. Postpartum Depression – a major depressive episode that occurs after having a baby. Seasonal Affective Disorder – characterized by the onset of a depressive illness during the winter months, when there is less natural sunlight and generally lifts during spring and summer. Bipolar Disorder – also called manic-depressive illness, is not s common as major depression or dysthymia. It is characterized by cyclical mood changes from extreme highs. Endogenous Depression – endogenous means from within the body. This type of depression is defined as feeling depressed for no apparent reason. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression – develops in response to a specific stressful situation or event. Depression symptoms cause significant distress or impairs usual functioning and do not meet the criteria for major depressive disorder. Agitated depression – characterized by agitation such as physical and emotional restlessness, irritability and insomnia which is the opposite of many depressed individuals. SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER (SUD) Substance use disorder (SUD) is a complex condition in which there is uncontrolled use of a substance despite harmful consequences. People with SUD have an intense focus--sometimes called an addiction--on using a certain substance(s) such as alcohol, tobacco, or other psychoactive substances, to the point where their ability to function in day-to-day life becomes impaired. People keep using the substance even when they know it is causing or will cause problems. 13 principles of effective drug addiction treatment 1. Addiction is a complex, but treatable, disease that affects brain function and behavior. 2. No single treatment is appropriate for everyone. 3. Treatment needs to be readily available. 4. Effective treatment attends to multiple needs of the individual, not just his or her drug abuse. 5. Remaining in treatment for an adequate period of time is critical. 6. Counseling— individual and/or group —and other behavioral therapies are the most commonly used forms of drug abuse treatment. 7. Medications are an important element of treatment for many patients, especially when combined with counseling and other behavioral therapies. 8. An individual’s treatment and services plan must be assessed continually and modified as necessary to ensure it meets his or her changing needs. 9. Many drug-addicted individuals also have other mental disorders. 10. Medically assisted detoxification is only the first stage of addiction treatment and by itself does little to change long-term drug abuse. 11. Treatment does not need to be voluntary to be effective. 12. Drug use during treatment must be monitored continuously, as lapses during treatment do occur. 13. Treatment programs should assess patients for the presence of HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B and C, tuberculosis and other infectious diseases, as well as provide targeted risk-reduction counseling to help patients modify or change behaviors that place them at risk of contracting or spreading infectious diseases. When it comes to managing individuals with substance use disorder, there are several key competencies that professionals should possess. Here are some important areas to focus on: 1. Assessment and Screening: Counselors should be skilled in assessing and screening clients for substance use disorders. This involves understanding the signs and symptoms, conducting thorough assessments, and identifying appropriate treatment needs. 2. Treatment Planning: Developing effective treatment plans is crucial. Counselors should be able to use assessment information to guide the treatment planning process, formulate measurable goals, and reassess the plan as needed 3. Referral and Service Coordination: Professionals need to know when to refer clients to specialized services (e.g., detoxification, residential treatment) and coordinate care across different providers. 4. Counseling Techniques: Proficiency in evidence-based counseling techniques is essential. This includes motivational interviewing, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and relapse prevention strategies 5. Family and Community Education: Educating clients’ families and communities about substance use disorders, treatment options, and recovery support is vital for successful outcomes. 6. Cultural Competency: Understanding cultural differences and tailoring treatment approaches accordingly is crucial for effective care Detoxification (detox) is the process of clearing the body of drugs or alcohol that an individual has consumed. The purpose of detox is to safely manage withdrawal symptoms when someone stops taking drugs or alcohol. Medications used in detox help keep former users comfortable while the drugs leave their body. Mutual Help Group /Mutual Aid Group Mutual help groups are groups of peers who share a common problem, such as addiction, and offer support to one another. Mutual help groups related to substance abuse include groups for the person with the addiction as well as groups designed to aid their family and friends. M u t u a l h e l p g ro u ps fo r a d d i c t i o n m ay s u p p o r t abstinence or harm reduction, and meetings are most commonly held in-person, though many groups also offer online support. The groups are almost always free and moderated by non-professional peers. 1. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) AA, one of the best-known mutual help groups, is open to anyone who wants to stop drinking or maintain their abstinence. AA offers in-person meetings and members are encouraged to work the 12 Steps of AA, often under the tutelage of a sponsor who has themselves experienced all of the 12 Steps, as part of the path to, and maintenance of, their sobriety. 2. Dual Recovery Anonymous (DRA) DRA is an abstinence-based 12-Step mutual help program for people in recovery with a dual diagnosis. DRA helps members to recover from both their chemical dependency and their emotional or psychiatric illness (such as depression, bipolar disorder, OCD, and others). Via peer-led mutual support, DRA members help one another achieve dual recovery, prevent relapse, and carry the message of recovery to others who experience dual disorders. 3. HAMS (Harm Reduction, Abstinence, and Moderation Support) HAMS is a free, peer-led support and information group for people who want to change their drinking habits for the better. Via online forums (chat room, email group, Facebook group), podcasts, and articles, HAMS helps people reach the drinking goal that they set – whether that goal is a reduction in drinking or completely stopping. 4. LifeRing Secular Recovery LifeRing is an abstinence-based program whose guiding principles are: Sobriety, Secularity, Self-Help. LifeRing has no prescribed steps to follow and offers non-spiritual, peer-based support for those in recovery from addiction to alcohol or to other non-medically indicated drugs. 5. Moderation Management (MM) MM is a secular program and national support group network for people who are concerned about, and want to reduce, their drinking. MM believes that alcohol abuse is a learned behavior, not a disease, and promotes early self- recognition of risky drinking behavior in order to manage it. MM members set their own drinking goals and are encouraged to follow particular drinking guidelines, limits, goal setting techniques, and a nine-step cognitive-behavioral change program. 6. Rational Recovery (RR) RR, a direct counterpoint to 12-Step philosophy, is a secular, abstinence- based program that emphasizes self-recovery. RR views problem alcohol use as a voluntary behavior, not a disease. RR’s family-centered approach to recovery utilizes their Addictive Voice Recognition Technique (AVRT) program, which is delivered through an online platform and includes the use of books, videos and lectures. There are associated fees with some materials and subscriptions. The website also offers free materials. RR does not hold any meetings and actively discourages attendance at meetings as they believe recovery should be fully self-directed. 7. Secular Organization for Sobriety (SOS) SOS is a non-profit network of autonomous addiction recovery groups that does not view surrendering to a Higher Power as necessary to achieving and maintaining sobriety. SOS is secular, but welcomes both religious and non- religious people at their meetings. SOS uses mutual support and their Suggested Guidelines for Sobriety to emphasize rational decision-making that leads to sobriety. 8. SMART Recovery (Self-Management and Recovery Training) SMART Recovery is an abstinence-based, secular approach to recovery. The program emphasizes self-empowerment and uses cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and non-confrontational motivation methods to develop skills in four areas: Enhancing Motivation, Coping with Urges, Problem Solving, and Lifestyle Balance. SMART holds in-person and online meetings and also operates a teen and youth program. 9. Women for Sobriety (WFS) The first national self-help recovery program specifically for women, WFS helps women overcome alcohol and other addictions. WSF asserts that negative thinking is at the root of destructive behavior and that it is up to the individual to change her thinking in order to change her behavior. WSF offers a small number of in-person meetings and their “New Life” program for recovery can be found online. 10. Faith Assisted Recovery There are a number of mutual help groups with a religious affiliation. This section provides information on Christian, Buddhist, Jewish, and Muslim recovery groups. 11. Online Forums A list of online communities that offer peer support and can help connect people in recovery to others who share similar experiences. 