Midterm Exam Study Guide Looking Back On Growing Up Fall 2024 PDF

Midterm Exam Study Guide Looking Back on Growing Up Fall 2024 The test will consist of 60 multiple choice questions. Articles are fair game if we spoke about them specifically in class. * Movies will be included but as context for a concept you should be able to understand from the class material...

Midterm Exam Study Guide Looking Back on Growing Up Fall 2024 The test will consist of 60 multiple choice questions. Articles are fair game if we spoke about them specifically in class. * Movies will be included but as context for a concept you should be able to understand from the class material. Introductory Lectures 1. Developmental trajectories & timing (e.g., continuity vs. discontinuity; stability vs. change, etc.) a. Continuity vs. Discontinuity i. Continuity suggests that development is a gradual and cumulative process, where early experiences lay the foundation for later stages. For example, language skills might develop progressively from simple words to complex sentences. ii. Discontinuity posits that development occurs in distinct stages, with qualitative changes in abilities or behaviors. This is often illustrated by theories like Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, where children move through different phases of thinking. b. Stability vs. Change i. Stability refers to the idea that certain traits or behaviors remain relatively consistent over time. For instance, a child's temperament may remain stable into adulthood. ii. Change, on the other hand, highlights that individuals can experience significant shifts in their behavior, personality, or abilities due to various factors, such as life experiences, relationships, or environmental influences. c. Timing in development can be crucial, with specific periods (often called critical or sensitive periods) during which certain skills or behaviors are most easily acquired. For instance, language acquisition is often thought to be most effective during early childhood. d. Lifespan Perspective emphasizes that development is a lifelong process, with changes and growth occurring at different rates and in different contexts throughout a person’s life. 2. Themes of developmental theories a. Nature vs nurture i. Are developmental changes the result of innate characteristics (nature) or environmental influences (nurture)? 1. How much of our behavior is predetermined?  2. How much of our behavior is learned? 3. How much is both? 4. Why is it important to keep considering this distinction? b. Continuity vs discontinuity i. Is human development a gradual and continuous process in which individuals build on previously acquired knowledge. and skills or is it a discontinuous process, involving a series of discrete stages in which new knowledge and behaviors emerge abruptly? 1. How do we describe the pattern of developmental change? a. Smooth, continuous processes that continue through the lifespan in a similar rate of change over time. b. Series of abrupt shifts or discrete stages i. Ex; weight vs Piaget’s cognitive development theory ii. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): ○ What Happens: Babies learn through their senses and actions (like touching and looking). ○ Key Idea: They develop object permanence, which means they understand that things still exist even when they can’t see them. 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): ○ What Happens: Children start using language and symbols but think in a very literal way. ○ Key Ideas: Egocentrism: They find it hard to see things from others’ perspectives. Animism: They believe that inanimate objects (like toys) are alive. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): ○ What Happens: Kids can think logically about concrete (real) things and can perform basic math operations. ○ Key Idea: They understand concepts like conservation (the idea that the amount stays the same even if the shape changes). 4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up): ○ What Happens: Teens start thinking abstractly and can handle hypothetical situations. ○ Key Idea: They can think about possibilities and use logical reasoning.  c. Stability vs change i. As individuals develop, do their characteristics remain stable over time or do they change? ii. For example, if an individual is very talkative and outgoing as a child, will this trait remain constant into adulthood? 1. Are the characteristics we are born with that stay over time? 2. Can we change our personality if we want to? 3. Can experiences, relationships change our personality? d. Early vs later life experiences i. Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later life events just as important 1. Psychoanalytic theories by Freud theorize that our childhood experiences form the basis for all adult trajectories. → early experience shapes who we are. 2. Childhood abuse victims largely go on to have fulfilling, well adjusted lives. Most do not perpetrate violence against others or get involved in violent relationships ( But around 30% do). 