Human Anatomy and Physiology With Pathophysiology - Module 6 - PDF

Human Anatomy and Physiology With Pathophysiology MODULE 6: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1CMT-4 | FRIDAY (7AM-10AM) MANGASEP, KURT LIAM ✓ MASANGYA, CYRU ✓ GARCIA, GABRIEL ✓ CATALAN, KRISTINE ANGEL ✓ PICHAY, SOPHIA BIANCA ✓ Lesson 2: Blood Vessels and Blood Components Type of Blood Vessels Structure Function Capillary Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest blood vessels in They facilitate efficient the circulatory system. They diffusion of oxygen and consist of a single layer of nutrients, while allowing for endothelial cells, forming a the movement of carbon microscopic tube. dioxide and waste products. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Reference by: LibGuides: BIO 140 - Human Biology I - Textbook: Chapter 30 - Gas Exchange. (n.d.). https://my.clevelandclinic.or g/health/body/21988-capillari es Arteries Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood Arteries transport away from the heart to oxygen-rich blood from the various parts of the body.. heart to various tissues and organs. They play a crucial Contributed by: Catalan, role in systemic circulation, Kristine Angel S. supporting tissues' functions by delivering oxygen and Reference by: nutrients. Structure and Function of Blood Vessels | Anatomy and Contributed by: Catalan, Physiology II. (n.d.). Kristine Angel S. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/struct Reference by: ure-and-function-of-blood-ve Structure and Function of ssels/ Blood Vessels | Anatomy and Physiology II. (n.d.). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/struct ure-and-function-of-blood-ve ssels/ Types of Arteries Aorta The aorta, the largest human The aorta is the main conduit artery, originates from the for systemic circulation, left ventricle and has three distributing oxygenated blood layers: intima, media, and from the heart to the body adventitia, similar to other through smaller arteries. arteries. Contributed by: Catalan, Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Kristine Angel S. Reference by: Reference by: What is the Aorta? (n.d.). What is the Aorta? (n.d.). Mount Sinai Health System. Mount Sinai Health System. https://www.mountsinai.org/ https://www.mountsinai.org/ care/heart/services/aortic/wh care/heart/services/aortic/wh at-is at-is Arterioles Arterioles are small blood The main function of vessels that branch out from arterioles is to control blood arteries. They have a similar flow and distribute blood to three-layered structure as different parts of the body. arteries but are significantly They act as intermediaries smaller in diameter. between arteries and capillaries. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Reference by: Structure and Function of Blood Reference by: Vessels | Anatomy and Structure and Function of Blood Physiology II. (n.d.). Vessels | Anatomy and https://courses.lumenlearning.co Physiology II. (n.d.). m/suny-ap2/chapter/structure-an https://courses.lumenlearning.co d-function-of-blood-vessels/ m/suny-ap2/chapter/structure-an d-function-of-blood-vessels/ Coronary arteries Coronary arteries form the Coronary arteries supply coronary circulation, oxygenated blood to the heart supplying oxygen and muscle, consisting of two main nutrients to the heart muscle. arteries: the right coronary artery (RCA) and the left Contributed by: Catalan, coronary artery (LCA), with a Kristine Angel S. similar three-layered structure. Reference by: Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). Coronary Arteries. Cleveland Reference by: Clinic. Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he Coronary Arteries. Cleveland alth/body/22973-coronary-arteri Clinic. es https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he alth/body/22973-coronary-arteri es Common carotid artery Contained in a sheath known Sends oxygen-rich blood to as the carotid sheath organs and tissues in your head and neck, including Contributed by: Catalan, your brain. Kristine Angel S. Contributed by: Catalan, Reference by: Kristine Angel S. Garner, D. H. (2023, March 11). Anatomy, Head and Neck: Reference by: Carotid Sheath. StatPearls - Garner, D. H. (2023, March 11). NCBI Bookshelf. Anatomy, Head and Neck: Carotid Sheath. StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo NCBI Bookshelf. ok https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo ok Common iliac artery The common iliac arteries They supply blood to various are major blood vessels in structures, including the the pelvis that arise from the pelvic organs, muscles, and abdominal aorta. skin of the lower abdomen, as well as the lower limbs. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Reference by: Common iliac artery. (2021, Reference by: December 12). Wikipedia. Common iliac artery. (2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co December 12). Wikipedia. mmon_iliac_artery. