Models of Group Development PDF

Models of Group Development: Implications for Social Group Work Practice Author(s): James K. Whittaker Reviewed work(s): Source: Social Service Review, Vol. 44, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 308-322 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30021715. Accessed: 1...

Models of Group Development: Implications for Social Group Work Practice Author(s): James K. Whittaker Reviewed work(s): Source: Social Service Review, Vol. 44, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 308-322 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30021715. Accessed: 13/12/2012 00:08 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at. http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].. The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Service Review. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL GROUP WORK PRACTICE JAMES K. WHITTAKER Universityof Washington While generallyunderdeveloped,some areas of social group work theory have an abun- danceof modelswhich tend to confuseratherthan clarifymattersfor the practitioner.This paper takes one such area?small-groupdevelopment?and attempts to integrateexisting formulationsinto the five-stagemodel suggestedby Garland,Jones, and Kolodny.Practice implicationsare developedfor each of the five stages in terms of the three overall models for social group work practice:the social-goalsmodel, the remedialmodel, and the recip- rocal model. In 1960, Robert Vinter said of the lodny represents the most complete then nascent state of group work prac- statement to date on the subject and tice principles: contains within its stages the basic ele- Despite the profession's intense interest in ments of the models proposed by the methods and techniques of practice, and the other major contributors to the social large literature on practice, there has been very work literature in this area (8).1 The little analysis of the processes of formulating purpose of this paper, then, will be two- practice principles. Anyone undertaking this fold: task enters relatively uncharted territory and (a) to integrate the other major can be expected to do little more than iden- practice formulationsof group develop- tify the major peaks and valleys [54:4]. ment into the model suggested by Gar- and Kolodny, and (b) to In ten years, the body of group work land, Jones, for practice for develop implications practice principles has grown so much each of the stages of development, on that, at least in some areas, the group the basis of the three overall models of work practitioner is faced with an social group work practice: the social- abundance, rather than with a scarcity, goals model, the remedial model, and of guidelines for practice. One such the reciprocalmodel (31). well-developed area is that of small- group development, in which a number CURRENT MODELSOF GROUP of different models have been proposed, DEVELOPMENTS each with its accompanying implica- The knowledge base for group devel- tions for practice. The result has been draws from small-group sociol- that the group work practitioner often opment social finds himself as disillusioned with the ogy, psychology, group psycho- therapy, human relations, and social "affluence"of too many practice models work.2 Researchers in these areas have ?often with overlappingcategories and ^ee Kindelsperger(16), Maier (26), Sarri and different terminology for the same phe- Galinsky (38), and Trecker (49). nomena?as he was with the "poverty" 2For an introductionto the subject see Cart- of too few. wrightand Zander(6), Hare (12), Hare,Borgatta, It is the thesis of this paper that the and Bales (13), Romans (14), Lewin (23), Lip- pitt (24), Mann (28), Martin and Hill (29), five-stage model for group development Psathas (36), Redl (37), Scheidlinger(39), and proposed by Garland, Jones, and Ko- Theodorson(47). 308 This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELSOF GROUPDEVELOPMENT 309 provided many studies that illustrate proach or orientation,relationshipnego- the general cycles and phases through tiation or conflict, group role emergence, which groups seem to progress. In gen- vacillating group role dominance,group eral, most theorists look upon group role dominance, and institutionalized development as a series of phases group roles. This formulation, while through which all small groups pro- helpful in some respects, appears to be gress, or at least as some sort of recur- too inadequately developed to be of any ring cycle of member attraction based substantial benefit to the practitioner. on different factors.3 For example, For example, we are told: "No group Bales and Strodtbeck have suggested ever fits exactly into these categories three phases of development in prob- and all groups do not go through all of lem-solving groups: orientation, evalu- the stages," without being told why this ation, and control, with each of these is so. Similarly, the author says little assuming prominence at any one given about the characterof worker interven- point in time (2). tion at each stage of development and In the literature of social group work, leaves us only with the rather tenuous we find a number of studies of group statement that "it is risky