3. Babies series Netflix Nature and Nurture* a. Nature i. Innate Abilities: 1. Reflexes: Babies are born with reflexes that help them survive, like grasping and sucking. 2. Temperament: Some babies are calm, while others are fussy or sensitive, showing that some traits are inherited. ii. Physical Growth: 1. The show tracks how babies grow in size and develop motor skills, highlighting their natural physical changes. iii. Senses: 1. Babies have built-in preferences for certain sounds and sights, showing how their biology affects their experiences. a. Ex: Babies will look for their mother's smell and sound for comfort. b. Nurture i. Parental Influence: 1. Attachment: The bond between a baby and their caregivers is crucial for emotional development. How parents respond to their baby’s needs affects their feelings of safety and security. 2. Parenting Styles: Different ways of parenting impact how babies explore and learn.  ii. Social Interactions: 1. Language Development: Talking, singing, and reading to babies helps them learn language. Interaction is key! 2. Play: Playing with others helps babies develop problem-solving skills and learn to manage their emotions. iii. Cultural Differences: 1. Families from different cultures show how beliefs and practices shape parenting. iv. Nature and nurture influence each other. A baby’s natural trait can affect how caregivers respond, and this, in turn, shapes the baby’s development. Shows that how babies grow and learn is a result of both biology and their experiences. Attachment 1. Key ingredients for successful attachment, phases of attachment a. Warmth = affection, touch, nurturing gestures b. Responsiveness = aware of child’s needs and responding appropriately ( not too much or too little, “just right”) c. Tronick - Still face experiment → how babies react to their caregivers’ emotions → A mother plays with her baby showing happy face and talk then suddenly stops responding and keep a blank “still” face i. At first the baby tried to get the mother’s attention by smiling and making a sound. When the mother does not respond, the baby gets upset and cries. But when the mother starts interacting with the baby again, the baby quickly calms down and reconnects. Phases of Attachment 1. Phase 1: Birth to 3 months a. Social gestures w/ limited selectivity → not yet attached to specific caregivers i. Ex; Social & visual smiling, babbling, crying, reflexes 2. Phase 2: 3 mos - 6 mos a. Focusing on familiar people show preferences → start to form trust and expect caregivers to respond to their needs(groundwork for secure attachment) 3. Phase 3: 6 mos - 3 years a. Intense attachment & active proximity(closeness)-seeking → understand their caregiver is a secure base for exploration i. Ex; Separation anxiety, fear of strangers 4. Phase 4: 3 years - end of childhood a. Partnership behavior → understand caregivers’ feeling and needs → able to communicate their need more effectively b. Learn to explore independently and begin to understand their caregiver will return after separation. 2. Ainsworth & the Strange Situation a. The Strange Situation i. In the experimental room → Alone the parent does not participate while infant explore then a strangers enter, the parent leave inconspicuously → Test how infant response to stranger ii. Second time the infant is alone and after the cavergiver returns → Infant’s behavior upon parent’s return classifying the infant into one of the four attachment categories. b. Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation procedure → her theory focus on how the bond between a child and caregiver influences psychological development 3. 4 patterns of attachment & the caregiving styles they reflect: secure, insecure – avoidant, ambivalent/resistant, disorganized Four attachment Styles 1. Secure Attachment a. Show signs of missing parent during separations b. On reunion, seek physical closeness and often try to maintain contact c. Readily soothed by parents then return to play/explore d. Caregiving style → sensitive care by consistently available and responsive caregiving 2. Insecure-Avoidant a. Don’t cry on separation from parent b. Avoids and ignores parent on reunion c. Little or no physical contact seeking → no anger, distress, look independent d. Focuses on toys/ environment → Response to parent appears unemotional e. Caregiver been incentive, unresponsive, and rejecting 3. Insecure-Ambivalent a. May wary/distressed even before separation with little exploration b. Still with parent throughout procedure c. Upon return act uncertainty such as reach out or push away d. Does not settle and take comfort in parent’s return → does nor return to explore e. Caregiver having inconsistent responsiveness 4. Disorganized a. Disorganized and/ or odd behaviors in parent’s presence b. Crying at the door and running away c. Walk towards mother with face turn to one side d. Freezing in a daze state/ Rocking and repetitive behaviors e. Seems fearful of their attachment