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co mmon_iliac_artery. Elastic artery Elastic arteries, including Elastic arteries, composed of aorta and pulmonary arteries, abundant elastic fibers, have high proportions of transport blood from the elastic fibers in their walls, heart to various body parts, consisting of intima, media, maintaining continuous blood and adventitia layers. flow, smoothing heart pressure, and ensuring Contributed by: Catalan, constant arterial pressure. Kristine Angel S. Contributed by: Catalan, Reference by: Kristine Angel S. Anatomy, Blood Vessels. (2023, January 1). PubMed. Reference by: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Anatomy, Blood Vessels. (2023, /29262226/#:~:text=Elastic%20a January 1). PubMed. rteries%20are%20those%20near https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov est,Arterioles /29262226/#:~:text=Elastic%20a rteries%20are%20those%20near est,Arterioles Muscular artery Contains more smooth Distributes blood to various muscle cells in the tunica parts of organs and living media layer than the elastic tissues. arteries. Contributed by: Catalan, Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Kristine Angel S. Reference by: Reference by: Tucker, W. D. (2023, Tucker, W. D. (2023, August 8). Anatomy, Blood August 8). Anatomy, Blood Vessels. StatPearls - NCBI Vessels. StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go v/books/NBK470401/#:~:te v/books/NBK470401/#:~:te xt=Muscular%20arteries%2 xt=Muscular%20arteries%2 0include%20the%20anatomic 0include%20the%20anatomic ally,layer%20than%20the%2 ally,layer%20than%20the%2 0elastic%20arteries. 0elastic%20arteries. Popliteal artery The popliteal artery is a Provides numerous branches major blood vessel located of blood supply to the behind the knee joint. It is a structures of the knee and the continuation of the femoral lower extremity. artery, which extends down the thigh. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Reference by: Bowers, Z. (2023, July 24). Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Reference by: Lower Limb: Popliteal Artery. Bowers, Z. (2023, July 24). StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Popliteal Artery. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. oks/NBK537125/#:~:text=The% https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo 20popliteal%20artery%20is%20 oks/NBK537125/#:~:text=The% a,the%20common%20trunk%20 20popliteal%20artery%20is%20 of%20the a,the%20common%20trunk%20 of%20the Pulmonary arteries The pulmonary artery is big, Carry blood from your heart relatively short, and wide. to your lungs. They're the The left and right pulmonary only arteries in your body arteries are each shaped like that carry oxygen-poor tubes with an opening called (deoxygenated) blood. a lumen that blood can flow through. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. Reference by: Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). Reference by: Pulmonary Arteries. Cleveland Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). Clinic. Pulmonary Arteries. Cleveland https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he Clinic. alth/body/21486-pulmonary-arte ries https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he alth/body/21486-pulmonary-arte ries Renal arteries The right renal artery It supplies the kidney originates from the parenchyma with oxygenated anterolateral aspect of the blood, and simultaneously aorta and runs in an inferior delivers the blood to be course behind the inferior filtered by eliminating vena cava to reach the right metabolic wastes and excess kidney, while the left renal water and reabsorbing artery originates slightly minerals and nutrients. higher and from a more lateral aspect of the aorta, Contributed by: Catalan, and runs almost horizontally Kristine Angel S. to the left kidney. Reference by: Renal Blood Vessels. (n.d.). Whitman Contributed by: Catalan, College. Kristine Angel S. https://www.whitman.edu/acade mics/majors-and-minors/biology Reference by: /virtual-pig/excretory-system/ren al-blood-vessels Renal Blood Vessels. (n.d.). Whitman College. https://www.whitman.edu/acade mics/majors-and-minors/biology /virtual-pig/excretory-system/ren al-blood-vessels Each vein is made of three Veins layers of tissues and fibers: Collects oxygen-poor blood The tunica adventitia (outer and return it to your heart. layer) gives structure and Contributed by: Catalan, shape to your vein. The Kristine Angel S. tunica media (middle layer) contains smooth muscle cells. Reference by: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo oks/NBK459158/#:~:text=The% Contributed by: Catalan, 20renal%20arteries%20are%20t Kristine Angel S. he,of%20the%20superior%20m esenteric%20artery. Reference by: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo oks/NBK459158/#:~:text=The% 