to bypass development. Only the more fully de- the stages and to force movement veloped of these models?those of ahead." It is not made clear why this is Maier, Kindelsperger, Trecker, and necessarily so. Sarri and Galinsky?will be considered Trecker has also proposed a six-stage in terms of how they may be integrated model for group development that is with the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny more behaviorally descriptive than the formulation.4 others. It consists of the following Henry Maier has proposed four stages: beginning stage; emergence of phases throughwhich small groups pro- some group feeling, organization, pro- gress: locating commonness, creating gram; development of bond, purpose, exchange, developing mutual identifica- and cohesiveness; strong group feeling tion, and developing group identifica- ?goal attainment; decline in interest? tion. Maier chooses not to look upon less group feeling; and ending stage, or termination as a phase of group de- decision to discontinue the group. Like velopment, but otherwise his scheme Bernstein, Trecker suggests a number most closely resembles the Garland, of key indices which the worker can use Jones, and Kolodny model in its es- in determining the group's stage of de- sential components. velopment. Kindelsperger has suggested a six- One of the best theoretically devel- stage model of group development con- oped and well-articulatedstatements of sisting of the following phases: ap- group development has been offered by 8 Homans,for example,posits such recurringand Rosemary Sarri and Maeda Galinsky. reciprocal cycles, with activity, interaction, and Unlike the other formulations, theirs sentiment being the essential basis for formation derives from an analysis of small-group (14). 4The authoris well awareof the importantcon- research, primarily in sociology and tributions of Austin (1), Bernstein (4), Northen group psychotherapy.This model of de- (30), Paradise (32), Shalinsky (43), and Thomas velopment is congruent with Vinter's and Fink (48) to our knowledgeof groupdevelop- ment, but these materialswill not be considered conception of the group as both the here. means and the context for treatment This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 310 JAMESK. WHITTAKER (52). The Sarri and Galinsky model, 7. Termination phase. The dissolu- which rests upon four basic assump- tion of the group may result from goal tions,5consists of seven distinct phases: attainment, maladaptation,lack of inte- 1. Origin phase. This phase refers to gration, or previously made plans about the composition of the group and is dis- the duration of the group. tinguished primarily for analytic pur- The writers go on to develop a series poses, since it is at least a precondition of strategies for each of the phases. for later development. Despite the theoretical sophistication of 2. Formative phase. The initial activ- the model, it appears to fall short in its ity of the group members in seeking description of what is happening to similarity and mutuality of interests is the members in each of the phases, as the outstanding characteristic of this contrasted to the richly descriptive ma- phase. Initial commitments to group terial offered by Garland, Jones, and purpose, emergent personal ties, and a Kolodny. In fairness to the authors, it quasi-group structure are also observa- should be noted that their main reason ble. for omitting descriptions of individual 3. Intermediate phase I. This phase member reactions was that several is characterizedby a moderate level of writers in the past had failed to dis- group cohesion, clarification of pur- tinguish worker intervention and indi- poses, and observable involvement of vidual client reaction from the group membersin goal-directedactivities. developmental processes. One wishes 4. Revision phase. This phase is that the authors had made such a dis- characterizedby challenges to the exist- tinction and then gone on to describe ing group structure and an accompany- both the group developmentalprocesses ing modification of group purposes and and the reactions of individual mem- operating procedures. bers, as well as the strategies of worker 5. Intermediate phase II. Following intervention. In addition, the Sarri and the revision phase, while many groups Galinsky model contains no "real life" progress toward maturation, the char- group-process examples, in sharp con- acteristics outlined in Intermediate trast to the highly illustrative examples phase I may again appear, though the integratedinto the Garlandformulation. group generally manifests a higher level Finally, the names of the different of integration and stability than in the stages in the Sarri and Galinsky model, earlier phase. while certainly in keeping with the re- 6. Maturation phase. This phase is search studies from which they were characterized by stabilization of group derived,sound somewhatas if they were structure, group purpose, operating and contrived strictly for taxonomic pur- governing procedures, expansion of the poses. The Garlandmodel, on the other culture of the group, and the existence hand, employs, in describing its stages, of effective responses to internal and a rich "central theme" approach