figures f. Caregiver who is abusive and neglect or parental mental illness 4. Harlow’s monkeys and attachment a. Harlow use rhesus monkeys → create two types of artificial “mothers” i. Wire mother - made of wire but provide food from a bottle ii. Cloth mother - made with soft cloth give comfort but no food 1. The baby monkey preference cloth mother even when wire mother has food 2. Show sign of anxiety and fear if cloth mother is not there when place in new environment iii. This highlight that emotional and physical comfort are critical in forming attachments showing security and warmth is needed as basic needs like food  1. Monkeys raised with only wire mothers show to have social deficits and difficulties in relationships when they grew older. 5. Adult Attachment Interview a. Parent’s way of narrating the “story” of their own early family life connects with their children’s Strange Situation classification (attachment type) b. Explore how an individual’s early attachment experiences influence their current relationships and attachment styles with their child. i. Grice's 4 maxims of discourse: 1. Quality - be truthful & have evidence 2. Quantity - be succinct, yet complete 3. Relation - be relevant or perspicacious 4. Manner - be clear & orderly c. Questions like what was growing up like for you? 6. Matilda* a. Insecure Attachment i. Neglectful parents: Matilda’s parents are neglectful and dismissive of needs and abilities cause Matilda to feel unloved and unsupported. ii. Matilda experience with her parent may contribute to feeling insecurity but her resilience and intelligence allow her to seek alternative b. Seeking Nurturing Relationships → Overcoming early adversity i. Miss Honey as a Secure Base: Miss Honey represents a nurturing figure for Matilda. Her kindness and support offer Matilda a secure based ⇒ explore her abilities and stand up to authority figure like Miss Trunchbull ii. Matilda breaks the cycle of neglect by escaping her negative home environment and finding a loving relationship with Miss Honey → reflects that individuals can create a new attachment style, even after experiencing insecure attachment. Pregnancy, Birth & first year 1. Trends in hormone levels during pregnancy & associated symptoms a. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) i. Levels rise rapidly around the first 10 weeks of pregnancy then decline and stabilized ii. High hCG often causes early pregnancy symptoms such as nausea and vomiting ( morning sickness). b. Progesterone i. Levels increase steadily throughout pregnancy, especially during the first two trimesters to support pregnancy. ii. High progesterone levels help maintain the uterine lining and prevent contractions. iii. Symptoms like breast tenderness, fatigue, bloating and mood swings. c. Estrogen i. Rise significantly during the last two trimesters. ii. Promotes the development of the placenta and fetal organs. iii. Symptoms like breast tenderness, changes in skin pigmentation and mood swings. d. Both estrogen and progesterone decrease right before labor/delivery 2. Teratogens: definition, examples, timing & vulnerability a. Teratos = “monster” in Greek b. Espoused the fetus to harmful things/factors results in functional defects, malformations, growth restriction i. Environmental Toxins: Mercury, lead, and pesticides, etc ii. Nutritional Deficiency: LAck of folic acid = spina bifida, neural tube defects iii. Consuming alcohol can cause Fetal Alcohol syndrome = hyperactivity: low IW, developmental delay, poor social cues. iv. Maternal Health Factor: Diabetes, Obesity, etc c. First Trimester is when major organs and structure are forming so exposure during this time can lead to significant malformations i. Second and Third Trimesters although the risk of major malformations decrease but can still affect growth, functions and oval development d. The Impact of teratogens can vary widely depending on the person’s genetic, amount and length of exposure to teratogens and the mother’s overall health. 3. Maternal stress during pregnancy and epigenetics a. Stress & Trauma during pregnancy can impact the development of fetus in the womb i. Affects the mother’s mental health can lead to anxiety and depression → cause postpartum Depression  ii. Creating a long term change in basic biological functioning such as cognitive and behavioral issues later in life b. Ex; Dutch Famine c. Epigenetics: functional changes to the genome not caused by changes in the actual DNA sequence 4. Breastfeeding & formula pros & cons a. Pros i. Short-term digestion → easier to digest compared to formula ii. Immune benefits for baby (common infections, allergies) iii. Long-term nutritional benefits (Diabetes, heart disease) iv. Help other recover from birth ( oxytocin stimulates uterus to contract, return to prepregnancy weight) v. Feeding the baby formula is okay → It’s important for mothers to sleep to avoid mental health issues. vi. FED IS THE BEST! b. Cons i. Physical discomfort: some mother experience pain or difficult