MAC208 Photojournalism Lecture Notes PDF

KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY MALETE FACULTY OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION LECTURE NOTES ON MAC 208-----PHOTOJOURNALISM ABOUT THE COURSE Photojournalism is a foundation course...

KWARA STATE UNIVERSITY MALETE FACULTY OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION LECTURE NOTES ON MAC 208-----PHOTOJOURNALISM ABOUT THE COURSE Photojournalism is a foundation course for students and practitioners in the field to become a photojournalist. It treats all the fundamental principles of reporting in pictures for the mass media. Although particular attention is given to the practice of journalism in Nigeria, the basic principles still retain their universal meanings. This course guide provides you with the necessary information about the contents, process, and materials with which to read and understand the subject matter of the course. Course Outlines Introducing Photography: Meaning and Types History of Photography Reasons for Taking, and Studying Photography Functions of Pictures in Mass Media News Photojournalism Types, Qualities/Attributes of Photojournalists Photography Tools: Camera Types, Parts and Technique The Professional Photo Studio Photo Editing and Reasons for Photo Editing in Mass Media Editing Concepts in Photojournalism Ethical Principles in Photojournalism Laws of Photojournalism: Copyright, Obscenity, Sedition and Invasion of Privacy Laws What Is Photography? Udeze (1995) re-echoed the popular saying in photojournalism that a picture is worth more than a thousand words (Udofia, 1988, p.81). There are various definitions of photography but for the purpose of this study we shall limit ourselves to only two. According to Spencer (1973), Photography is the art, science, and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film, or electronically by means of an image sensor. According to the Collins English Dictionary, Photography is defined as the art, practice, or occupation of taking and printing photographs, making cine films. Photography comes in different form and types such as astrophotography, cinematography, photo biography to mention just a few. Also, it is a universal means of communication, a good photograph needs no translator as it fixes the mind more readily than words. It has a great advantage over the written word as it does not need to be translated for use to anyone in the 1 world. It can be used to make comparison, to distort information, emphasize and to document social conditions as it registers facts, ideas, and even emotions with greater accuracy than the human eyes. The use of photography range from commercial and press to medicine and crime detection. With the advancement of photography to microfilming, the storage and retrieval of information have been made much more convenient and space usage much reduced. It has many uses such as for business, science, manufacturing, art, recreational purposes and mass communication, though for some people photography is a popular hobby that offers job opportunities to many people in the photographic manufacturing, retailing, servicing and photo fishing. Types of Photography To the photojournalist, news is everything but only when pictures are concerned. The function of the photojournalist is to get the pitcures and tell the stories. This can be done in various dimensions, using any of these types of photograph. 1 The Aware photograph Aware photograph is an arranged photograph. The person being photographed knows that his or her picture is being taken as he/she probably planned for it. It could be taken anywhere be it indoors, outdoors in the air, even in the waters. The underlying point is that the person is fully aware. 2 The Semi-Aware Photograph As the name also implies, the person being pictured is not completely aware. In view of the presence of the cameraman, the person has to continually compose his or her posture until the cameraman is ready to click the button to snap the picture. It could also be arranged or planned for but the most important factor is that the person does not know the actual time the camera will click. 3 The Candid Photograph This type of photograph is factual and unarranged as it tells the story as it is, not as it ought to be. It therefore calls for speed, instinct, anticipation, ingenuity and presence, bearing in mind that the photojournalist has to tell the story in the pictures the way he saw it at the scene and must be at the right place, the right time and most importantly in the right frame of mind. 2 History of Photography The history of photography is as a result of combining several different technical discoveries. It has roots in remote antiquity with the discovery of the principle of the camera obscura and the observation that some are visibly altered by exposure to light. The beginning of the story of photography originated from two Greek words “graphos” meaning writing and “photo” light, meaning writing with light. The word was coined by Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839, where images are recorded on a sensitive material by the action of light or related radiation. Tracing history down the memory lane in China during the fifth century a man named Mo Ti, was said to have recorded his observation of light rays and their ability to project a duplicate image. He noticed that reflection passes through a pinhole onto a dark surface, an inverted image of the object was evident on the darker surface. Before this breakthrough Hercules Florence had already studied ways of permanently fixing camera obscura images in 1832 which was named Photographia. The result was never published adequately, because he was an obscure inventor living in a remote and undeveloped province. It is an art form invented in 1830s which became publicly recognized ten years later. Photography today is the largest growing hobby in the worldwide hardware alone creating a multi-billion industry. Camera Obscura or even Shutter speed does not have many heard of Henri Cartier Bresson or even Annie Leibovitz. Mo Ti and the Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid had earlier described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Taking a look back today we see how this fascinating technique was created and developed, because proudly knowing the past is the primary way to create a great future. The First Photograph In 1839 Joseph Draper made a photographic portrait of his sister Anna Katherine Draper. While the oldest surviving permanent photograph of the image formed in a camera was created in 1827 by the French man Joseph Nicephore Niepce which was produced on a polished plate. He made the first photographic image with a camera obscura which was known as Heliograph or Sun Print which later became the prototype of modern photograph. Prior to this, the camera obscura is mainly for viewing or drawing purposes and not for making photographs. The Birth of Modern Photography Louis Daguerre invented the first practical process of photography in 1829 by going into partnership with Joseph Nicephore Niepce to improve the process Niepce had developed. After many years of experimentation and Niepce's death, Louis Daguerre developed a more convenient and effective method of photography in 1839 naming it after himself - the daguerreotype. The process 'fixed' the images on a sheet of polished silver-plated copper and soaked in iodine thereby creating a surface that was sensitive to light. Then, he put the plate in a camera and exposed it for a few minutes. After the image was painted by light, he later washed the plate in a solution of silver chloride. This process created an image if exposed to light will not change. 3  In 1839, Daguerre and Niepce's son sold the rights for the daguerreotype to the French government and published a booklet describing the process. The process quickly gained popularity and by 1850, there were over seventy photography studios in New York City alone Photography: A Profession Or Craft Photography by application is an art, to some it is a profession that will serve as a source of income and livelihood but to some, it is mainly seen as a craft. People generally engage in photography for different reasons. We all love to remember memorable events which can only be recalled through pictures on particular occasions like Birthday and Naming Ceremonies, Burials, Marriages, Award Nights etc Photography as A Profession Photography is an artistic skill adopted by some as a hobby while as a professional job by others. To some people it could be a specialized skill, but at the same time could also be a source of income. Professional photographers capture amazing moments of our lives, and this fascinate viewers over their great pictures. They display their works in newspapers, art galleries and leading magazines. The art of photography as a profession nowadays has excelled to the point of providing a great development to both the world media and digital photography. Photography as a skill is learnt through training and it is still important to learn different techniques to achieve good photography results as this also complements and enhances natural talents. Reasons for Taking Photographs Our photographs tell us what is important to us. The desire to save our recorded memories is a powerful force which tells us much about the role of photography in our lives and our constant desire to keep our most precious moments into images. We preserve the important events and people in our lives. The ceremonies of birth and birthdays, marriages and anniversaries, holidays and new houses are all recorded because they matter. Photographs are our personal story, a timeline of our lives filled with faces and places that we love. They are our story, which we can share with others. The hundreds of images come together to form a narrative of our lives. Now lets read some of the reasons for photography in our lives. 