which external stress. seems to have more overall benefit for 5The groupis a potent influencesystemand can the practitioner. Despite these few be usedas an efficientvehiclefor individualchange. shortcomings, the Sarri and Galinsky The group is not an end in itself. Groupdevelop- model constitutes a distinct and signifi- ment can be controlledand influencedby the work- cant contribution to the group work er's actions. There is no optimal way in which groups develop. literature, particularly in terms of its This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT 311 scientifically based descriptions of 3. Intimacy. This stage is character- group structure and processes. ized by intensification of personal in- volvement, more willingness to bring GARLAND, JONES, AND KOLODNY: FIVE into the open feelings about club mem- STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT bers and group leader, and a striving This five-stage model of group devel- for satisfaction of dependency needs. opment was derived from an analysis of Siblinglike rivalry tends to appear, as group-process records at a children's well as overt comparison of the group agency over a three-year period. It is to family life. There is a growingability solid in its theoretical underpinnings, to plan and carry out groupprojects and well articulated, and richly exampled a growing awareness and mutual recog- with group-process materials. It offers nition of the significance of the group the most advanced statement in the experience in terms of personality literature concerning worker focus at growth and change. each of the various stages. The authors 4. Differentiation. In this stage, have identified the five stages in terms membersbegin to accept one another as of the central theme characteristic of distinct individuals and to see the social each. They are as follows:6 worker as a unique person and the 1. Pre-affiliation. "Closeness" of the group as providing a unique experience. members is the central theme in this Relationships and needs are more stage, with "approach-avoidance"as the reality based, communication is good, major early struggle in relation to it. and there is strong cohesion. As clarifi- Ambivalence toward involvement is re- cation of power relationshipsgave free- flected in the members' vacillating re- dom for autonomy and intimacy, so sponses to program activities and clarification of and coming to terms events. Relationships are usually non- with intimacy and mutual acceptance intimate, and a good deal of use may be of personal needs brings freedom and made of rather stereotypic activity as ability to differentiate and to evaluate a means of getting acquainted. relationships and events in the group 2. Power and control. After making on a reality basis. The group experience the decision that the group is potentially achieves a functionally autonomous rewarding, members move to a stage characterin this fourth stage. In freeing during which issues of power, control, perceptions of the situation from dis- status, skill, and decision-making are tortions of extraneousexperience and in the focal points. There is likely to be a creating its unique institutions and testing of the group worker and the mores, the group becomes, in a sense, its members,as well as an attempt to define own frame of reference. and formalize relationships and to de- 5. Separation. The group experience fine a status hierarchy. Three basic is- has been completed, and the members sues are suggested by the power-strug- may begin to move apart and find new gle phenomena: rebellion and auton- resources for meeting social, recrea- omy, permission and the normative tional, and vocational needs. The fol- crisis, and protection and support. lowing reactions have been observed 6 This repeatedly in groups in the process of necessarily brief description of the five termination: denial, regression, recapit- stages does not do justice to the full and intricate job done by the authors (8). ulation of past experiences, evaluation, This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 312 JAMESK. WHITTAKER flight,andpleas fromthe memberswho closest to the "Pre-affiliation" stage in say, "Westill need the group." the Garlandmodel.Generallyspeaking, The way in which these different the stagesin the othermodelscontinue models of group developmentmay be to run in their normalsequencewhen integratedis best representedin tabular placed alongside the Garlandmodel, form (Chart1). It shouldbe notedthat with somestagescollapsedfor purposes a relationshipof exactequalitybetween of clarity. the variousstagesis not beingproposed. What is suggestedhere shouldin no It is simplysuggestedthat the stagesof sense be taken as a completesynthesis CHART 1 Integrated Stage Model of Group Development Parallel Stages of Group Development Garland,Jones,. Sarri and ir... _,. andKoIodny Maier Kmdelsperger Trecker Galinsky I. Pre-affilia- 1. Locating com- 1. Origin 1. Approach-orienta- 1. Beginning tion monness 2. Formative tion II. Power and 2. Creating ex- 3. Intermediate I 2. Relationship nego- control change 4. Revision tiation or conflict III. Intimacy 3. Developing mu- 5. Intermediate II 3. Group role emer- 2. Emergence of some tual identifica- gence group "feeling," or- tion 4. Vacillating group ganization role dominance IV. Differen- 4. Developing 6. Maturation 5. Group role domi- 3. Development of tiation group identifi- nance bond, purpose, co- cation 6. Institutionalized hesiveness group roles 4. Strong group feel- ing?goal attain- ment V. Separation 7. Termination 5. Decline in interest, less group feeling 6. Ending stage: deci- sion to discontinue the group developmentin the other modelsmost of the variousmodels.It is this writer's nearly approximatethose offered by beliefthatsucha synthesiswouldcreate Garland,Jones, and Kolodny in the moreproblemsfor the practitionerthan mannerindicated.For example,Sarri it wouldsolve, for it wouldcreatenew and Galinsky's"IntermediateI" and stages of group development,which "Revision"phasescan rathereasily be would require,among other things, a subsumedunderthe headingof "Power newset of termsto describethe various and control."In fact, they add greatly phases. To an area of practicetheory to the descriptionof what is happening already burdenedwith too much am- to group structureat this particular biguous terminology,the addition of stage. Similarly,Maier'sphase of "Lo- anotherset of stageswouldrun counter cating commonness"appears to be to fundamentalcanons of parsimony. This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT 313 What is suggested here is that the other of groups within society. The principle models of group development may be of democraticgroup process that is fun- used selectively to complementthe Gar- damental to this model has become a land model. It can be argued that in cornerstone of all social group work specific areas?for example, in descrip- practice. Perhaps the leading current tions of group structureand processes? exponent of the social-goals model is the Garland model can be significantly Hyman Wiener, who states that social enhanced by some of the other formula- responsibility and social identity can tions?in this case, by the model offered be achieved only throughscientific proj- by Sarriand Galinsky.Overall,however, ects that must be chosen according to it must be noted that the five-stage the location of the group worker in the model offers the most complete state- agency, the distributionof power within ment in the social work literature, and, the agency and community,and the time far from being contradicted, it is actu- dimension. Wiener's approach utilizes ally supported to a large extent by the social-systems theory, and he borrows other models of group development. strategies from Chin and Lippitt in seeking points within society vulnerable MODELS OF SOCIAL GROUP to change (56).8 WORK PRACTICE 2. The remedial model. The reme- It is evident that the implications for dial, or treatment,model of social group practice of the five stages of group de- work is primarily concerned with the velopment will vary according to the remediation of problems of psychologi- overall model for practice utilized by cal, social, and cultural adjustment the worker. The author will attempt to through the use of a selected group show how implications for practice will experience.The group is viewed as both differ in relation to the three models of the "means and the context" for treat- group work practice proposed by Papell ment by Vinter, who has outlined five and Rothman: the social-goals model, phases in the treatment sequence: in- the remedial model, and the reciprocal take, diagnosis and treatment planning, model (31). Only a brief description of group composition and formation, each will be outlined here, and the group development and treatment, and reader is directed to Papell and Roth- evaluation and termination (52). man for a more complete development.7 The remedial model was influenced 1. The social-goals model. This mod- early by the clinical work of Fritz Redl el of social group work does not exist and David Wineman and by the writ- as a single formulationin the literature, ings of Gisela Konopka, whose Thera- nor does it owe its existence to a central peutic Group Work with Children (22) theoretician who has systematically set did much to establish group work as a forth all of its elements. It is, as Papell full-fledgedclinical modality.9 and Rothman state, a model that has 8 See also its origins in the earliest traditions of Ginsberg and Goldberg (9), Wiener (57), and the early writings of Cohen, Coyle, Gins- social group work practice. The social- berg, Kaiser, Klein, Miller, Phillips, and Wilson. goals model envisages social change For an excellent view of the values underlying the social-goals model see Konopka (20). brought about by responsible members 9 See also Blum (5), Glasser (11), Kolodny (17), 7 For an insightful view of the historical devel- Kolodny and Burns (18), Konopka (19, 21), Maier opment of the three models see Jones (IS). (27), and Vinter (52). This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 314 JAMESK. WHITTAKER 3. The reciprocalmodel.Unlike the outline of the three overall models of other modelsof socialgroupwork,the socialgroupworkpractice,as developed reciprocalmodelhas been most closely by Papell and Rothman,has been pro- associated with a single theoretician, vided.The final sectionof the paperis WilliamSchwartz.The