12. Tech for Recovery This section provides information and links to web programs and smartphone apps that assist with recovery. Self-help groups that include family members 1. Nar-Anon Family Groups: Nar-Anon, officially known as “Nar- Anon Family Groups,” offers support to t h o s e a f f e c t e d b y s o m e o n e e l s e ’s addiction. Meetings are available for family members and friends who have a relative or friend dealing with addiction. The only requirement for m e m be rshi p i s t hat t he re m u st b e a problem of addiction in a relative or friend 2. Al-Anon Family Groups: Al-Anon members are people who are concerned about someone with a drinking problem. These groups provide a safe space for family members to learn from others who have faced similar challenges. Al-Anon meetings may be in-person, hybrid (in-person with electronic access), or virtual POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event, series of events or set of circumstances. An individual may experience this as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening and may affect mental, physical, social, and/or spiritual well-being. Examples include natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat, rape/sexual assault, historical trauma, intimate partner violence and bullying. PTSD has been known by many names in the past, such as “shell shock” during the years of World War I Symptoms of PTSD fall into the following four categories. Specific symptoms can vary in severity. 1. Intrusion: Intrusive thoughts such as repeated, involuntary memories; distressing dreams; or flashbacks of the traumatic event. Flashbacks may be so vivid that people feel they are reliving the traumatic experience or seeing it before their eyes. 2. Avoidance: Avoiding reminders of the traumatic event may include avoiding people, places, activities, objects and situations that may trigger distressing memories. People may try to avoid remembering or thinking about the traumatic event. They may resist talking about what happened or how they feel about it. 3. Alterations in cognition and mood: Inability to remember important aspects of the traumatic event, negative thoughts and feelings leading to ongoing and distorted beliefs about oneself or others (e.g., “I am bad,” “No one can be trusted”); distorted thoughts about the cause or consequences of the event leading to wrongly blaming self or other; ongoing fear, horror, anger, guilt or shame; much less interest in activities previously enjoyed; feeling detached or estranged from others; or being unable to experience positive emotions (a void of happiness or satisfaction). 4. Alterations in arousal and reactivity: Arousal and reactive symptoms may include being irritable and having angry outbursts; behaving recklessly or in a self-destructive way; being overly watchful of one's surroundings in a suspecting way; being easily startled; or having problems concentrating or sleeping. FOUR CONDITIONS RELATED TO PTSD: 1. Acute stress disorder People with acute stress disorder may relive the trauma, have flashbacks or nightmares and may feel numb or detached from themselves. These symptoms cause major distress and problems in their daily lives. 2. Adjustment disorder occurs in response to a stressful life event (or events). The emotional or behavioral symptoms a person experiences in response to the stressor are generally more severe or more intense than what would be reasonably expected for the type of event that occurred. 3. Disinhibited social engagement disorder occurs in children who have experienced severe social neglect or deprivation before the age of two. Similar to reactive attachment disorder, it can occur when children lack the basic emotional needs for comfort, stimulation and affection, or when repeated changes in caregivers (such as frequent foster care changes) prevent them from forming stable attachments. 4. Reactive attachment disorder occurs in children who have experienced severe social neglect or deprivation during their first years of life. It can occur when children lack the basic emotional needs for comfort, stimulation and affection, or when repeated changes in caregivers (such as frequent foster care changes) prevent them from forming stable attachments. Battered Woman Syndrome (BWS) In order to be classified as battered woman, the couple must go through the battering cycle AT LEAST TWICE. THREE PHASES OF BWS: 1. THE TENSION-BUILD UP PHASE 2. ACUTE BATTERING INCIDENT 3. TRANQUIL, LOVING (NON VIOLENT) PHASE Under Republic Act 9262 (Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004), victim-survivors who are found by the Courts to be suffering from Battered Woman Syndrome (BWS) (People vs. Genosa) do not incur any criminal or civil liability despite absence of the necessary elements for the justifying circumstance of self-defense in the RPC. BWS is a scientifically defined pattern of psychological and behavioral symptoms found in women living in battering relationships as a result of cumulative abuse. “Rape Trauma Syndrome” – refers to the adverse psychological impacts rape victims continue to suffer long after the incident. It includes: Sexual anxiety Pervasive fear to the opposite sex Problems in interpersonal relationship General problem of unhappiness Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 1. Cognitive Processing Therapy is an evidence-based, cognitive behavioral therapy designed specifically to treat PTSD and comorbid symptoms. It focuses on changing painful negative emotions (such as shame, guilt, etc.) and beliefs (such as “I have failed;” “the world is dangerous”) due to the trauma. Therapists help the person confront such distressing memories and emotions. 