1. Photographs allow us to share and to communicate. Images are much more than a simple record. Photography speaks to the best and most generous part of our human nature – the desire to share what we find beautiful and interesting with others. You only have to look at Flickr and a multitude of photo sharing sites to see this impulse at work. Millions of people sharing their personal, passionate and sometimes quirky take on the world around them. Our images can involve a world of strangers in our life. How powerful is that? 2 Photography makes us artists Photography allows us to express ourselves through an art form. We notice a beautiful landscape or an old man’s lined face and we want to capture it. Each of us will have a different reason to do so but, essentially, we want to create something. 4 3 Photography is a complex language Our images can express joy and sorrow, wonder and sympathy. Every human emotion can find a place in photography. Photography can be of help to some people in different ways e.g. For many years someone might never value his or her photographs of overcast landscape because I believed that there was no beauty in a land with muted colours and a leaden sky. Probably he or she wanted the land to be alive with colour and vibrancy. However, lack of colour in a landscape makes you search for other things that often go unremarked in bright sunlight. It could be a symmetry of hills or a tree standing out from a forest of thousands. So also i came across someone who have suffered from depression for most of her adult life and photography gave her a language to express feelings for which she could find no words. We have a miserably poor vocabulary for mental illness, but if photography can be allowed, in a very special it could help to develop a visual language for some of the most difficult emotions. 4 Photography has the power to move us Photographs can grab our attention and speak directly to our emotions. It embodies the power of a single image. At a more subtle level, we can learn lessons about a whole range of emotions. Grief has the power to wash away the luminance and chrominance of our lives. There is no magic way to restore them at will. We have to be patient. But while waiting we can search for the shapes and patterns that are still there in the greyness. They will lead us back to colour eventually. At moments of great sorrow in my life I have used images to express that hope of returning colour. Photography, at its best, is a powerful language which speaks to our emotions. It allows us to tell our story and show others our framing of the world around us. Reasons for Studying Photography Photography can be really fun as a hobby and at the same time that can easily be turned into a very lucrative career. It is an art form that is really a lot easier to learn such that as a hobby it can be turned to profit as you will be able to do something you love with great passion never getting bored with this profession. Studying anything better prepares you to do it. If you wanted to be a psychiatrist you know that you would need to study for years to ready yourself for a career in it. Photography at first glance seems so simple - just point the thing and push the button - but it's so much more than that. There are reasons for studying photography which are highlighted as follows; 1 Employment opportunities: there will always be work unlike many other career paths. Photography is one that will always be around and there will always be need for professional photographers. Even with so many people having digital cameras these days, there are still some shots that only the professionals can get, only if you have the right training you can be the one to get those great shots. 2 Overcoming boredom: depending on the type of photography you end up getting into, you are not tied down to a desk all day long. 3 Financial ability: you can make a lot of money depending on the type of photography you are engaged in. You can become a freelance photographer, set your own rates and time. 5 4 Creativity: You can be as creative as you want as an artist creativity comes from within and based on the skill acquired from the school of learning then you can become a professional in your field of study. Professional Photographer A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a particular event such as a wedding or graduation, or to illustrate an advertisement. Others, including Paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture and then offering it for sale or display. Some workers, such as policemen, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of their work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, depending on the commercial context. Photography is also a profession which has served and, continues to serve Nigeria and millions of its various people extremely well! It continues to play a prominent role as a medium for art, culture and history. The role of photography in documenting the history and growth of Nigeria as an independent nation was well documented in a huge photography exhibition put up by the National Gallery of Art- NGA, Abuja, in October 2010; as part of the celebrations of Nigeria at 50. The photographic documentation of all spheres of cultural, industrial, agricultural, sports, and political, religious and infrastructural activities provided the most appropriate platform to visually assess and appreciate Nigeria's steady journey of progress and in development since her independence from Britain in 1960. Functions of Pictures In the Mass Media The mass media, particularly the print cannot be complete without photographs or pictures. It is pictures that add colour, embellishment and illustrative outlook to the written words presented in newspaper and magazine news stories, features and articles. They, therefore, not only demonstrate, but also clarify, describe, illuminate, expand, brighten and authenticate the claims of the presented write- ups of the story. This lays credence to the popular Chinese adage that a picture tells a thousand stories. It is, therefore, no wonder the popular and significant roles pictures play today in the mass media. All these: television, cinema, social media, books, journals, newspapers and magazines, especially the last two, massively use photographs as tools for achieving their communicative goals. They contribute to the news. Indeed, one would marvel sighting a newspaper or magazine without pictures. In fact, some readers today would just go through the pictures accompanying stories to get the gist and move on, hence journalism is today not complete without photographs. Pictures today arouse readers’ interest and attention a great deal because they give the readers a sense of participation or at least witnessing it personally which makes it easier to identify with people and situations and become emotionally involved. Also, pictures make it easier to retrieve stored information from memory, this happens because pictures are encoded in terms of both their graphics and written content. The presence of an additional memory code for picture items would enhance their probability of being recalled because if one was forgotten or simply unavailable for retrieval, the other could be used instead. So also to say that pictures present more details than words do and provide a better grasp of relationship. This clarification allows readers to form accurate visual memories of unfamiliar people and event and to remember events done in the past. 6  In Journalism today, picture serves some useful purposes in newspapers. Thus pictures can be identified majorly as follows: I Credibility: A photograph makes whatever is pictured seem more real and true.lt lends credibility to the story as people are more inclined to what they see than what they read. 2 Visual appeals: Pictures are visual magnets, drawing readers into a page or a story. For this reason, pictures often serve as entry points. Part of a picture's visual appeal is the variety it adds to a layout. The contrast between a picture and copy is exciting and eye catching. This is why pictures are usually the dominant element on a page or spread. 