theoreticalbase an attemptto developstrategiesof in- for the reciprocalmodelderiveslargely terventionfor eachof the five stagesof from systems theory and from field group developmentin relation to the theory.Indeed,Schwartzseemsto make three overall models of group work the point that the systemwithinwhich practice.These strategiesof interven- the methodis practicedshouldbe con- tion will be consonantwith the major sideredfirst and that one cannotprop- requirementsfor the developmentof erly speakof the "groupwork"method practice principlesin social work, as as such. "It seems more accurate,"he outlinedby Vinter (54). writes,"to speakof a socialworkmeth- Vinterhas identifiedfour major re- od practicedin the varioussystems in quirementsforthe developmentof prac- which the social workerfinds himself, tice principlesin socialwork: or whichareestablishedfor the purpose 1. Practiceprinciplesmustspecifyor of givingservice:the family,the small refer to the desiredends of action,the friendship group, the representative changedstates of being in which it is body, the one-to-oneinterview,the hos- intendedthat effectiveactionwill result. pital ward,the committee,etc." (41). 2. Practiceprinciplesmust incorpo- Sincegoal-settingis an intrinsicpart rate the ethical of the client-workerrelationship,it is principles, commit- ments, and values whichprescribeand meaningless,in the view of the recipro- circumscribe cal theorist,to speakaboutthe worker's professionalactivity. au- 3. Practice principlesshouldincorpo- goals for the client as if they were rate valid knowledgeabout the most tonomous,independententities. Since there are initially no specificsocial or importantphenomenaor events with which workers are con- therapeuticgoals,emphasisis placedon cerned.professional engagementin interpersonalrelation- 4. Practice ships.The workercarriesout his func- the principlesshould direct tion if he focuses on the symbiotic professionalworkertowardcertain if interdependenceof the client and so- types of action, which, engagedin, ciety and attemptsto mediate between are likely to achieve the desiredends or the two.10 goals (54). Vinter'scriticismof the groupwork IMPLICATIONSFOR PRACTICE literatureis thatit tendsto be valuative To summarize,this paper has at- and ideological,ratherthan instrumen- temptedto integrateseveralmodelsof tal. That is, it stressesthe largerends small-groupdevelopmentfrom the so- toward which practice should be di- cial groupworkliteraturewith the five- rected,while it seems relativelyuncer- stage model suggested by Garland, tain about specific means toward Jones,andKolodny.In addition,a brief particularobjectives.The followingim- 10See also Polsky (34, 35), Schwartz (40, 42), plicationsfor practicewill, in the main, Shulman (44), and Tropp (51). For an introduc- adhereto the criteriaadvanced Vin- tion to systemstheorysee Bennis,Benne,and Chin by (3), Lippitt (24), and Parsons (33). ter, with some slight alterationof the This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT 315 second criterionconcerningthe identi- the action, as well as the means for ficationand incorporationof values. achievingthoseends,he has, in the very Joneshas analyzedthe threemodels process,madea statementof valuepref- of social groupworkpracticein terms erence. Therefore,outside of a state- of grouppurposes,type of service,role ment of the generalgoals of the group of worker, image of group member, or individualclient, and in additionto activities, requisiteworker skills, and the set of ethics which the profession theorybase (Chart2). It is the view of holdsin common,any furtherstatement this writer that the overall values are of values is superfluousand may even CHART 2 Models of Social Group Work Practice* Social-Goals Model Remedial Model Reciprocal Model Purposeof group Socialconsciousnessand To remedysocialdysfunc- To achieve a mutual aid socialresponsibility tioningby specificbe- system;initially,no spe- havioralchange cific goals Type of service Socializationand con- Integrationand adaptive Adaptive,socialization, sumptiveservices services integrativeand con- sumptiveservices Role of worker Enabler Changeagent Mediatoror resourceper- son Image of groupmem- Participatingcitizensand Deviants,to at least some Ego vis-jt-visalter ber indigenousleaders degree Types of activity Wide rangeof activities Use of directand indirect Engagementof group and tasks, including meansof influence,in- members in process of thoseof communityor- eludingextragroup interpersonalrelations ganization means Requisiteworker In programming In interventionin group In definitionand dialogue skills processto achievespec- ified goals Theorybase Eclectic theory base Social role theory, socio- Systems theory and field behavioraltheory, ego theory psychology, group dy- namics ?See Jones (15). impliedin the grouppurposesfor each be misleading.In short,one may judge of the threemodels.Beyondthese gen- the value componentof any practice eral statements,the practice implica- principleby what it says to do, rather tions, or action principles,contain,at thanby why it says to do it. least implicitly, value componentsof Actionstrategieswill be suggestedfor their own. Put even moresimply,what eachof the five stagesof groupdevelop- the