20renal%20arteries%20are%20t he,of%20the%20superior%20m esenteric%20artery. Types of Veins Pulmonary veins Pulmonary veins, consisting Pulmonary veins transport of four vessels, transport oxygenated blood from the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, collecting lungs to the heart's left it and returning it to the left atrium, emerging from atrium, then pumping it into pulmonary capillaries. the left ventricle. Contributed by: Masangya, Contributed by: Masangya, Cyru Cyru Reference by: Reference by: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he alth/body/23242-pulmonary-vei alth/body/23242-pulmonary-vei ns ns Systemic veins Systemic veins transport Systemic veins facilitate a deoxygenated blood to the continuous circulatory loop, heart, forming a network of directing blood from the veins leading to the superior right atrium to the right and inferior vena cava. ventricle and lungs for oxygenation through the Contributed by: Masangya, pulmonary arteries. Cyru Contributed by: Masangya, Reference by: Cyru https://training.seer.cancer.gov/a natomy/cardiovascular/blood/cla Reference by: ssification.html#:~:text=Systemi https://training.seer.cancer.gov/a c%20veins%20transport%20blo natomy/cardiovascular/blood/cla od%20from,three%20layers%20 ssification.html#:~:text=Systemi as%20the%20arteries. c%20veins%20transport%20blo od%20from,three%20layers%20 as%20the%20arteries. Superficial veins Superficial veins are blood Blood vessels transport vessels near the body's blood from the surface to surface, visible through the deeper veins and the heart, skin, forming a network of contributing to venous return interconnected veins not and temperature regulation. deeply embedded in muscles. Contributed by: Masangya, Contributed by: Masangya, Cyru Cyru Reference by: Reference by: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su perficial_vein perficial_vein Deep veins Deep veins are deep blood Deep veins transport vessels, often surrounded by oxygen-poor blood from muscle tissue, with a lower extremities to the three-layered structure heart, pushing it towards the consisting of intima, media, heart, with one-way valves and adventitia. preventing backward flow. Contributed by: Masangya, Contributed by: Garcia, Cyru Gabriel Reference by: Reference by: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he alth/body/23360-veins alth/body/23360-veins \ Component of Blood Structure Function Red blood cells The mature human red to carry oxygen from the blood cell is small, round, lungs to all the body tissues and biconcave; it appears and to carry carbon dioxide, dumbbell-shaped in profile. a waste product of The cell is flexible and metabolism, to the lungs, assumes a bell shape as it where it is excreted. passes through extremely small blood vessels. Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Contributed by: Garcia, Reference by: Gabriel https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he alth/body/21691-function-of-red -blood-cells Reference by: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/h ealth/body/21691-function-of-r ed-blood-cells White blood cells Granulocytes have a They are primarily involved multilobed nucleus and in the immune response to specific granules in their identify and target pathogens, cytoplasm. The structure of such as invading bacteria, white blood cells varies viruses, and other foreign depending on the type of organisms. cell. Contributed by: Garcia, Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Gabriel Reference by: https://www.britannica.com/scie Reference by: nce/white-blood-cell https://www.britannica.com/sci ence/white-blood-cell neutrophils Neutrophils, for example, Their primary function is to have a neutral staining prevent infections by affinity to the stains in the attacking and killing blood film and are bilobed disease-causing microbes via while older cells may show phagocytosis. up to 5 nuclear lobes Contributed by: Garcia, Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Gabriel Reference by: Reference by: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he https://my.clevelandclinic.org/h alth/body/22313-neutrophils ealth/body/22313-neutrophils lymphocytes Lymphocytes are smaller T and B cells are two main than monocytes and have a types of lymphocytes, round nucleus. responsible for cell-mediated immunity and humoral Contributed by: Garcia, immunity, respectively, Gabriel which involves the Reference by: production of antibodies to https://www.genome.gov/genet neutralize pathogens. ics-glossary/Lymphocyte#:~:te xt=A%20lymphocyte%20is%2 Contributed by: Garcia, 0a%20type,bacteria%2C%20vi Gabriel ruses%2C%20and%20toxins. Reference by: https://www.genome.gov/genetic s-glossary/Lymphocyte#:~:text= A%20lymphocyte%20is%20a% 20type,bacteria%2C%20viruses %2C%20and%20toxins. monocytes Monocytes are the largest of Monocytes function as