3 Vitality: A picture adds life-vitality-to a story in a way no illustration can match. Even a mug shot do wonders as it makes readers feel as though the person in the story is real. Sometimes a Story has vitality, but it needs a picture to highlight that vitality. Pictures are especially suited to bringing out the action on human interest in a story. 4 Aesthetics: Aesthetics has to do with the beauty which is being portrayed in the picture. Pictures add so much beauty to the story and also the newspaper as reader may be attracted to the newspaper just because of the beauty of the picture. 1. Photographs add colour and illustration to stories. 2. Pictures present the essence and gist of stories. 3. They lay emphasis on salient aspects of stories. 4. They are used to dramatize the story of an event. 5. They authenticate the facts presented in stories. 6. They add variety and embellishment to stories. 7. They present the entertainment angle to a story. 8. The fascinating colours attract attention of the audience 9. They assist to fill what could have been empty pages. 10. They present facts to illiterate who cannot read the written words. 11. They demonstrate the claims of the story. 12. They create jobs for specialists in this aspect of journalism. News Photojournalism This is an art of reporting news and events in pictures or complimenting news beat and pieces with pictorial effects, thereby making the news content more real and credible. Photojournalism is as important as written journalism and goes further to say that picture are as good as news stories and sometimes more newsworthy. The interpretation of news in pictures does not need whether one is educated or not as the language is free and literacy bound. The camera reporter makes a great impact and contribution in modulating communication flow especially in news reportage. It jolts the onlookers into sober reflection that Mr. X died; you show a picture of the fatal accident that conveys the reality of such a death. 7 In news reporting, we have hard and soft news photographs, while hard news photographs cover accidents and disasters of all kinds, outbreak of wars, government major events and other very important moves or activities that may affect the members of the society, soft news photograph cover subjects like official opening ceremonies, foundation laying of projects, seminars and so on. Most of our endeavours today require the services of photojournalism through news photographs in order to create the awareness of an impact on the different segments of the society. News photography is now an ever present witness to events everywhere. It helps to stimulate research far beyond the limitations of sight. A Professional Photo-Journalist Photojournalists can broadly be divided into two: professional and amateur. The first kind is the photojournalist, who as a result of his education, training and kind of engagement, dedicates and specializes in shooting, processing, editing and presenting as news materials photographs as a calling and means of his or her livelihood. This kind of photojournalist may be personally or under the employment of the government or corporate organization. As an independent practitioner, a professional photojournalist produces, packages and sells his/her products to the mass media and other news organizations for use. This means that he/she procures his/her own photographic equipment: computers, photo studio and photo laboratory. This he manages as a business, using it as a platform to showcase his/her professionalism, enterprise, expertise and business acumen. The other kind of photojournalist is the amateur. This photojournalist is not attached to any media institution, but works on his own, not employed by either the government or a corporate body and engages in photojournalism out of interest, curiosity and personal gratification. Although some of his output may eventually be given out for use by media organs or sold, the primary goal is not to make profit. It is under this category that we have citizen photojournalists or photojournalists, who independently cover news events and forward the outcome of such coverage for public consumption. Most news organizations rely on this kind of photojournalism to enrich their programmers and reports with photographs of events they would have ordinarily been able to cover, due to inadequacy of resources, political or geographical barriers or any other reason. Who is a Photojournalist? A journalist tells stories. A photographer takes pictures of nouns (people, places and things). Photojournalists capture "verbs." This sounds simple, but a room of professional photographers was dumbfounded by this realization. Even after a full-length lecture with documentation and visual evidence, half of the photographers still had no clue what the difference was. Although photojournalists can take properly exposed and well composed photographs all day long, they hunt verbs. They hunt them, shoot them and show them to their readers. Then, they hunt more. A photojournalist has thousands of pairs of eyes looking over his shoulder constantly. The readers are insistent: "What are they doing?" "What did you see?" and "What happened?". 8  Readers can't see what they missed with a noun. It works if the question is specific enough (what did the condemned building look like?), but most answers require verbs. To tell a story, a sentence needs a subject, a verb and a direct object. News photos need the same construction. Photojournalists tell stories with their images. Also, words are always used in conjunction with photojournalist's images To be a photojournalist, we must understand the relationship between the image and the basic elements of language (all languages - worldwide). The photojournalists have the opportunity to develop a high level of expertise in their beats and develop valuable contacts in the field. Some popular beats include: Sports Business Politics Arts and culture Education Crime News Profile Documentary Types of Photo-Journalists 1. Commercial Photojournalist: He /She is highly specialized in nature, always in demand and competitive. The photojournalist is attracted to the world of advertising because of its great financial benefits, advertising is by itself a competitive business, and manufacturers and their advertising agents are always on the look-out for the best among them. It is expected that as journalist, he /she has to work under pressure, thinking up of new ideas requires shooting props from different angle. He / she must be able to use a wide variety of cameras, lenses, and lighting equipment such that with his knowledge he can take expertly a picture of a studio set up, small item or even a still- life production. 2 Fashion Photojournalist: He/ She has the same technical expertise and facilities as the general advertising photographer. Fashion photography is about style and showing clothing, shoes, hats hair dos and make-ups to the best of possible advantage. He most of the time work with the models and so must have the right temperament and personality. Must be able to coax and encourage the model to display the garment in the most attractive way while still retaining a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere. 3 Industrial photojournalist: industries utilizes the services of photojournalist who can either be in- plant or freelance. The freelance is a specialist who is contracted in to do some work which are considered to be outside the scope of expertise of the in-plant man. The industrial photojournalist is expected to do a wide variety of job such as covering the firm’s sports day AGM, do general publicity captions or produce illustrations for brochures catalogue and industrial manuals. 9  4 Freelance Photojournalist: This type of journalist offers his or her services for hire. Many of the careers mentioned above fall within the province of freelance but work on the field in a distinctive style. There are generally many freelance journalists in practice. 5 The Press photojournalist: Must have an eye for news in the same way as any other journalist must have nose for news. He must be able to interpret a story and decide immediately how he would take advantage of the best opportunities to take pictures. He has to sum up a complicated situation with just one photograph and rarely has second chances. Must be able to take the required shots very quickly. Speed is of essence, indeed bearing in mind that the right mode of shots must be captured and the pictures must be ready for printing deadline or they will not be of any use. Qualities of A Professional Photo- Journalist A good photojournalist as being a practical person is expected to be able to work on his or her own. In this regard he /she is expected to have certain qualities 1. He /she should have a blend of artistic and scientific skills with the ability to deal with people and put them at ease. 2. He / she being able to obtain a good photofinishing it is important to combine artistic and technical skills 3. He/she should pay attention and should look out for granted details that might distort perception 4. He/she must be patient and have good powers of concentration, plus an interest in color and design 5. An event-tempered, logical cameramen uses his visually imaginative approach to take and process good picture, qualities, scenes and statements. 