workerdoes definesthe value ori- ment under each of the three overall entationand ethicalstructurehe is op- modelsof groupworkpractice. eratingwithinin relationto his clients.11 n For a furtherstatementof how theoreticalori- In effect,then,if the socialworktheore- entationinfluencesphilosophicaloutlooksee Maier tician has specifiedthe desiredends of (25). This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 316 JAMESK. WHITTAKER STAGEi: PRE-AFFILIATION to participate in decision-making but, Social-goalsmodel. The workermakes essentially, he must go along with the a special attempt to identfy and involve group's decision about the leadership structure and work with those leaders indigenous community leaders in the who seem to have the support of the group and uses programfor the purpose of acquainting group memberswith and majority of the group members.Ideally, if he has been successful in laying the involving them in the process of demo- cratic participation. This is achieved, groundwork for democratic participa- for example, in the worker's approach tion (in Stage I), then the leaders chosen toward resolving decision issues, such will most likely be representativeof the as when the group should meet, and total group. where. Functioning as an enabler, he makes Remedial model. The worker pro- his expertise in social action techniques vides an orientation to the group, out- and strategies available to the group lines its purposes, and establishes a members, but does not attempt to for- treatment acontract,,with the members. mulate objectives for the group. He A well-structured?and a worker-con- may, at times, suggest specific action trolled?program allows for distance strategies, which will test the ability of among the members, while it provides the leadership to muster the support of opportunities for exploration and in- the members in attempting to secure a vites trust. Activities that requirea high specific objective. The task of policy- degree of facilitative interdependence making, however, clearly rests with the are passed over in favor of those that members. allow for parallel participation of the Remedial model. While allowing for members. a certain amount of member rebellion Reciprocal model. The worker begins and power struggle, the worker acts in to explore with the group the common his capacity of group executive and con- elements that bind the members to- troller of membershiproles to forestall the crystallization of any power take- gether, as well as those that separate them. The worker may suggest, but not over by a particularclique or subgroup. insist upon, various program activities Sarri and Galinsky speak of maintain- that will help to lay the basis for a ing the group throughthe revision stage mutual-aid system in the group. and, in a similar vein, Garland, Jones, and Kolodny speak of the importance Through clarification, he helps the of protecting the safety of the individual group to articulate common needs and members and their physical property. explore possible group actions to meet those needs. He is not nearly as direc- For example, the worker may wish to tive or controlling as the worker in the assign the various roles in activities, remedial model, but he may mediate choose sides in games, promote low- between the demands of a larger social status members through task assign- system (for example, the agency) and ments, and, generally, exert his influ- the needs of the individual group mem- ence as group leader to maintain an bers. "open" group structure. Reciprocal model. The worker strives STAGEn: POWERAND CONTROL to clarify the power struggle and to Social-goals model. The worker en- focus again on the function of the courages all membersof the client group group: to provide a mutual-aid system. This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELSOF GROUPDEVELOPMENT 317 In addition, he makes clear that worker, has reserved for himself. Program is agency, and members are related to becoming more flexible and is now each other by certain rules and require- largely determined by the members ments imposed upon them by the terms themselves. Finally, the worker takes of their agreement to come together. care to allow the group only the amount Schwartz stresses that any rules for the of program responsibility which it can group should emerge from the function reasonably handle; specifically, he has of the group and the necessities of the some structured activities ready to fall work, rather than from the personal back on if the group seems unable to authority of the helping agent (41). plan adequately for itself. Thus, in terms of his manipulations of Reciprocal model. In this stage, more the group influence structure at this than any other, the worker strives to stage?through direct, personal inter- "detect and challenge the obstacles vention?the worker's function is con- which obscure the common ground be- siderably less directive than it would be tween the members."Using clarification in the remedial model and slightly more and confrontation,he may explore with directive than it would be in the social- the membersthose things that are keep- goals model. ing them from accomplishingtheir pres- ent tasks. While the causes of these STAGEin: INTIMACY obstacles may be fantastically complex, Social-goals model. As the leadership the focus of the worker is on dealing crisis is resolved and the members are with the specific problems they are more solidly linked together, they will presently causing for the group. likely raise questionsabout the worker's Through the contribution of ideas, role and function within the group. He facts, and value concepts, the worker amplifies his function as consultant on helps the members to "see" what is strategy, while disavowing a policy- keeping them from their stated objec- making role. He also clarifies the grow- tives. This process may range all the ing interdependence among the mem- way from having the members voice bers and relates this to the ability of the very specific complaints: "We don't group to attain its stated objectives: like the way Joe always butts in when "If we stay united, we can achieve somebody else is talking," to discus- success." Finally, he encourages group sions of more intricate and detailed mis- activities that will reinforce the belief perceptions, or value conflicts: "If we that working together brings results. go with you to the community center, Remedial model. The worker sup- then the rest of the kids on the block ports the group through the emotional will think we're 'goodies.'" turmoil of increased interdependency; he helps the members to sort out and STAGEIV: DIFFERENTIATION discuss the positive and negative aspects Social goals model. In this stage, the of increased closeness and works with group has resolved most of its power them to clarify how this group is differ- problems and has high mutual support ent from the others (family group, peer among the members, as well as good group) in which they participate. He is communication. The worker helps the constantly on the lookout for opportuni- group to formulate new objectives (as ties to entrust the memberswith respon- the original social-action goals may sibility, which in the earlier stages he have already been attained) and con- This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 318 JAMESK. WHITTAKER tinues to identify areas of need that is operatingin his role as group member might provide a basis for future social and when he is functioningprimarily as action. In carrying out these tasks, the agency representative.The worker aids worker takes care not to jeopardize his the group in relating?while not neces- non-policy-making role. Even in this sarily adjusting?to its environment next-to-the-last stage of the group's and helps the group in its effort to pro- development, the worker begins the vide satisfaction for its members. process of extricating himself from the STAGE V: SEPARATION group, while doing all he can to insure its continued effectiveness by encourag- Social-goalsmodel. In this final stage, ing new members to join and partici- the worker aids the group in establish- pate. ing linkages with other community Remedial model. The worker helps structures and agencies in order to in- the group to run itself by encourag- sure its continued effectiveness after his ing individual members to take respon- departure. In short, he tries to prepare sibility for the planning and execution the group for the fact of his absence and of program activities. With the in- encouragesmembersto think about new creased cohesivenessand the heightened objectives when the original goals of sense of the group's special identity as the group have been realized. He may a separate,meaningfulinfluencesystem, arrange for periodic consultation with the worker can begin to direct the group the group, but the real test of his suc- toward projects which involve other cess will be made evident when he, groups and agencies in the larger com- literally, has "worked himself out of a munity. He is constantly re-evaluating job."12 goals for the individual members and Remedial model. The worker helps seeing how they may be related to the the group through the process of termi- activities of the group at this particular nation by encouraging evaluation, re- stage. He gets the members to begin capitulation,and review. He is prepared evaluation of their group experience in to deal with nihilistic flight, denial, "sep- preparationfor the group's termination. aration anxiety," repression, and anger Typically, this may involve discussion of the membersthat they are losing the of how the members had worked out group. Using extragroupmeans of influ- some of the problems that they had ence, he helps the individual members brought with them to the group in the plan for the meeting of their needs beginning. through other resources after the group Reciprocal model. With the establish- has disbanded (SS). Program is highly ment of a mutual-aid system within the mobile and community-orientedand de- group, the worker helps the members signed to utilize the skills that the mem- to focus on changes they may wish to bers have learnedin the group. make in other systems outside the Reciprocal model. The worker helps group. For example, a cottage group in the members to evaluate the process by an institution may focus on strategies which they develop the mutual-aid sys- of intervention designed to get the ad- tem and encouragesthem