the white blood cells and phagocytic cells and have a kidney-shaped antigen-presenting cells in the nucleus. peripheral blood to remove microorganisms, antigens, Contributed by: Garcia, and dead or damaged cells. Gabriel Contributed by: Garcia, Reference by: Gabriel https://my.clevelandclinic.org/h ealth/body/22110-monocytes Reference by: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he alth/body/22110-monocytes eosinophils Eosinophils have large, Eosinophils collaborate with uniform-sized granules that white blood cells and immune stain red with eosin, while proteins to eliminate basophils have large, infectious material from the variable-sized granules that body through signaling, stain blue with basic dyes direct infection fighting, and the release of toxic proteins. Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Reference by: https://www.cincinnatichildren s.org/service/c/eosinophilic-dis Reference orders/conditions/eosinophil#: by:https://www.cincinnatichil ~:text=Eosinophilic%20functio ns%20include%3A%20movem drens.org/service/c/eosinophi ent%20to,reactions%2C%20an lic-disorders/conditions/eosin d%20modulating%20inflamma ophil#:~:text=Eosinophilic tory%20responses. %20functions%20include%3 A%20movement%20to,reacti ons%2C%20and%20modulat ing%20inflammatory%20res ponses. Basophils Basophils have a diameter Basophils play an important of about 10-14 µm and a role in the immune response polylobed nucleus that is against parasites and often obscured by the allergens. They can increase cytoplasmic granules. The the blood vessel granules are large, coarse, permeability, recruit other and brightly stained with immune cells, and modulate basic dyes, giving them a the inflammatory reaction. purple or blue color. Contributed by: Garcia, Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Gabriel Reference by: Reference by: https://imagebank.hematology.or https://imagebank.hematology. g/image/60504/basophil?type=u org/image/60504/basophil?type pload =upload Platelets Platelets have anucleate Platelets function in blood structure, with an open clotting, forming a crucial canalicular system component of hemostasis by extending from inside to adhering to damaged blood outside, facilitating rapid vessels, releasing clotting release of platelet granule factors, and aggregating to constituents. seal wounds and prevent excessive bleeding. Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Contributed by: Garcia, Gabriel Reference by: https://www.redcrossblood.org/ Reference by: donate-blood/dlp/platelet-infor https://www.redcrossblood.org/d mation.html#:~:text=Platelets onate-blood/dlp/platelet-informa %2C%20or%20thrombocytes tion.html#:~:text=Platelets%2C %2C%20are%20small,like%20 %20or%20thrombocytes%2C%2 tissue%20inside%20our%20bo 0are%20small,like%20tissue%2 nes. 0inside%20our%20bones. Plasma Plasma is the aqueous part Plasma, the liquid component of blood containing proteins of blood, serves as a and salt in which red and transport medium for white blood cells and nutrients, hormones, and platelets are suspended. waste products, while also playing a key role in Contributed by: Catalan, maintaining osmotic balance Kristine Angel and contributing to the Reference by: clotting mechanism. https://www.urmc.rochester.ed u/encyclopedia/content.aspx?C Contributed by: Garcia, ontentTypeID=160&ContentID Gabriel =37#:~:text=When%20separat ed%20from%20the%20rest,wa Reference by: ste%20products%20into%20th https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/ e%20plasma. encyclopedia/content.aspx?Cont entTypeID=160&ContentID=37 #:~:text=When%20separated%2 0from%20the%20rest,waste%20 products%20into%20the%20pla sma. Lesson 4: Cardiovascular Diseases Cardiovascular Diseases Cause Effect Hypertension Various factors, including Increased pressure on arterial genetics, obesity, lack of walls, potentially leading to physical activity, and excessive damage and increasing the risk salt intake. of heart disease, stroke, and other complications. Contributed by: Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Contributed by: Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: https://www.who.int/news-roo Reference by: m/fact-sheets/detail/hypertensio https://www.who.int/news-room n#:~:text=Hypertension%20( /fact-sheets/detail/hypertension# high%20blood%20pressure)%2 :~:text=Hypertension%20(hig 0is,get%20your%20blood%20p h%20blood%20pressure)%20is, ressure%20checked. get%20your%20blood%20press ure%20checked. Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is triggered by It results in the accumulation of factors like high blood plaque—made of cholesterol and pressure, smoking, elevated other substances—on artery cholesterol, diabetes, and walls, narrowing them, reducing inflammation, leading to blood flow, causing blood clots, damage in the arterial walls. ischemia, potential organ damage, and increasing the risk Contributed by: Pichay, of serious conditions like heart Sophia Bianca N. attacks and strokes. Reference by: Contributed by: Pichay, Sophia https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/heal Bianca N. th/atherosclerosis#:~:text=At herosclerosis%20develops%20s Reference by: lowly%20as%20cholesterol,an https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/healt %20artery%20with%20plaque h/atherosclerosis#:~:text=Athe %20buildup. rosclerosis%20develops%20slo wly%20as%20cholesterol,an%2 0artery%20with%20plaque%20 buildup. Stroke Interruption of blood supply to Neurological deficits, ranging the brain, either due to a clot from mild to severe, depending (ischemic stroke) or a burst on the area of the brain affected. blood vessel (hemorrhagic stroke). Contributed by: Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Contributed by: Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: https://www.aans.org/en/Patient Reference by: s/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and- https://www.aans.org/en/Patien Treatments/Cerebrovascular-Dis ts/Neurosurgical-Conditions-an ease#:~:text=blockage%20and d-Treatments/Cerebrovascular- %20aneurysms.-,Stroke,the%20 Disease#:~:text=blockage%2 more%20deadly%20hemorrhagi 0and%20aneurysms.-,Stroke,th c%20stroke. e%20more%20deadly%20hemo rrhagic%20stroke. Heart Attack A heart attack, or myocardial The blockage deprives the heart infarction, occurs when a muscle of oxygen and nutrients, coronary artery is blocked, leading to damage or death of usually by a blood clot formed the heart tissue, and can result on a ruptured plaque in the in chest pain, shortness of artery. breath, and potentially life-threatening consequences if Contributed by: Pichay, not promptly treated. Sophia Bianca N. Contributed by: Pichay, Sophia Reference by: Bianca N. https://www.mayoclinic.org/dis eases-conditions/heart-attack/sy Reference by: mptoms-causes/syc-20373106#: https://www.mayoclinic.org/dis ~:text=A%20heart%20attack eases-conditions/heart-attack/sy %20occurs%20when%20an%2 mptoms-causes/syc-20373106#: 0artery%20that%20sends%20bl ~:text=A%20heart%20attack ood,arteries%2C%20causing% %20occurs%20when%20an%20 20a%20heart%20attack. artery%20that%20sends%20blo od,arteries%2C%20causing%20 a%20heart%20attack. Arrhythmias Irregular electrical impulses in Abnormal heart rhythms, which the heart, often due to aging, can lead to symptoms like heart attacks, or other heart palpitations, dizziness, or conditions. fainting. Contributed by: Catalan, Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: Reference by: https://www.mayoclinic.org/dis https://www.mayoclinic.org/dis eases-conditions/heart-arrhythm eases-conditions/heart-arrhythmi ia/symptoms-causes/syc-203506 a/symptoms-causes/syc-2035066 68#:~:text=A%20heart%20ar 8#:~:text=A%20heart%20arrh rhythmia%20(uh%2DRITH,the ythmia%20(uh%2DRITH,the% %20heartbeat%20may%20be% 20heartbeat%20may%20be%20i 20inconsistent. nconsistent. Cardiomyopathy Various factors, including Impaired heart function, genetics, infections, and certain potentially resulting in heart drugs, leading to the weakening failure. or thickening of the heart muscle. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Contributed by: Catalan, Sophia Bianca N. Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/h Reference by: ealth/diseases/16841-cardiomyo https://my.clevelandclinic.org/h pathy ealth/diseases/16841-cardiomyo pathy Congenital Heart Defects Structural abnormalities present Altered blood flow through the at birth, often due to genetic heart, leading to a range of factors or maternal exposure to symptoms depending on the certain substances during specific defect. pregnancy. Contributed by: Catalan, Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: Reference by: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/h https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/he eartdefects/facts.html artdefects/facts.html Coronary Artery Disease Buildup of plaque Angina (chest pain) or heart (CAD) (atherosclerosis) in the attack due to inadequate oxygen coronary arteries, leading to supply to the heart. reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Contributed by: Catalan, Sophia Bianca N. Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ Reference by: coronary-heart-disease/#:~:text https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ =Coronary%20heart%20diseas coronary-heart-disease/#:~:tex e%20is%20the,furred%20up%2 t=Coronary%20heart%20disea 0with%20fatty%20deposits. se%20is%20the,furred%20up% 20with%20fatty%20deposits. Peripheral Artery Disease Atherosclerosis in arteries Reduced blood flow to the (PAD): outside the heart, typically extremities, causing pain, affecting the legs. numbness, and potentially leading to tissue damage or Contributed by: Catalan, infections. Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: Contributed by: Catalan, https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisea Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, se/PAD.htm#:~:text=Peripher Sophia Bianca N. al%20arterial%20disease%20(P AD)%20in,arteries%2C%20wh Reference by: ich%20is%20called%20atheros https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisea clerosis. se/PAD.htm#:~:text=Peripher al%20arterial%20disease%20(P AD)%20in,arteries%2C%20whi ch%20is%20called%20atheroscl erosis. Valvular Heart Diseases: Conditions like rheumatic Impaired blood flow through the fever, congenital abnormalities, heart, causing symptoms like or aging, leading to valve fatigue, shortness of breath, or stenosis or regurgitation. chest discomfort. Contributed by: Catalan, Contributed by: Catalan, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Kristine Angel S. & Pichay, Sophia Bianca N. Sophia Bianca N. Reference by: Reference by: https://www.heartandstroke.ca/ https://www.heartandstroke.ca/ heart-disease/conditions/valvula heart-disease/conditions/valvular r-heart-disease#:~:text=Heart -heart-disease#:~:text=Heart% %20valve%20disease%20occur 20valve%20disease%20occurs% s%20when,narrow%20and%20 20when,narrow%20and%20rest restricts%20blood%20flow. ricts%20blood%20flow. __________________________________________________________________________________ Lesson 1: Endocrine Glands of the Human Body Endocrine Glands Structure Function Pituitary Glands: a. Posterior pituitary a. Posterior pituitary a. Posterior pituitary - consists largely of extensions - The antidiuretic hormone b. Anterior pituitary of processes (axons) from (ADH, also known as two pairs of large clusters of vasopressin) and nerve cells. This includes the oxytocin are the two release of hormones such as primary hormones that oxytocin and vasopressin. the posterior pituitary b. Anterior pituitary stores and releases. - This part of the pituitary b. Anterior pituitary gland is also referred to as - Produces and secretes the adenohypophysis. It is more than six distinct oval-shaped, weighs about hormones that control a 500 mg, and has dimensions number of cellular of about 12mm. It is situated functions, such as at the base of the brain. growth. The process by which your body uses and stores energy from food is called metabolism. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Wikipedia contributors. (2023, Clinic, C. (2021). Anterior October 31). Anterior pituitary. In Pituitary: What It Is & Function. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 16:47, November 9, 2023, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/hea from lth/body/22214-anterior-pituitary https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Anterior_pituitary&oldid=1182 Sadia Ilahi, & Ilahi, T. B. (2022, 858781 October 3). Anatomy, Adenohypophysis (Pars Anterior, Posterior pituitary lobe | anatomy | Anterior Pituitary). Nih.gov; Britannica. (2023). In Encyclopædia StatPearls Publishing. Britannica. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo https://www.britannica.com/science/p oks/NBK519039/ osterior-pituitary-lobe Clinic, C. (2022). Posterior Pituitary: What It Is & Function. ‌ Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/hea lth/body/23150-posterior-pituitar y Adrenal Glands: a. Adrenal cortex a. Adrenal cortex a. Adrenal cortex - The zona glomerulosa, zona, - Different kinds of steroid b. Adrenal medulla fasciculata, and zona hormones, including reticularis are the three glucocorticoids, sex layers that make up the steroids, and adrenal cortex, which is the mineralocorticoids, are outer layer of the adrenal produced by each layer. gland Because of this structure, b. Adrenal medulla the adrenal cortex is able - is made up of cells with to regulate a number of erratic shapes arranged in bodily physiological groups around blood veins. functions. These cells have close ties to b. Adrenal medulla the autonomic nervous - regulates the hormones system's (ANS) sympathetic that start the division. fight-or-flight reaction. The primary hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla are norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, and epinephrine, often known as adrenaline. These two hormones operate similarly. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Clinic, C. (2022). Adrenal Cortex: What It Is & Function. Cleveland Adrenal Glands. (2021, August Clinic. 8). Hopkinsmedicine.org. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/ https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org body/22983-adrenal-cortex /health/conditions-and-diseases/a drenal-glands#:~:text Wikipedia contributors. (2023, October 4). Adrenal medulla. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. ‌ Retrieved 17:15, November 9, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Adrenal_medulla&oldid=11785 14215 Gonads: a. Testes a. Testes a. Testes - an oval formation with a - is responsible for b. Ovaries diameter of 3 cm and a making sperm and are length of 5 cm. Each testis is also involved in covered in a hard, white, producing a hormone fibrous connective tissue called testosterone. capsule called the tunica b. Ovaries albuginea, which extends - They create progesterone inward to form septa that and estrogen as well as divide the organ into the eggs needed for lobules. Each testis has fertilization. roughly 250 lobules. b. Ovaries - a solid, almond-shaped construction that measured roughly 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm in width, and 1 cm in thickness. The ovaries are situated in the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity in shallow depressions known as ovarian fossae, one on each side of the uterus. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Overview of the Male Anatomy. Testes | SEER Training. (2023). (2019, November 19). Cancer.gov. Hopkinsmedicine.org. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/an https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/hea atomy/reproductive/male/testes.ht lth/wellness-and-prevention/overview ml#:~:text -of-the-male-anatomy#:~:text ‌ Hypothalamus is a tiny yet crucial area of the brain Performs a critical role in the that is situated close to the pituitary regulation of hormones and gland. It is home to specialized cells physiological processes, acting that control a number of vital bodily as a control center for numerous processes. autonomic nervous system functions. It regulates several bodily functions, including temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep patterns, and emotional states. Contributed by: Mangasep, Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Kurt Liam C, Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Admin. (2019, February 11). Hypothalamus | Definition, Anatomy, Hypothalamus- Structure, Functions, Hormones, and its & Function | Britannica. (2023). In Disorders. BYJUS; BYJU’S. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://byjus.com/biology/hypoth https://www.britannica.com/science/h alamus/ ypothalamus ‌ ‌ Thyroid is a tiny, underskin gland that regulates a number of vital resembles a butterfly that is situated bodily processes through the at the front of your neck. It belongs production and release to your endocrine system. (secretion) of certain hormones. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Clinic, C. (2022). Thyroid: What It Clinic, C. (2022). Thyroid: What Is, Function & Problems. Cleveland It Is, Function & Problems. Clinic. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health https://my.clevelandclinic.org/he /body/23188-thyroid alth/body/23188-thyroid ‌ Pineal Gland The pineal gland gets its name from help regulate the circadian its form, which resembles a tiny rhythm of waking and sleeping pinecone ("pine"-al gland). It is by releasing melatonin. pronounced "pin-ee-uhl," though. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Clinic, C. (2022). Pineal Gland: Clinic, C. (2022). Pineal Gland: What It Is, Function & Disorders. What It Is, Function & Disorders. Cleveland Clinic. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/ https://my.clevelandclinic.org/hea body/23334-pineal-gland lth/body/23334-pineal-gland ‌ Parathyroids The pineal gland gets its name from When serum calcium levels are its form, which resembles a tiny low, these glands release pinecone ("pine"-al gland). It is parathyroid hormone (PTH). pronounced "pin-ee-uhl," though. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Brown, M. B., & Faten Limaiem. Brown, M. B., & Faten (2023, May). Histology, Parathyroid Limaiem. (2023, May). Gland. Nih.gov; StatPearls Histology, Parathyroid Gland. Publishing. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/b /NBK546596/#:~:text=. ooks/NBK546596/#:~:text= ‌ Thymus The lobules have a flat, is the organ principally in charge asymmetrical shape, consisting of of immune cell maturation and follicles with medullary and cortical production, including the components, primarily composed of development of tiny lymphocytes lymphocytes and supportive that shield the body from epithelial reticular cells. external antigens. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: The Thymus Gland - Structure - Remien, K., & Jan, A. (2023, Vasculature - TeachMeAnatomy. July 24). Anatomy, Head and (2015). Teachmeanatomy.info. Neck, Thymus. Nih.gov; https://teachmeanatomy.info/thorax/o StatPearls Publishing. rgans/thymus/#:~:text=The% https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bo oks/NBK539748/#:~:text=% ‌ ‌ Pancreas lays between the spleen on the left It is responsible in the process of and the duodenum on the right turning the food we ingest into transversely in the upper belly. It is energy for our cells. The separated into the body, tail, neck, exocrine function of the pancreas and head. aids in digestion, whereas the endocrine function controls blood sugar levels. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Contributed by: Mangasep, Liam C, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Reference by: Talathi, S. S., Zimmerman, R., & Pancreas Functions, Location & Young, M. (2023, April 5). Anatomy, Disease | Columbia Surgery. Abdomen and Pelvis, Pancreas. (2022). Columbiasurgery.org. Nih.gov; StatPearls Publishing. https://columbiasurgery.org/pancr https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/ eas/pancreas-and-its-functions#:~ NBK532912/ :text= ‌ ‌ Lesson 2: Nature and Actions of Hormones Nature of Hormones Chemically, hormones belong in the same category as steroids or proteins. Hormones are essential for many physiological functions and function as messengers between individual cells or groups of cells. These peptides, which are tiny molecules, help the body communicate with one another, influencing growth, development, metabolism, and other processes. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Characteristics of Hormones | SEER Training. (2023). Cancer.gov. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/endocrine /hormones.html Actions of Hormones Hormones work by binding to receptor proteins in target organs, tissues, or cells, triggering signaling events within the cell. This process regulates metabolic processes, maintaining homeostasis and regulating physiological processes. Some hormones interact with cell surface receptors, while others diffuse through plasma membranes. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Admin. (2017, November 16). Hormone Action - Mechanism of Hormone Action. BYJUS; BYJU’S. https://byjus.com/biology/mechanism-of-hormone -action/ ‌ Peptide Hormones In contrast to protein hormones, peptide hormones have molecules made of shorter chains of amino acids. They are involved in controlling a number of physiological processes in living things. Peptide hormones can occasionally be heterodimers, which means that each of its constituent subunits is a product of two different genes. In addition, peptide hormones, together with other signaling molecules like salicylic acid and jasmonic acid, control plant development and aid in disease defense. They are therefore crucial to the biology of both plants and animals. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Peptide hormone. (2023, October 27). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_hormone Steroid Hormones Peptide hormones, composed of short amino acid chains, are crucial in the endocrine system, acting as signaling molecules in the bloodstream. They regulate physiological processes and regulate target cells, with their chains typically less than ten times longer than protein hormones. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: Heldt, H. W., & Piechulla, B. (2011). Multiple signals regulate the growth and development of plant organs and enable their adaptation to environmental conditions. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-384986-1.0001 9-3 ‌ Lesson 3: Regulation of Hormones Negative Feedback The main mechanisms that regulate hormones are negative feedback loops. The hormone controls its own production during this process. The hormone maintains homeostasis by sending signals to the body to stop producing more of it once it reaches a particular level. For example, the parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which serves to raise blood calcium levels in the regulation of blood calcium levels. To keep the equilibrium, parathyroid hormone release is reduced after calcium levels are recovered. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: 13.27: Hormone Regulation. (2016, October 7). Biology LibreTexts. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_Gene ral_Biology/Introductory_Biology_(CK-12)/13%3A_Human _Biology/13.27%3A_Hormone_Regulation ‌ Positive Feedback Hormone regulation positive feedback systems are rather uncommon. Positive feedback magnifies changes rather than reversing them, in contrast to negative feedback, which counteracts changes to preserve homeostasis. The release of oxytocin during childbirth is an illustration of positive feedback in the regulation of hormones. The uterus contracts as oxytocin is released when the baby's head presses on the mother's cervix. The baby is forced lower by this contraction, which increases the amount of oxytocin released. This creates a feedback loop that intensifies the contractions until the baby is born. This is one of the rare times when hormone regulation uses positive feedback. Contributed by: Mangasep, Kurt Liam C, Reference by: rpcasas. (2022). Positive and Negative Feedback. Cerritos College. https://www.cerritos.edu/rpcasas/positive-and-negative-feedb ack.htm

Human Anatomy and Physiology With Pathophysiology - Module 6 - PDF

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