6. He should have the ability to interpret the editor’s ideas. 7. The photojournalist requires practice, talent and experience to shine on the profession. The following are the Attributes of a Professional Photojournalist: a. He is that educated and trained journalist and photographer, who is able, as a result of his wealth of knowledge to present an event in such pictorial sequence as to further convey the communicative aspects of the incident. b. He is able, through the proper editing or cropping of photographs, to give the gist values of the pictures. c. Understands the news value of every event and is able to harness it photographically. d. With his or her skills, expertise, ingenuity and professionalism, he or she complements the duties of the journalist. e. With an imaginative picture, the photojournalist brings out the entertainment attraction of a story. f. His or her professional upbringing equips him or her to understand when to or not to take and when to or not to present a particular picture in order to avert legal or other negative consequences for his media organisation. g. The photojournalist respects the code of ethics of the photojournalism profession. 10  Photography Tools: Camera Types and Parts 1. Point and Shoot camera (P&S) Point and shoot cameras mean just as the name implies, point the camera at something and trip the shutter. The camera does all the work for you. Unfortunately, the camera is rarely as smart as the photographer so the results can be sharp. Point and shoot cameras are often abbreviated as P&S. These cameras started out as a fixed lens that focused about 4 feet in front of the camera with a fixed aperture and shutter speed. It was basically a box with a shutter. Then the lab that developed the film did what it could to fix the exposure. Today's P&S cameras are much more sophisticated. While there are still some P&S film cameras, such as the disposable or one time use cameras, most P&S today are digital Features of P & S Camera Metering systems, which calculate the amount of light entering the camera Variable shutter speed Variable aperture Zoom lenses Automatic focus Preset controls for various photographic situations such as: ▪ landscapes ▪ night-time ▪ people ▪ close-up or ▪ macro The biggest drawback to P&S cameras is that many do not have a through the lens (TTL) viewfinder. This means that what you see through your viewfinder may not be what you capture on film or digital media. P&S cameras are usually small and fit into a pocket or purse. They are best used for casual picture taking where capturing the memory is more important than creating a marketable image. The following are the series of this type of camera: Popular P&S Cameras Kodak Easyshare series Canon Sureshot series Canon Powershot series Pentax Optio series Nikon Coolpix series 2. SLR and DSLR SLR stands for Single Lens Reflex and DSLR stands for Digital Single Lens Reflex and refers to how the light enters the camera. These are the cameras you see many professionals and serious amateurs lugging around. These cameras have a larger body than most P&S cameras and interchangeable lenses. While SLRs started out a fully manual, where the photographer had to control all features including focus, most of these cameras are capable of acting in a fully automatic mode just like a P&S. Many now allow the photographer the freedom to also take control of all functions or any combination of 11  functions. These cameras allow for great control over the photography process and allow the photographer to take images not always possible with a P&S. Features SLRs and DSLRs allow for control over: shutter speed aperture film speed focus point magnification (through the use of various lenses) capability for add-on flashes remote releases additional battery packs. The following are the series of this type of camera Popular DSLR Cameras Canon Digital Rebel Nikon D90 Pentax K10D Types of digital camera also vary as there are digital cameras which come in various shades and sizes. Such as we have in the following 1. Digital cameras: are made in a wide range of sizes, prices and capabilities. The majority are camera phones, operated as a mobile application through the cell phone menu. Professional photographers and many amateurs use larger, more expensive digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) for their greater versatility. Between these extremes lie digital compact cameras and bridge digital cameras that "bridge" the gap between amateur and professional cameras. Specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and astrographs continue to serve the scientific, military, medical and other special purposes for which digital photography was invented. 2. Compact cameras: are designed to be tiny and portable and are particularly suitable for casual and "snapshot" uses. Hence, they are also called point-and-shoot cameras. The smallest, generally less than 20 mm thick, are described as subcompacts or "ultracompacts" and some are nearly credit card size. Most, apart from ruggedized or water-resistant, incorporate a retractable lens assembly allowing a thin camera to have a moderately long focal length and thus fully exploit an image sensor larger than that on a camera phone, and a mechanized lens cap to cover the lens when retracted. The retracted and capped lens is protected from keys, coins and other hard objects, thus making it a thin, pocketable package. Subcompacts commonly have one lug and a short wrist strap which aids extraction from a pocket, while thicker compacts may have two lugs for attaching a neck strap. 12 Compact Digital Cameras Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use, sacrificing advanced features and picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo. Most have limited motion picture capability. Compacts often have macro capability and zoom lenses but the zoom range is usually less than for bridge and DSLR cameras. Generally a contrast-detect autofocus system, using the image data from the live preview feed of the main imager, focuses the lens. Typically, these cameras incorporate a nearly silent leaf shutter into the lens but play a simulated camera sound for skeuomorphic purposes. For low cost and small size, these cameras typically use image sensors with a diagonal of approximately 6 mm, corresponding to a crop factor around 7. This gives them weaker low-light performance, greater depth of field, generally closer focusing ability, and smaller components than cameras using larger sensors. Some cameras have GPS, compass, barometer and altimeter. And some are rugged and waterproof. Starting in 2011, some compact digital cameras can take 3D still photos. These 3D compact stereo cameras can capture 3D panoramic photos for play back on a 3D TV. Parts of Camera Body: The camera body is the most basic part of a camera. It is the box that holds the film and the camera controls. The lens is either built-into the body or attaches to the body. The body also houses a battery that powers the shutter, flash, light meter, and other controls. There are generally rings to connect a strap to the camera for easy carrying as well. Lens: The lens is the part of the camera (or an attachment for the camera) that focuses light into the body and onto the film. The aperture is also contained within the lens. Viewfinder: The viewfinder is the hole in the back of the camera that a photographer looks through to aim the camera. Some viewfinders use a mirror inside the camera to look through the lens (TTL). Other viewfinders are simply holes through the body of the camera. Viewfinders that look through the lens (TTL) allow the photographer better accuracy when composing their images. Shutter Release: The shutter release is a button that raises a shutter inside the camera for a specified amount of time to allow light to expose the film. In a SLR camera, this button also raises a mirror that allows the photographer to use the viewfinder to look through the lens itself. Many SLR cameras also allow a remote release of the shutter via a cable or IR remote. In automatic cameras, the shutter release also causes the film to advance to the next exposure. In manual cameras, there is a "film advance lever" that must be turned in order to advance the film and the exposure counter. 