2. Prolonged Exposure Therapy uses repeated, detailed imagining of the trauma or progressive exposures to symptom “triggers” in a safe, controlled way to help a person face and gain control of fear and distress and learn to cope. For example, virtual reality programs have been used to help war veterans with PTSD re- experience the battlefield in a controlled, therapeutic way. 3. Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is an evidence-based treatment model for children and adolescents that incorporates trauma-sensitive interventions with cognitive behavioral, family, and humanistic principles and techniques. 4. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing for PTSD This therapy helps a person to reprocess the memory of the trauma so that it is experienced in a different way. After a thorough history is taken and a treatment plan developed the therapist guides the patient through questions about the traumatic memory. Eye movements similar to those in REM sleep is recreated during a session by having the patient watch the therapist’s fingers go back and forth or by watching a light bar. The eye movements last for a brief time period and then stop. Experiences during a session may include changes in thoughts, images, and feelings. After repeated sessions the memory tends to change and is experienced in a less negative manner.. 5. Group therapy encourages survivors of similar traumatic events to share their experiences and reactions in a comfortable and non-judgmental setting. Group members help one another realize that many people would have responded the same way and felt the same emotions. Family therapy may also help because the behavior and distress of the person with PTSD can affect the entire family. CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR -Refers to anti-social acts that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of the attention of criminal and juvenile justice professionals. It refers to acts that are injurious, acts prohibited under the law and that render the actor subject to intervention by justice professionals. 3 elements of criminal behavior (Goldoozian) legally, the criminal act should be prohibited by law. Materially, the criminal act should be executed or realized. Spiritually, the criminal act should be accompanied by criminal intention or guilt. These three must be present. PATTERNS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR Neurotic Pattern Psychopathic Pattern Psychotic Pattern Addictive Behavioral Pattern Sexual Dysfunctional Pattern Neuroses Or psychoneuroses are behavioral disorders that brought about by emotional tension resulting from conflicts, repression, frustration or insecurity. Neurotic individuals compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments, obsessions, phobias, compulsion, depression or anxiety. Classification of Neuroses According to the Most Striking Symptoms 1.Anxiety Reactions – these are mainly manifested in consciously experienced feelings of anxiety and apprehension, for which there are no bases in actual life. Hysteria – this disorder is a type of anxiety reaction, in which the individual manifests one or more symptoms that are often associated with organic disease. Psychastenia – A psychoneurotic condition that is accompanied by a vast range of mental and emotional symptoms that cannot be controlled. üPhobic Disorders - These refer to the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no actual danger to the person. Examples of Phobia: Acrophobia - fear of high places üObsession – this refers to an idea or series of ideas that recur very frequently that they interfere with the ability of an individual to think and/or function normally üCompulsion - this is an irresistible tendency to perform an act or ritual, which an individual feels to compelled to carry out although it is recognized as irrational; a person must perform an act and give in to the urge in order to reduce the tension. Achluophobia: Fear of darkness Acrophobia: Fear of heights Algophobia: Fear of pain Agoraphobia: Fear of open spaces or crowds Aichmophobia: Fear of needles or pointed objects Arachnophobia: Fear of spiders Arithmophobia: Fear of numbers Astraphobia: Fear of thunder and lightning Astrophobia: Fear of outer space Ataxophobia: Fear of disorder or untidiness Atelophobia: Fear of imperfection Atychiphobia: Fear of failure Autophobia: Fear of being alone Cacophobia: Fear of ugliness Catagelophobia: Fear of being ridiculed Catoptrophobia: Fear of mirrors Chionophobia: Fear of snow Chrometophobia: Fear of spending money Chromophobia: Fear of colors Chronomentrophobia: Fear of clocks Chronophobia: Fear of time Cibophobia: Fear of food Claustrophobia: Fear of confined spaces Climacophobia: Fear of climbing Coulrophobia: Fear of clowns Cyberphobia: Fear of computers Cynophobia: Fear of dogs Daemonophobia: Fear of demons Decidophobia: Fear of making decisions Dendrophobia: Fear of trees Dentophobia: Fear of dentists Domatophobia: Fear of houses Dystychiphobia: Fear of accidents