with latching ii. Time consuming, need to walk u every few hours to feed the baby 5. Premature infants and development a. In US ½ million babies were premature per year b. Different outcomes statistically by # weeks premature c. Gestational Age Matters: Children born at 37/38 weeks tend to do worse academically compared to those born at 39 weeks or later. d. Birth weight doesn’t affect the achievement of the babies but how early the babies were born → since babies are still developing so birth early mean they lack some development compare to child who were born in full term e. Youngest to survive was 23.5 weeks premature born f. Child born earlier might need extra helps in school to do well 6. Postpartum depression (prevalence, effect on infant development, attachment) a. After the baby's born → sometime we forget how much supports mother needs and how vulnerable they are after giving birth i. Feeding the baby every two hours. ii. Lack of SLEEP causes a lot of stress and keeping another person alive and safe is stressful. iii. How the mother feels affects the baby. 1. Emotionally unstable 2. Struggle to attend to babies need (Difficulty concentrating) 3. Lack of engagement with the baby due to feeling like hopelessness 7. Infancy: reflexes, growth patterns, brain development, gross & fine motor development, language, basic learning processes, memory, media/screen time a. Reflexes i. Present a birth, many disappear, and many have evolutionary benefits 1. Rooting - Turning their head to find food 2. Stepping 3. Grasping 4. Swimming 5. Moro - Startling when they feel sudden movement 6. Babunski 7. Startle 8. Eye Blink 9. Sucking 10. Gag 11. Crawl reflex b. Baby’s brain triples in weight during the first 2 years c. At around 2 years the synapse formation will slowly decrease (synapse pruning) 4 years to 6 years old. i. Synapse Pruning = process where the brain eliminates some of the connections(synapses) between nerve cells 1. Around 36 week gestation - Newborn - 3 months - 6 months - 2 years → the brains make a lot of connections to help child learn and adapt 2. As we grow, the brain will removes the connections that are ot used often/ needed 3. The more often the connections are used will be stronger d. Baby’s weight is tripled by 1st birthday e. Social, emotional, cognitive, and motor systems make huge advances in first year 8. Temperament (dimensions & classifications) & goodness of fit a. Temperament = the natural mood and personality traits a child is born with affecting how they respond to the world. b. Infants can be categories as: i. Easy (40%) → Flexible ii. Difficult (10%) → Feisty iii. Slow to Warm (15%) → Cautious iv. Mixed (35%) c. Jerome Kagan Studies infants through adolescence i. Two main types of temperament: inhibited (shy and cautious) and uninhibited (bold and outgoing) 1. 75% stability  2. Especially in response to novelty or stressful situations ii. He suggests that some personality traits are natural and connected to how a child reacts to the world. d. Basic Learning Processes i. Classical conditioning 1. Learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a learning response. 2. Ex: mom picking up + food = baby stops crying when picked up in anticipation of food ii. Operant Conditioning 1. Positive and negative consequences shape responses in the future a. Ex: baby smiles more when it realizes the attention it gets from parents iii. Habituation 1. When you get used to a stimulus and start decrease in response or attention to the stimulus 2. Ex: baby turns away after the same toy is presented several times. iv. Imitation and Social Learning 1. Soon after birth babies can imitate simple faces, and are socially interested in the actions of others. They can learn through modeling, and imitation of valued others. e. Social Learning and Development i. Born with ability to display basic emotions ii. Imitation (Meltzoff) iii. Smiling/social smiling iv. Social referencing → when child uses the emotional cues of others to help them decide how to respond to unfamiliar things v. Development of Self: rouge in the mirror and knowledge of limits 1. Rouge Test = test self-recognition in children by placed small dot of rouge (red) on child’s nose without their knowledge → if tried wipe off the not when look in mirror show self-recognition → around 18 to 24 months of age 2. Knowledge of Limits = Child’s understanding of their own abilities and boundaries, both physically and socially → physical limits: learn not to jump off /climb high place after experiencing it → Social limits: understand social rule like sharing or waiting for their turn vi. Development: As child grow they test and explore their limits → overtime learn what behavior are acceptable and safe → self-independence 9. Juno* a. Pregnancy  i. Unexpected Pregnancy: The film begins with Juno discovering she is pregnant after a brief encounter. This highlights the realities of unplanned pregnancies, especially for teenagers. ii. Decision-Making: Juno navigates various options—abortion, adoption, and