to think about ministration to change its policy on off- 12As one group leader recently stated, "I'll know campus recreation.The worker uses his when I have achieved success, when the commu- skill in definitionto make clear when he nity group demands my resignation." This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions  MODELS OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT 319 ways in which they can achieve similar It is suggested that research in social need satisfaction in the other systems group work should proceed in at least in which they function. In addition, he two directions: First, there should be works with the members to define the an attempt to integrate existing practice limits of the external situation in which models (as this paper has tried to do in the client-workersystem is set and helps the area of group development) and the membersto determinehow they will to develop implications for practice in continue to operate within those limits terms of some overall conception of (or modify them), once the group has group work practice. The Papell and been disbanded. Rothman model, despite its limitations, seems best suited for this purpose, DISCUSSION especially as it makes the distinction In 1962, Paul Glasser called for between remediation and social action. group work to broaden its theory base The time is past when group work and make use of more concepts from theoreticians can afford themselves the the social and psychological sciences luxury of developingmodels for practice (10). Unfortunately, a recent review of without taking into consideration what group work literature reveals just how has taken place before. little this suggestion has been imple- Second, a concerted attempt should mented (45). While it is undeniably be made to utilize knowledge from the true that group work is both art and social and behavioralsciences to inform science, it is equally true that the litera- group work practice theory. This pro- ture to date has focused much more on cess should involve not merely the the art than on the science. Though transposition of theoretical models some progress has been made, there are from the social sciences, but their em- still far too few attempts to integrate pirical testing as well. While social knowledge from the behavioralsciences group workers once viewed themselves in models of practice and still fewer as the arbiters of all that happened in attempts to validate these practice mod- groups, it is now sad to note that many els through empirical research.13The group modes currently popular in social net result is that practitioners are too work (sensitivity training, family group often left without clear guidelines for therapy, and guided group interaction) practice and are forced instead to rely have developed outside the pale of so- upon their own intuition in decision- cial group work. Unless, it seems to this making. Without denying the value of writer, group work can look beyond its intuition in practice, one can legiti- boundaries and at least attempt to in- mately raise the question: "If intuition corporate appropriate strategies and becomes the only basis for practice, then techniques from other group modes, doesn't practice itself become so idio- group workers will be in the unseemly syncratic as to preclude even speaking position of having convinced only them- of any group work method?" selves of the efficacy of their work. 18One recent The practice implications suggested empirical study in group work was executed by Feldman (7). See also Trieschman, in this paper are clearly not exhaustive, Whittaker, and Brendtro (SO) for an attempt to and it is the intention of the author that blend psychoanalytic ego psychology, social learn- ing theory, and Redl's life-space theory into a uni- they be expanded, modified, or dis- fied model for milieu treatment. carded according to their utility. Cur- This content downloaded on Thu, 13 Dec 2012 00:08:02 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 320 JAMES K. WHITTAKER rent formulationsof how small groups developed.If this brief paperservesas developraise morequestionsthan they a first step in that direction,then its answer.What, for example,is the rela- purposewill have been well served. tionshipbetweenthe worker'sinterven- Finally, the ever increasing"hazi- tion and the mannerin whichthe group ness" betweenthe traditionalmethods proceedsthroughthe stagesof develop- of casework,groupwork, and commu- ment?Similarly,to what extent should nity organizationmakesit all the more we thinkof the variousstagesas mutu- urgent to define and develop a scien- ally exclusive phases, or as elements tificallygroundedtheoryfor practice? which are always presentin grouplife not to rekindlethe old argumentsover to somedegree,but achieveprominence "what"constitutescasework,or "what" only at certaintimes?These and other is the roleof groupwork,but in orderto questionsremainto be answered.Social developa unifiedtheoryof socialwork groupworkneedsnot fixedbut flexible practice, which will include the best theoreticalmodelsthat can incorporate elementsof each. new practiceformulationsas they are Received September8, 1969 REFERENCES 1. 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