Ecophobia: Fear of the home Elurophobia: Fear of cats Emetophobia: Fear of vomiting Entomophobia: Fear of insects Ephebiphobia: Fear of teenagers Erotophobia: Fear of sex Equinophobia: Fear of horses Gamophobia: Fear of marriage Genuphobia: Fear of knees Glossophobia: Fear of speaking in public Gynophobia: Fear of women Haphephobia: Fear of touch Heliophobia: Fear of the sun Hemophobia: Fear of blood Herpetophobia: Fear of reptiles Hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia: Fear of long words Hydrophobia: Fear of water Hypochondria: Fear of illness Mageirocophobia: Fear of cooking Megalophobia: Fear of large things Melanophobia: Fear of the color black Microphobia: Fear of small things Mysophobia: Fear of dirt and germs Necrophobia: Fear of death or dead things Noctiphobia: Fear of the night Nomophobia: Fear of being without your mobile phone Nosocomephobia: Fear of hospitals Nyctophobia: Fear of the dark Obesophobia: Fear of gaining weight Octophobia: Fear of the figure 8 Ombrophobia: Fear of rain Ophidiophobia: Fear of snakes Ornithophobia: Fear of birds Osmophobia: Fear of smells Ostraconophobia: Fear of shellfish Tachophobia: Fear of speed Technophobia: Fear of technology Thalassophobia: Fear of the ocean Trichophobia: Fear of hair Tonitrophobia: Fear of thunder Trypanophobia: Fear of needles/injections Trypophobia: Fear of holes Venustraphobia: Fear of beautiful women Verminophobia: Fear of germs Wiccaphobia: Fear of witches and witchcraft Xenophobia: Fear of strangers or foreigners Zoophobia: Fear of animals Zuigerphobia: Fear of vacuum cleaners Somatoform Disorders Complaints of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problem but no organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his state of health or diseases. Conversion Disorder (Hysteria) -displays neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, even though no neurological explanation is found and it is determined that the symptoms are due to the patient’s psychological response to stress. Symptoms are group as follows: Sensory symptoms – strong stimulation(hyper anesthesia) and loss of sense of pain (analgesia) Motor symptoms – tremors, tics, and disorganized mobility paralysis Visceral symptoms – trouble swallowing, coughing, vomiting Dissociative Disorders A response to obvious stress characterized by amnesia, multiple personality, and depersonalization. Loss of integration of consciousness, identity and memories of important personal events. 1. Amnesia - The partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences following a traumatic incident. Brain pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be retrieved by simple means. It requires long period of medication. Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still they are beneath the level of consciousness but “forgotten material.” 1.Anterograde – this is the inability to retain information, which has just been seen or read. 2.Retrograde - this refers to the inability to recall any event that took place during a certain period 3.Localized – the inability to recall events and details that are related to a particular situation 2. Multiple Personality - It is also called “dual personalities.” The reason manifests two or more symptoms of personality usually dramatically different. 3. Depersonalization - The loss of sense of self or the so-called out of body experience. There is a feeling of detachment from one’s mental processes or body or being in a dream state. Cases of somnambulism (sleep walking) may fall under this disorder. 4. Psychogenic Fugue - Flight from family, problem, or location. In highly uncommon cases, the person may create an entirely new life Mood Disorders (Affective Disorders) Often referred to as affective disorders however the critical pathology in these disorders is one of mood which is the internal state of a person, and not of affect, the external expression of emotional content (Manual of Mental Disorder). SCHIZOPHRENIA Refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross distortions of realty, withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts and emotion. It also refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia praecox”, or “split mind”. It was formerly called dementia praecox by Emil Kreaplin, a German psychiatrist. The term schizophrenia was given by Eugene Bleuler which literally means “splitting of minds”. The ‘5 As’ of schizophrenia The most common negative symptoms are often summarized as “the five A’s” of schizophrenia, which include: Affective flattening: lack of emotional display or responses Alogia: lack of speech Anhedonia: the inability to feel pleasure Asociality: lack of engagement with others Avolition: lack of motivation Types of Schizophrenia Simple Schizophrenia – It is characterized by a gradual decline of interest and ambition. The person withdraws from social contacts as well as irritable and inattentive. Paranoid Schizophrenia – It is characterized principally by delusions of persecutions and/or grandeur. Hallucinations, usually auditory, are most of the time present. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia – It manifests severe integration of personality and can be observed through inappropriate giggling and smiling without apparent reasons which to an untrained observer may only be childish playfulness. Catatonic Schizophrenia – It manifests extreme violence and shown with excessive motor activity, grimacing, talkativeness and unpredictable emotional outburst. Disorganized schizophrenia - This type is characterized by auditory or visual hallucinations. Although hallucinations can occur in any sensory form, hearing voices is most common. Undifferentiated schizophrenia - Patients experience schizophrenic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. Patients fail to meet criteria for other types of schizophrenia. Residual schizophrenia - Patients are already diagnosed and may not suffer from the characteristic symptoms. They still exhibit eccentric behavior, disorganized speech, lack of emotions and lack of motivation. While there is no cure for schizophrenia, there are ways to manage the symptoms and improve quality of life. Here are some strategies: 1. Medication: Antipsychotic medications can help reduce symptoms like delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. 2. Therapy: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or family therapy can assist in managing symptoms and improving communication with loved ones 3. Self-Care: Prioritize self-care techniques to maintain overall well-being. 4. Social Coping: Develop social skills to engage with others and reduce feelings of isolation. 5. Emotional Coping: Learn strategies to handle difficult emotions associated with schizophrenia3. 6. Daily Living Tips: Focus on daily routines, hygiene, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle PSYCHOPATHIC PATTERNS Group of abnormal behaviors, which typically stemmed from immature and distorted personality development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking. They are generally called “personality or character disorders”. These groups of disorders are composed of the following: Personality Disorders Paranoid Personality Disorder - It is characterized by suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive self-importance, argumentativeness and tendency to blame others of one’s own mistakes. Schizoid Personality Disorder - This is characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack of interest in doing so. The person seem to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They are the so-called “loners”. Schizotypal Personality Disorder - It is characterized by seclusiveness, over sensitivity, avoidance of communication and superstitious thinking is common. Histrionic Personality Disorder - It is characterized by immaturity, excitability, emotional instability and self-dramatization. Narcissistic Personality Disorder - It is characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and pre-occupation with receiving attention. The person usually expects and demands special treatment from others and disregarding the rights and feeling of others. Borderline Personality Disorder - It is characterized by instability reflected in drastic mood shifts and behavior problems. The person usually displays intense anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulsive, unpredictable, and periodically unstable. Avoidant Personality Disorder - It is characterized by hypersensitivity to rejection and apprehensive alertness to any sign of social derogation. Person is reluctant to enter into social interaction. Dependent Personality Disorder - It is characterized by extreme dependence on other people – there is acute discomfort and even panic to be alone. The person lacks confidence and feels helpless. Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder - It is characterized by being hostile expressed in indirect and non-violent ways. They are so called “stubborn”. The individual with this personality disorder is usually found to have overindulged in many things during the early years to the extent that the person comes to anticipate that his needs will always be met and gratified. Compulsive Personality Disorder - It is characterized by excessive concern with rules, order, and efficiency that everyone does things their way and an ability to express warm feeling. The person is over conscientious, serious, and with difficulty in doing things for relaxation. Anti-social Personality Disorder - It is characterized by continuing violation of the rights of others through aggressive, anti-social behavior with out remorse or loyalty to anyone. VICTIMOLOGY Victimology (victima – “fear”) is the study about victims of crime. It is a branch of criminology that deals purely on the underlying factors of victimization and the contributory role of the victims in the commission of crimes. Victimology, being the study of “crime targets”, showed that a person becomes a victim of crime consciously (knowingly) and unconsciously (unknowingly). A person could become a victim due to his own action or fault. He somehow contributes to the commission of crime because of his own making. Criminal victims could be key actors