13 Shutter: An opaque piece of metal or plastic inside your camera that prevents light from reaching the film or digital sensor. The shutter is opened, or released, by the shutter release button. The amount of time the shutter stays open is controlled by the shutter speed setting. Shutter Speed Control: The shutter speed control is the point on your camera where you set the amount of time the shutter will remain open. On automatic cameras, this is generally accessed through a menu and displayed on a screen on the back of the camera. In manual cameras, the shutter speed is generally controlled and displayed on a knob on the top of the camera. The shutter speed is measured in fractions of a second but is generally shown as the denominator only. For example, 1/60 of a second is shown as 60. Film Speed Control: The film speed control allows you to calibrate your camera's meter to your film speed so that you will get an accurate exposure reading. The film speed may be set electronically through a menu or via a knob/button on manual cameras. On manual cameras, the control is often integrated with a film speed indicator on the top of the camera. On automatic cameras, the control and film speed indicator are generally separate with the film speed being indicated on the electronic menu display on the back of the camera. F-Stop Control: On automatic cameras, the F-Stop control is on the camera. For older manual cameras, the F-Stop is controlled on the lens. The F-Stop controls allow you to set the size of the aperture within the lens. Film Compartment: In film cameras, there is a compartment in the back of the camera to hold the film. This compartment has a space for the film canister, sprockets to guide the film across the exposure area, a pressure plate to tighten the film, and a take up reel to wind the film. When the roll of film has been completely exposed, automatic cameras use a small motor to rewind the film. Manual cameras require the photographer to turn a small "rewind knob" to manually rewind the film into the canister. If the film is not rewound before the back compartment is opened, the film will be exposed to enough light to ruin the images. Flash: Most cameras now include a built-in flash. Some are simple light bulbs built into the front of the camera. On SLR cameras, most built-in flashes pop-up out of a protective storage area on the top of the camera. External flashes can often be attached via the "hot shoe mount" or, in the case of manual cameras, an small connector port on the front of the camera that accepts a cable attached to a distant flash. Hot Shoe Mount: The hot shoe mount is a point on the top of most SLR cameras where an external flash can be connected. It is called a "hot shoe" because it has electrical contact points and guide rails that fit over the bottom of the flash like a shoe. Lens Ring Mount: On cameras that allow interchangeable lenses, there is a metal ring on the front of the camera where the lens will attach. This ring contains electrical contact points to connect the lens controls to the camera body. There is a small button or lever to the side of this mount called the "lens release button" that releases the lens from the body. 14 Camera Controls: In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following: Camera Support We have better photo quality with the supporting of camera which includes tripod stand monopods, riffle grips. We shall be discussing these one after the other. 1 Tripod Stands: There are many variations available and they are useful in natural field of photography picturing the plant, bird animal habitat and so on. A shaky tripod is worse than useless. The tripods must have a good head, which is adjustable in three directions. A small ball-and- socket head is useless as it will not hold a camera with any weight of lens. 2 Monopods: these are single telescope tubes with some form of camera support at the top e.g. a ball and socket head. They are much less rigid than a tripod stands and do not allow long exposures, but they can reduce camera movement and they are very useful for semi action photography. They are generally lighter and more portable than a tripod stand. 3 Riffle Grips: these are useful devices which comprise an adjustable stock with a shoulder butt at the near end a hand grip at the far end. The camera fits on an adjustable plate to allow it to be used close to the eye and the shutter is tied via a long cable release from a trigger on the hand grip. This combination of steadying the set up against the shoulder and releasing the shutter with a cable- release makes for a very smooth operation and they can add to your ability to avoid camera shake by two steps of the shutter speed. They are highly mobile supports and they have been found to be most useful when photographing birds or mammals with relatively long focal length lenses fitted. 4 The Beam Bag: this is fascinatingly useful and versatile supports that consist of a strong bag filled with dried beams, polystyrene similar material and closed up. The shape should be rectangular rather than square so that it could be stood on end for higher viewpoint. 5 A- G- clamp -with a head -on: can be clamped to fence posts or car windows for support, though it is rarely solid enough to use a long lens and the support is hardly where you want it. The ground spike generally is pushed into the ground to give a firm ground level support though personally we have found the beam bag to be better for most situations The Camera Technique As we have the script writer making use of his / her subjects to make series of sentences a photojournalist maintains the subject, yet takes different pictures, the camera man of photographer does this by identifying the point of action, also visualizes the picture statement to support each point and decides on how to change from one statement to another. It is therefore important that a photojournalist knows the techniques involved in his profession. 1 It is important to aim or place the camera at revealing angles, it is important to reveal facial expressions. 15 2 If performers are interacting with each other, do not distract them by your signs, instead, cross your camera, (if in the studio) but if outside with the still camera, simply change your position. 3 Do not allow performers to cover other performers or objects that ought to be seen. So when taking the shot keep the performers within frame and when framing keep important elements away from the edges of the picture. 4 Keep the subject in focus well illuminated. You can attain greater depth of the field by changing to lens of shorter focal length. Professional Photo Studio Photography and photojournalism have gone through series of evolutionary changes; having started from the scratch to this day’s phenomenal institution and profession which is highly respected as a critical segment of modern journalism. Perhaps there is no other source of this tremendous gains and achievements comparable to technology. It has right from the cradle provided the instruments on which the progress of photography is pivoted. From very small and light cameras, we today have digital cameras with memory cards, mobile phones, laptop computer cameras, mobile phones and camera phones linked to satellites allowing “for mobile transmission of images from almost any point on the earth.” Technology has bequeathed photojournalists with relevant tools needed in establishing photographic studios and laboratories helpful in accomplishing his tasks. These are two different but often combined organs necessary for generating state of the art pictures capable of telling the story in convincing and professional communicative fashion. Snapping the best of photographic shoots is one thing; producing high quality photographs from them another. It, therefore, takes reputable and efficient laboratory or studio instrument and of course quality manpower to produce from them. Accordingly, quality photo studios and laboratories are the so called engine house for well finished and qualitative photographs. Establishing these could be costly. This stems from the numerous technological equipment required to effectively kit a modern photo studio or laboratory in this age of digitalization. Hence some photojournalists rely on and resort to external and commercial photo studios and laboratories to develop and print their photographs. However, for that practitioner who can afford it, that is the cost of procurement of the technologies and their installations, personal photo studio and laboratories remain the best often. This would allow for independent and unfettered practice of the profession and qualitative service delivery. 16  Setting Up A Studio The following are steps involved in getting a photo studio 1 Get a good room. The room should be bare and white. Ideally, the floor should be concrete and painted with industrial grade white paint. Avoid carpet, floor padding, or rugs; much of the equipment is electrical, and this could cause a fire hazard. 2 Work on the proper lighting. (a) Lighting is the most important part of photography. First make sure that your studio will not allow any outside light sources to creep in. For most photography, a small crack under a door won't be a problem, but even that can ruin certain types of shot (b) Three umbrella lights are sufficient for any size studio. These are spotlights that actually face away from your subject, and point at a large white umbrella which reflects and diffuses the light evenly. They will provide a constant light source to create the lighting "temperature" for your shoots. They are each mounted on a tripod that allows them to swivel, tilt, be moved around the studio, and adjust the height of the lamp. (c) Flash or strobe lights remain off until activated, and then flash once as you take the picture. They can be mounted to your camera or placed around the room and activated by remote. For a professional studio, you should have three umbrella strobe lights (separate from the previously mentioned three umbrella lights), one flash which can be mounted to the top of your camera, and one ring flash which can be mounted around the lens. The "satellite Strobes" should be configured to flash when the shutter button on your camera is pushed, (so that they flash when you take the picture) via wireless remote. All professional grade cameras made within the last few years will have a wireless IR sensor that will allow you to configure wireless strobes to operate this way. The top-mounted and lens-mounted flashes can be plugged into your camera via a cord, since they are mounted to the camera itself. Make sure to configure the cord so that it does not get in the shot. You will rarely be using all of these lights at once, but should have them in order to create the perfect lighting. 