parenting—reflecting the complex decisions many face during pregnancy. b. Birth i. Preparation for Birth: Throughout the film, Juno prepares for the arrival of her baby, grappling with her feelings about motherhood and the responsibilities that come with it. ii. Support Systems: The film showcases the importance of support from family and friends during pregnancy, illustrating the emotional and practical aspects of preparing for birt Early Childhood and Play 1. Toddlerhood: major milestones and tasks, independence, emotional control, physical growth, cognitive/language development, social and emotional development a. Major Milestones age 1-3 i. Physical/Motor 1. When they start using object to walk like using toys 2. Walk → Climbing → Dressing → Riding tricycles/scooters → cutting → drawing simple figures/letters ii. Cognitive 1. Exploring the world; what happens when I do this? 2. Cause-effect → categorization → multistep directions → self-directed play and earning iii. Language 1. Explosion of language around 2 years old (24 months) 2. First words → 2-word phrases → vocabulary explosion → full sentences/variety iv. Social/Emotional 1. Separation from caregiver → social connections to peers → sharing → self-control → emotion regulation/identification → independence 2. Self-control → not having tantrum, not being physical when they are upset 3. When language come and have the emotional regulation and supports → less tantrum b. Self control → ability to use word to express themself → have consequences in place and show them representation to help them better understand i. Process of self-control 1. Language 2. Real and Imagined Consequences by caregivers 3. Cognitive Maturation (thinking and learning abilities) → Child can present her/himself with mental representations of consequences and provide distractions when tempted to engage in rule-breaking c. Tasks for Toddlerhood i. Potty Training ii. First day of school (separation from caregiver) iii. Cooperative play → working together and moving towards the same goal iv. Language explosion (2-3 years old) v. Empathy, shame, and more complex feelings 2. Enriched environments vs. deprived environments and critical periods a. Enriched Environment i. Know motor, cognitive, and social/emotional milestones  ii. Read to your kids iii. Take care of yourself to maintain a warm and responsive interaction style iv. Provide sensory information and talk to your kids about what they are seeing/smelling/touching/tasting/hearing v. Any educational media for children under 2 is nor impactful compared to talking to humans or play because they don’t digest information until 2. b. Deprived Environment i. Emotional Neglect ii. Limited Social Interaction iii. Abuse/Trauma iv. Limited resource c. Critical periods i. The brain can adapt and learn quickly. 1. Language Learning: Kids are best at picking up languages between birth and about age 7. After that, it becomes much harder. 2. Vision: Babies need visual experiences in their first few months. If they don’t get this, it can lead to problems with their eyesight. 3. Attachment: The bond between a child and their caregiver is crucial in the first few years. Disruptions can cause issues with relationships later on. 3. Major milestones of toddlerhood (age 1-3) 4. Marshmallow test (what does it test, what does it mean?) a. Test: Self-Control(ability to wait) and Delayed gratification(How well children can postpone immediate pleasure in order to achieve a greater reward later.) b. The ability to wait has linked to better outcomes later in life, such as higher academic achievement, better social skills,a dn healthier behaviors c. Self-regulation and impulse control in children → important for navigating life’s challenges. 5. Discipline, research outcomes for physical punishment a. Impact of physical punishment i. Results in more aggression by children ii. Lower moral development iii. Reduced self-esteem iv. Contributes to mental health problems v. Often associated with abuse vi. Works immediately → child stops often because they are upset not because they understand vii. Produce a boomerang effect in the long term → misbehavior comes back and increases over time. b. Used Time out consistently and strategically(don’t give Time out for every actions) c. Time out is useful for younger age because Time out means to them is no attention, no toys, and boring 6. Types of play a. Unoccupied - 1 - 3 months i. Touching their own body Solitary Play ii. Playing by themself and very limited interaction b. Onlooker play - around 2 i. Watching older kid plays ii. Help them gain confident by learning by look how to play and interact c. Parallel play i. Doing their own thing, but near each other d. Associative play - 3 -4 i. Their is interacting but no collaborative play like share goal → doing their own thing e. Cooperative Play - 4 - 5 i. Play with each other and have more of a common goal 7. Functions of play a. Hartley, Frank & Goldenson’s Functions of Play 1. To imitate adults 2. To