in the criminal justice process, but more often they are kept at the discussion. The victim of crime often becomes the FORGOTTEN PERSON of the criminal justice system while the criminal is the celebrity. Victims are only valued for their capacity to report crimes and to appear in court as witnesses. Victimology versus Criminology Victimology focuses on helping victims heal after crime. Criminology aims to understand the criminals motives and the underlying causes of crime Victimologists are concerned with fostering recovery, while Criminologists seek prevention and understand the social impact of crime. Victimity refers to the state, quality, or fact of being a victim while Victimizer refers to a person who victimizes others. Theories of Victimization First Generation: Early Criminologist – work in victimology proposed victim typologies based on the offender-victim dyad in a criminal act. Common to the ideas of these early victimologists was that each classified victim in regard to the degree to which they had cause their own victimization. Hans Von Hentig - a German criminologist who developed a typology of victims based on the degree to which victims contributed to causing the criminal act. He classified victims into 13 categories depending on their propensity or risk for victimization. His notion that victims contributed to their victimization through their actions and behaviors led to the development of the concept of “Victim Blaming” and is seen by many victim advocates as an attempt to assign equal culpability to the victim. Benjamin Mendelsohn - an attorney, has often been referred to as the “Father of Victimology.” he developed a six categories typology of victims based on legal considerations of the degree of a victim’s culpability. Benjamin E. Wolfgang – the first empirical evidence to support the notion that victims are to some degree responsible for their own victimization was presented by him. He analyzed Philadelphia’s Police homicide records from 1948 through 1952. he identified 3 factors common to victim-precipitated homicide: a)The victim and offender had some prior interpersonal relationship b)There was a series of escalating disagreements between the parties. c)The victim had consumed alcohol Stephen Schafer – classifies victims on the basis of their “functional responsibility” Menachem Amir – undertook one of the first studies of rape. He reported that 19% of all forcible rapes were victim precipitated by such factors as te use of alcohol by both parties; seductive actions by the victims. His work was criticized by the victims movement and the feminist movement as blaming the victim. Second Generation: Theories Of Victimization - Shifted attention from the role of the victim toward an emphasis on a situation approach that focuses on explaining and testing how lifestyles and routine activities of everyday life create opportunities for victimization. 1.Lifestyle Exposure Theory 2.Routine Activities Theory 3.Empirical Support Third Generation: refinement and empirical tests of opportunity theories of victimization Miethe and Meier developed an integrated theory of victimization, called structural-choice theory, which attempts to explain both offender motivation and the opportunities for victimization. This further refinement of opportunity theories of victimization was an important contribution to the victimology literature. Sampson and Wooldredge, who used data from the 1982 British crime survey (BCS. Their findings showed that individual and household characteristics were significant predictors of victimization, as were neighborhood-level characteristics. FOURTH GENERATION: Moving Beyond Opportunity Theories - work by Schreck and his colleagues suggest that antecedents to opportunity such as low self-control, social bonds, and peer influences, have also been found to be important predictors of violent and property victimization. KINDS OF CRIME VICTIM 1. DIRECT OR PRIMARY CRIME VICTIM Directly suffers the harm or injury which is physical, psychological, and economic losses. 2. INDIRECT OR SECONDARY CRIME VICTIM Experience the harm second hand, such as intimate partners or significant others of rape victims or children of a battered woman. 3. TERTIARY CRIME VICTIM Victims who experience the harm vicariously such as through media accounts the scared public or community due to watching news regarding crime incidents. BENJAMIN MENDELSOHN Is generally credited as the initiator of the word VICTIMOLOGY as well as the concept of PENAL COUPLE. PENAL COUPLE – is a term that describes the relationship between the victim and the criminal. He also coined the term VICTIMAL to describe the victim counterpart of criminal and the word VICTIMITY which signified the opposite of criminality. Another class of victim is the LOSER or one who is initially the attacker but later, the situation is reversed. An example could be the case of a bully who ends up injured or a swindler becomes swindled. He created a typology of 6 types of victim. 