3 Have a lot of extra bulbs and batteries for all of your lights and other equipment handy at all times. 4 Have platforms to use. Stages are any platform that can be used to stand, sit, lean, or place things on. Have as many different stages as possible. Flat wooden crates with no seams or edges work best, and should be spray-painted black. It is good to have sturdy, solidly-built stages that can take a bit of weight and also have a bit of weight to them. It is best if one side is left open so you can use them for storage for things such as backdrops and other soft props. 5 Have tripods. One tall and one short tripod are enough to allow you any shooting angle. Get tripods that allow full tilt, rotation, height adjustment, and are light but sturdy. 6 Be prepared to measure the light. Light meters are used to measure the "temperature" of the light in the room. It is integral to proper lighting. 7 Have a way to operate equipment remotely. The remote shutter button is a device used to remotely activate the shutter and take pictures without touching the camera itself. This is important if your camera is mounted on a tripod and must not be moved between shots. Wireless remotes are the best, as this prevents you from straying too far while holding the remote and pulling your camera by the cord. 17 8 Have memory cards and film. Most professionals use Digital SLR cameras, which require memory cards. Have either multiple cards, or upload them to another electronic device. ie: laptop, desktop etc If using film, make sure to label each roll carefully, and have proper storage in a cool, dry place. 9 Use fans. All of this lighting and equipment will produce a lot of heat. Take into account the fact that you want all of the outside light sources blocked, and you are probably not going to be in a well- ventilated area. Have at least five fans blowing away from your subject and dissipating the heat as best as possible. Fans can also be used to create dramatic effects with fabrics, clothing, and hair. 10 Have a lot of extension cords to plug in all of your equipment. Get power strips that have fuses and surge protection. Label them, and do not plug one power strip into another power strip. Use on power strip for all your fans, one for your umbrella lights, one for your strobe lights, etc. This way, an electrical problem is easily identified, and there is not too much power being drawn from any single socket. If your studio does not have an ample power supply for all your equipment, you will need a separate battery back-up or amp. Types of Studio Light Studio 18 Photo Studio Photo Studio with Lighting 19 Understanding Photo Editing In Mass Media Human beings are not like other animals. We don’t take most of our food substance raw: we either refine or process the raw food items in order to make it not only consumable but also good for our health. News stories are also like food items. News stories are sent to the media houses by reporters in its crude forms. The final output, (the published news stories) are the refined forms of the crude news sent in. Similarly, photographs are also refined to meet the taste of the readers. If photographs are not well edited before they are published, the implication is grievous than that of news stories. The reason is that, it is possible to refute the interpretation of the words in a news story but it is not easy to deny a published photograph, which mirror the event. It is obvious that photographs capture a moment in time. Photos are generally regarded as "factual," as opposed to a drawing or painting, which would be the artist's interpretations. Photos tend to be trusted more, because they accurately depict what is in front of the camera at the moment the picture is taken. In journalism, photographs are supposed to be accurate in order to depict the exact incident. The essence of photo editing therefore does not mean that the pictures will be totally transform to connote a meaning order than the original meaning or shows something different than what really happened. You can now see that the essence of photo editing in journalism is neither to glamorize the event nor to beautify the object unlike the commercial photographers, whose objectives is to please their clients with beautified photos. Photo Editing in Nigeria Photo editing was first experience in Nigeria during the era of the first newspaper, Iwe Irohin fun Awon Ara Egba ati Yoruba. Though, the newspaper started with only words without any image, images were later added particularly when the newspaper gave room to advertising messages. The first sets of pictures in the newspaper were art works and line drawing. As technology improved and different cameras of various functions were manufactured, the essence of photojournalism was felt and the need irresistible. As you have noted earlier that photo editing start from chosen what to shoot and which shot tells the story better, it will therefore clear to you that the beginning of photojournalism marked the beginning of photo editing. Photo editing simply means an act of making pictures fit for publication. Photojournalists take many shots from which the editor choose one or more that best tell the stories. The process of selecting the best shot that either tells or supports a story and the refine of the crude shots to meet the taste of the readers is known as photo editing. Editing is the art of adding the correct amount of lighting and sharpness to the photo. If your photo comes out too dark, you can edit it to make it lighter. Or if you’d like to crop something out of a photo, editing allows you to do that. 20  Reasons for Photo Editing As we have said earlier, you as a newspaper reader may find some photographs disgusting if they are published raw without editing. Editing is not or not only to beautify the photographs to be published, there are many substantial reasons why photo editing is a must in journalism. Let’s have a look at some of the reasons: 1. Editing for clarity: Photographs to be published may not be clear enough for the media audience to interpret. It may be that the photograph is too small to be visible or so blurred that the image(s) could not be identified. It may also be that the colour of the image in the photograph submerged in the background colour, making it difficult to separate the image from the background. The reasons for taking shots that are not clear are: a. Quality of the camera b. How qualify the photojournalist and his/her experience c. Climatic condition and the angle from which the shot is taken d. Type of shot taken e.g. motion shot Compare the photographs below, which one do you consider clearer? Do I hear you say Figure 1? You have just noticed the essence of photo editing for clarity. Figure 1 Figure 2 21  2. Editing for Specific Targets: Photo editing sometimes is done to achieve specific goals. It could be done to lay emphasis on specific parts of a photograph or to hide the parts that do not support the news story. For example in a photograph of road accident victim, photo editing could be done to lay emphasis on the injured parts and to hide other parts of the body of the victim. Consider the photographs below 3. Editing for Moral Value: Some photographs are obscene and do not conform to our moral standard and value. Any photograph that disregards human dignity and glamorizes indecency and immorality needs to be edited in order to protect our moral value. Will you consider the picture below morally okay in the Nigerian newspaper? 