play out real roles in an intense way 3. To reflect relationships & experience 4. To express pressing needs 5. To release unacceptable impulses 6. To reverse roles usually taken 7. To mirror growth 8. To work out problems & experiment with solutions b. Cognitive Development: Play helps children develop thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and creativity. It encourages exploration and experimentation with different ideas and scenarios. c. Social Skills: Through play, children learn to interact with others, negotiate rules, share, and resolve conflicts. This is crucial for developing communication and collaboration skills. d. Emotional Regulation: Play allows children to express their feelings and learn to manage emotions. It provides a safe space to explore different emotional experiences and practice coping strategies. e. Physical Development: Active play promotes physical skills, coordination, and overall health. It helps children develop gross and fine motor skills through various activities. f. Cultural Understanding: Play often reflects cultural norms and values. Through role-playing and games, children learn about their own culture and that of others, fostering empathy and understanding. g. Identity Formation: Through imaginative play, children explore different roles and scenarios, which helps them develop a sense of self and understand their place in the world. 8. Age/milestones of play a. Developmental Stages of Play i. Physical → Birth to 2 years old 1. Uses senses and motor skills to deepen one’s play 2. Learn about relationships between one's body and their environment like putting in their mouth ii. Symbolic → 2 to 7 years old 1. Learns to use symbols of language and mental imagery 2. Increasing playing and pretending a. Child can use an object to represent something else (ex; box as a rocket ship) or can take on different roles through pretend play. iii. Concrete → 7 to 11 years old  1. More logical and flexible in their thinking 2. Games that are concrete and easily understand a. Ex: Lego iv. Rule Governed Game → 12 to adulthood 1. Engage more in hypothetical thinking and abstract reasoning 2. Ex: Sports 9. Imaginary friends a. About ⅓ of children report playing with imaginary companions b. Usually begins in preschool c. Can last through early school age d. Normative until after age 9 (then could be ok, could indicate social issues) e. Half of imaginary friends are the same size as the child imagining them but 1 in 10 could fit in the child’s pocket 10. Beginning of Life* a. Connection to Early Childhood i. Prenatal Development: 1. Before birth, a baby’s development is influenced by the mother’s health and stress levels. Good care during pregnancy helps the baby’s brain and body grow well. ii. Early Infancy: 1. After birth, the first year is crucial. When caregivers respond to a baby’s needs and provide stimulation, it supports the baby’s overall development. b. Role of Play i. Learning Through Play: 1. Play is how children learn about the world. Even infants play by reaching for toys and exploring their surroundings. ii. Social Skills: 1. Play often involves parents or caregivers. These interactions help children learn to socialize and bond with others. iii. Thinking Skills: 1. Through play, children develop problem-solving and critical thinking. Activities like stacking blocks help them learn and grow mentally. iv. Emotional Expression: 1. Play gives children a way to express their feelings and understand emotions, helping them cope with experiences. v. Physical Growth: 1. Active play helps children develop their motor skills and coordination, which is important for their health. Gene-Environment Interactions 1. Basic definitions: human development, embryology, neurobiology, culture a. Human Development: The way people grow and change across the lifespan. b. Embryology: The study of animal development between the fertilization of the egg and the time when the animal is born. c. Neurobiology: The study of cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior. d. Culture: The beliefs, values, norms, and practices shared by a group of people that influence their behaviors and ways of thinking. 2. Basic genetic terminology: gene, allele, DNA/RNA/protein, genotype, phenotype, heritability, range of reaction, epigenetics. a. Gene: A portion of DNA located at a particular site (locus) on a chromosome that codes for the production of certain kinds of proteins. b. Allele: An alternate form of a gene i. Typically, there are 2 alleles, one inherited from the individual's mother & one from the father c. Genotype: The particular set of genes a person inherits from his or her parents. d. Phenotype: The visible expression of the person’s particular physical & behavioral characteristics i. Created by the interaction of a person’s genetic makeup with the environment e. DNA/RNA/Protein i. DNA: The molecule that carries genetic information ii. RNA: A molecule that helps in the process of making proteins from DNA iii. Protein: A molecule made from amino acids, essential for body structure and function f. Heritability: A measure of how much a trait’s variation in a population can be attributed to genetic differences. g. Range of Reaction: The idea that a genotype can produce a range of phenotypes depending on environmental conditions. h. Epigenetics: The study of change in gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. 