1. COMPLETELY INNOCENT VICTIM - bears no responsibility at all for victimization (e.g. child) 2. VICTIMS WITH MINOR GUILT - victimized due to ignorance 3. VICTIM AS GUILTY AS OFFENDER/VOLUNTARY VICTIM -bear as much as responsibility as the offender (suicide pact) 4. VICTIM MORE GUILTY THAN OFFENDER -instigates or provokes his/her own victimization 5. MOST GUILTY VICTIM -victimized during perpetration of a crime or as a result of a crime 6. SIMULATING OR IMAGINARY VICTIM – fabricates a victimization effect. VON HENTIG Depressive type A victim who lacks ordinary prudence, and discretion. It is an easy target, careless, and unsuspecting. They are submissive by virtue of emotional condition. Greedy of gain or Acquisitive type A victim who lacks all normal inhibitions and well-founded suspicions. The victim is easily duped because his or her motivation for easy gain lowers his or her natural tendency to be suspicious Wanton or Overly Sensual type A victim where female foibles play a role. The victim is particularly vulnerable to stresses that occur at a given period of time in the life cycle, such as juvenile victims. Further, this victim is rules by passion and thoughtless seeking pleasure. Tormentor type The victim of an attack form the target of his or her abuse, such as with battered women. The most primitive way of solving a personal conflict is to annihilate physically the cause of trouble TAXONOMY OF MURDER VICTIMS (HANS VON HENTIG) Lonesome type - This is the same with the acquisitive type of victim, by virtue of wanting companionship or affection. Heartbroken type - The victim is emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and pain. The Young – weak, by virtue of age and immaturity The Female – physically less powerful and is easily dominated by male The Old – incapable of physical defense and the common object of illegal scheme The Mentally Defective – unable to think clearly The Immigrant – unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding society The Minorities – racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the agency of justice. THE ROLE OF THE VICTIM IN CRIME 1. Victim precipitation is defined as the extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization. In this way, victim precipitation acknowledges that crime victimization involves at least two people-an offender and a victim-and that both parties are acting and often reacting before, during, and after the incident. 2. Victim facilitation occurs when a victim unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to commit a crime. A victim may, in this way, be a catalyst for victimization. Example: A woman who accidentally left her purse in plain view in her office while she went to the restroom and then had it stolen would be a victim who facilitated her own victimization. This woman is not blameworthy-the offender should not steal, regardless of whether the purse is in plain view. But the victim's actions certainly made her a likely target and made it easy for the offender to steal her purse. Unlike precipitation, facilitation helps understand why one person may be victimized over another but does not connote blame and responsibility. 3. Victim Provocation occurs when a person does something that incites another person to commit an illegal act. It suggests that without the victim’s behavior, the crime would not have occurred. Example: if a person attempted to mug a man who was walking home from work and the man, instead of willingly giving the offender his wallet, pulled out a gun and shot the mugger. The offender in this scenario ultimately is a victim, but he would not have been shot if not for attempting to mug the shooter. VICTIM PROFILING Victimology in its most simple form is the study of the victim or victims of a particular offender. It is defined as "the thorough study and analysis of victim characteristics" (Turvey), and may also be called "victim profiling" (Holmes) The victim's background may provide us with important information about past activities or lifestyle, possibly leading directly to the generation of a suspect. The following information should be available for the profilers on the victim before they begin to work the case (Turvey, Holmes): ü Last known activities, üPhysical traits including a timeline of events üMarital status ü Personal diaries (if known and üPersonal lifestyle available) üOccupation ü Map of travel prior to offence üEducation ü Drug and alcohol history üMedical history ü Friends and enemies üCriminal justice system history ü Family background ü Employment history Cybercrime victimization Refers to the experience of being targeted or harmed by cybercriminals through computer technology or online networks. It encompasses various forms of online victimization, including: 1. Unauthorized Access: When someone gains access to your computer or online accounts without permission. 2. Data Manipulation: Altering or deleting information on your computer without your knowledge. 3. Malware Infections: Loss of data due to malicious software (malware) infections. 4. Credit Card Fraud: Illegally obtaining credit card information online. 5. Online Harassment: Repeated, unwanted online communication causi

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