22  Figure 4 4. Editing for Beautification: Sometimes, photographs are edited to beautify the image or scene of an incident if there is need for it. If the photograph of an important figure is taken in a ceremonious function, the photograph could be beautified in a way that will not change the context but rather better portray the event. If you critically study the figure five below, you will notice that it was not well edited as you could find red-eye in the photograph (see the arrow). Red-eye defect occurs when more light than require lands on the object while taken the shot. It can be removed during editing to make picture not only beautiful but also to look as if it was not taking with the defects. Figure 5 23  From The Guardian Thursday, April 24, 2014, Pg. 43 5. Editing for Legal Implication: Some editing are done to photographs published in newspaper to avoid running out of law. Many of the media houses have been found guilty of publishing photographs indiscriminately without given consideration to legal implication. For example, if the photograph of a criminal is taken with some onlookers at the background, the background needs to be edited and make plain. Otherwise, it may be misinterpreted that the persons in the background are also criminals, and indeed it is libelous. Also, the faces of accused persons must be blurred by the media houses when publishing or when showing on the television until the court of law pronounces them guilty of the offence. You will find much about blurring and other editing terms in the subsequent Unit of this Module. You can see an example of the accused persons, whose faces were blurred in the figure 6 below. 24  Figure 6 From The Guardian Friday, April 25, 2014, Pg. 15 Editing Concepts In Photo-Journalism 1. Captioning A caption is a short sentence, accompanying a photo, which provide additional information on the content of the photo and leaves no questions in the mind of a reader. John Smock (2008) agrees that a photo caption should provide the readers basic information needed to understand a photograph and its relevance to the news. It should be written in a consistent, concise format that allows news organizations to move the photo to publication without delay. He argued further that professional standards of clarity, accuracy and completeness in caption writing should be as high as or higher than any other writing that appears in a publication. A poorly written caption that is uninformative or worse: misleading can diminish the impact of a good photo and undermine its credibility. If readers can’t trust the accuracy of the simple information included in a caption, why should they trust what they read in the rest of the publication? 25  A caption is also known as a cutline. It can also be described as a written summary that briefly explains a photograph. A caption includes who, what, when, where of a photograph. In most photo captions, the first sentence identifies the people and place in the photograph and supplies the date and location where it was taken. The second sentence should provide contextual information to help readers understand what they are looking at. From The Guardian Wednesday , July 2 , 2014, Pg. 5 Caption Photograph Tips for Writing Good Captions You should have it in mind that there is no generally approved standard for writing photo caption. But a good caption must fulfil certain conditions and the person writing the caption must put some rules into consideration. Some of the rules are listed below: a. Trite writing should be avoided. Do not point out the obvious by using such phrases as “looks on,” “is shown” and “pictured above.” b. Don't editorialize. The cutline writer should never make assumptions about what someone in a picture is thinking or try to interpret the person's feelings from his or her expression. The reader should be given the facts and allowed to decide what the feelings or emotions are. c. Avoid the known; explain the unknown. The cutline writer should avoid characterizing a picture as beautiful, dramatic, grisly or other such descriptive terms that should be evident in the photograph. If it's not evident in the photograph, telling the reader won't make it happen. However, the cutline should explain something about how the picture was taken if it shows something not normally observable by the human eye. For example, was a wide-angle lens used? Or time-lapse photography? Explanations also are needed for special effects, such as the use of an inset or a picture sequence. 26 d. Reflecting the image. Cutline writers should make sure that the words accurately reflect the picture. If a picture shows two or more people, the cutline writer should count the number of identifiable people in the photo and check the number and sex of the people identified in the cutline to make certain that they match. Special precautions should be taken to make sure that the cutline does not include someone who has been cropped out of the original photo. e. Always check spelling. The cutline writer should check the spelling of names in the story against the names that a photographer has provided to see if there are discrepancies. The editor also should be sure that names in the cutline are the same names used in the story. It should not be John Smith in the cutline, but John P. Smith in the story. f. Shorter is better. Cutline writing triggers a temptation to use long sentences. Avoid that temptation. The cutlines that accompany Associated Press photos are notorious for their rambling sentences. They need to be rewritten into clear crisp sentences. 2. Blurring Blurring is a photo editing technique in which part of the image in a photograph is faded, covered or protected from the readers’ view or access. The backgrounds of photographs are sometimes blurred in order to give the image in the photographs the attention it deserves. It is most often done to protect the dignity of the person in the photograph or as a means of protecting our moral value and guiding against indecency. The best Wildlife photography will always show a crystal-clear animal against a blurry background. This is done by using just the right combination of lens, aperture, and shutter speed, and really helps to make the subject stand out. If a background of branches and leaves were as sharply focused as the bird in the foreground, it would be very easy to lose the bird in the background "noise." 3. Scaling, Cutting and Fixing: This process involves using a technique to determine what space a photograph will occupy when it appears on a page, printed or electronic. 4. Cropping: is a technique used for removing the unwanted subjects and irrelevant details from a photo, to change its aspect ratio, and to improve its overall composition. The technique plays an important role in various photo editing tasks, e.g., making a thumbnail for easily visualizing a large number of photos or printing a digital photo of an arbitrary size on paper of a specific size. Large photo collections are now available with the widespread use of digital cameras and the Internet. Automating photo cropping is essential for editing such a large amount of photos without requiring iterative user operation. 5. Bleeding: It simply means a system of intentionally running photographs off the edges of the pages of newspaper. Photo bleeding refers to Photograph or line that runs off the page when printed. Photograph may bleed on any side and on one, two, three or all four sides (in latter case either a cover or double-page spread) according to position on page. Bleed pictures always loose a percentage of picture area due to trimming of printed sheet down to published or trim size. 27 When any image or element on a page touches the edge of the page, extending beyond the trim edge, leaving no margin it is said to bleed. It may bleed or extend off one or more sides. Photos, rules, clip art, and decorative text elements can bleed off the page. A bleed is usually an intentional design element; however, sometimes an unintentional bleed can occur when the page is trimmed too much. This can happen with margins that are not wide enough Bleed refers to objects that extend beyond the edge of the printed page. This page tells you why bleed is needed, how much is needed and how to fix issues with bleed. For an example of the use of bleed, look at the image below. The picture of the monkey and the gray rectangle go beyond the edge of the page. They ‘bleed off’ the edge of the paper. Full bleed means that an image extends beyond the edge of the page on all four sides. 6. Retouching: Face retouch will help your usual portrait picture look like a cover photo. Remove red eye, make skin smoother, whiten teeth, remove blemishes and add a special touch to your photo with a dreamy soft focus effect. Before Retouching After Retouching 28 29  Ethical Principles in Photo Journalism 1. Accuracy a. Keep an accurate record of all you shoot including time, date, location, circumstances and details of all the parties involved in the event you are covering. b. The research for the story behind the images you are shooting should be well sourced, supported by strong evidence, examined and tested, clear and unambiguous. c. Don’t just go for the shocking, sad and emotionally charged images; to do so may be exploiting the victims and failing to uncover the cause of the distress. d. Never take what you are told at face value; always check every detail with two independent sources. e. Always be aware that there will be those who will want to set up an event for their own purposes; be wary if you are offered a seemingly amazing photo opportunity. f. Be sure that what you photograph accurately reflects the true situation and is not a distortion of reality; on the other hand, never ignore the one-off that could reveal an aspect of neglect or harm that has so far gone unnoticed. g. You don’t need to have the whole story behind what you see, but you do need to be totally open, honest and transparent about what you know and what you don’t know. h. Never follow the pack; they may be being led and fed by those with ulterior motives. i. Build your own trusted contacts so that you are able to distinguish between fact and spin. j. Be careful when filming an incident or a subject when you are not culturally familiar with the background and circumstances; what may seem shocking to you may only reflect one element of a complex story. k. Don’t crop or edit beyond what is technically necessary to display the image; you could distort more than the picture – you will know instinctively when you have crossed the line between editing and manipulation. l. Never stage-manage a shoot to hype up the story; your job is to report through images what has actually happened. 2. Don’t be Partial /Be Balanced a. Be careful when filming topics about which you are passionately concerned; you could lose your objectivity and do more harm than good. b. If you have an interest in covering an event, make that absolutely clear in the text that accompanies your work. c. Aim to offer all sides of the story in context and in a way that enables the audience to reach a reasoned and informed conclusion. d. Your only motivation should be to inform the public debate and shine a light on wrongdoing and abuse. e. Being impartial and objective means not being prejudiced but being fair and balanced; be sure to recognize when you are getting carried away. f. Always rise above your own personal perspective and try to see a story from other points of view; otherwise your work is likely to be one sided and limited in scope value. 30 g. Ensure that you provide a balance of issues and views through your camera lens, that you reflect a wide range of opinions, are prepared to explore conflicting views and that no significant point of view is left out. 3. Taste & Decency and Offence a. Do not be afraid of offending if the information you are covering is in the public interest. b. Avoid gratuitous imagery that shocks rather than enhances the understanding of the audience; you are not there to sensationalize or impress. 4. Respect the Privacy and Consent of the Subject a. Respect a person’s privacy, especially the vulnerable; their situation should not be seen as a rung on your career ladder. b. Ensure that those you are filming are aware of how and where the images are going to be used. If they are to be used online as well as in print, ensure that those being filmed understand that the images will be searchable forever. 5. Respect the Integrity of the Subject a. Never expose someone to ridicule and humiliation; they have to live with the fallout the photograph will bring, whereas you may have moved on to the next story and suffer no consequences. b. Always remember you are working as a video/photo journalist to inform the public debate, not for your own glory or to try to make yourself look good. c. Never expose a subject to danger in order to improve the shot; take what is natural, warts and all. 6. Respect the Dignity of Your Profession Never take payment, promises or favours in return for covering an event in a certain way or submitting a photograph that serves a cause. This is because media houses could be indicted if it takes picture or publish photographs: a. Without the consent of the victims or their relatives, b. Which is likely to ridicule or cause disrepute to the subject, adversely affect his business or likely to indict him, 31 Photography and The Law Introduction Let us be reminded that photojournalism is the recording of events for the public through photography it therefore involves publication of news through photography. Just as we have laws and copyright issues in writing books, the film industry so also it is applicable to photography. The right of the original owner cannot be infringed upon in his or her work without taking the necessary permission before taking any action on the work. What is Copyright Law in Photojournalism? This is another law of Mass Communication that affects the job of a photojournalists. This Law gives the original owner of a photograph the right to control the use of his photograph by another person or group without his consent. The author of a negative owns the copyright as it resides in the work of a author such as a book, a photograph, a piece of music an art audio visual works sound recording and even commercials. If the photojournalist is employed by a newspaper or magazine house, the copyright here belongs to the newspaper or magazine house that employs him or her. It is also illegal to photograph certain secret places such as defense industry, airport building, and other high security zones. The essence of this restriction is to prevent the leaking of important security information to the enemies of a country or spies through such photographs. According to Stella J.E (1997), Copy right was originally established by statue in England in 1556, prior to the time the only protection that existed was under the common law. The law extended copy right protection from the former maximum of 56 years to the life of the author plus 50 years. For works made for hire and copyrighted by others as well as anonymous materials, the new term is 75 years from publication or 100 years from creation whichever is shorter. The copyright council of Nigeria 1988 Before the copyright council, Nigerian copyright laws were loose with minimal stipulated penalties which are now being replaced. The federal military Government then during the General Babangida administration in 1988 promulgated a decree known as decree 47 of 1988 which established the Nigerian Copyright Council, which would administer copyrights in Nigeria. The copyright body was inaugurated and consisted of members drawn from publishers, writers, lawyers, the academic community, National library etc. Photography and Obscenity It is an offence to publish an obscene material. A material is obscene at common law in Nigeria, if it has a tendency to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences and into whose hands a publication of the sort may fall. Obscenity from another angle may be seen as a relative factor in the sense that what may be seen as terrible or taboo in a particular community may not be same in another community but there should be laws guiding against what should not be seen on the public for the sake of morality. At this point the photojournalist is left to use his or her professional training to decide and not get him or herself into trouble. However, pornographic magazines and films are highly questionable and this is the more reason why the legislature, police, army have tight security post that checks and control photojournalists on illegal photography escapades. 32  Photography and Sedition Seditious intention therefore means an intention to bring into hatred or contempt or to excite disaffection against the person of the Head of the Federal Military Government and intention to promote feelings of ill- will and hostility between different classes of population in Nigeria. Any person who does or attempts to do an act with a seditious intention or who prints, publishes or reproduces any seditious publication is guilty of an offence. If a photojournalist takes a picture of the Head of State or a government official, which may in any way incite violent reactions against such a personality or lead chaos or revolt against the government, that photojournalist is guilty of a seditious offence. Invasion of Privacy The Nigerian constitution seems to be a bit silent over invasion of privacy. The right of privacy of course is the right to be left alone and is a very serious legal inhibition on the photojournalist. The photojournalist has no business taking a photograph of a person in his swimming pool without his or her consent. This laws protects the individual from been seen as societal form or frame. It protects the individual from having his photograph or his name published without his consent and so limits unauthorized publicity. In the work of Stella J.E(1997) analysis of four perspectives of invasion of privacy was discussed as: 1 Intrusion 2 Embarrassing private facts 3 Misappropriation 4 False lights 1. Intrusion: no one has the right to intrude into someone’s privacy. There are two common offences under intrusion. A. physical intrusion this means using a hidden electronic device to get some facts about someone without his / her knowledge. B. The news published must show its newsworthiness. This is known as the consequence publication of news. 2. Embarrassing private facts: there are certain things one may not want discussed in the public arena no matter how factual. Therefore, individual have the right to keep this truth of facts as the case may be 3. Misappropriation: one misappropriates when he uses something the exclusively belong to another person and as such deprives the original author of that work of his / her commercial property. 4. False light: this is where the journalist presents a false picture of someone. This means giving a distorted picture or picture with exaggerated finishing of someone. 33