3. Common misconceptions about genes and gene-environment interactions a. Genes limit potential. b. Strong genetic effects mean that environmental influences are not important. c. Nature and nurture are separate. d. Genetic influences diminish with age. e. Genes regulate only static characteristics. 4. Patterns of inheritance: Mendelian (dominant-recessive) vs. multifactorial with example  a. Mendelian Inheritance (Dominant-Recessive) Mendelian inheritance follows simple patterns based on the laws proposed by Gregor Mendel. It involves traits controlled by single genes with dominant and recessive alleles. i. Dominant Allele: A version of a gene that can mask the effect of the recessive allele. If at least one dominant allele is present, the dominant trait will be expressed. ii. Recessive Allele: A version of a gene that is masked by the presence of a dominant allele. The recessive trait is expressed only when both alleles are recessive. iii. Example: Eye Color iv. Brown Eyes: Represented by the dominant allele (B). v. Blue Eyes: Represented by the recessive allele (b). 1. Genotypes and Phenotypes: a. BB: Brown eyes (homozygous dominant) b. Bb: Brown eyes (heterozygous) c. bb: Blue eyes (homozygous recessive) b. Multifactorial Inheritance Multifactorial inheritance involves traits that are influenced by multiple genes (polygenic) and environmental factors. These traits do not follow simple dominant-recessive patterns. i. Example: Height ii. Height is determined by many genes, each contributing a small amount to the overall trait, along with environmental influences such as nutrition and health during childhood. 1. Factors Influencing Height: a. Genetic Factors: Multiple genes contribute to potential height, with each having a small effect. b. Environmental Factors: Nutrition, health during growth periods, and physical activity can significantly affect how tall someone grows. 5. Passive, evocative, and active gene-environment interactions a. Passive G-E Interactions i. Environment created by parents w/ particular genetic predispositions encourages the expression of similar tendencies in their children. b. Active G-E Interactions i. People’s genes encourage them to seek out experiences compatible with their inherited tendencies. c. Evocative G-E Interactions i. Individual’s inherited tendencies to evoke certain environmental responses 6. Shared vs. nonshared environments a. Shared environment: i. A set of conditions or experiences shared by children raised in the same family. ii. Ex; eating the same food, share bedroom(sleeping arrangements), same neighborhood b. Nonshared environment: i. A set of conditions or activities experienced by one child in a family but not shared with another child in the same family. ii. Ex; Birth order ( older child have more responsibilities compared to younger child) 7. Gene x Environment Interactions examples a. Virtually all-human diseases result from the interaction of genetic susceptibility factors & modifiable environmental factors. b. Variations in genetic makeup are associated with almost all diseases. c. Genetic variations do not cause disease but rather influence a person’s susceptibility to environmental factors. d. Example: i. Need sunlight exposure to get Skin Cancer → We all have Melanin, darker skin people have more Melanin is less susceptible to skin cancer than lighter skin ii. Cholesterol & Heart Disease → More lipides = blockage in your artery → impact heart or brain → can lead to heart attack iii. Alcohol Dehydrogenase Deficiency → need to be exposed to alcohol iv. Nutrition and Height: A child may be genetically predisposed to be tall, but if they don’t get enough good food, they might not grow as tall as they could. Good nutrition can help them reach their full height. v. Stress and Mental Health: Some people have genes that make them more likely to feel anxious or depressed. However, if they grow up in a supportive and loving environment, they might handle stress better and feel more balanced. vi. Personality Development: A child who is naturally shy might become more outgoing if they are encouraged to socialize and play with others. On the other hand, if they have little social interaction, they might stay shy. 8. Wonder* a. Auggie Pullman i. Emotional Development: Auggie’s journey shows how play and social interactions help him build confidence. His desire to fit in and make friends highlights the importance of emotional support in childhood. His experiences at school allow him to express himself and learn to navigate feelings of acceptance and rejection. b. Jack Will i. Social Skills: Jack’s friendship with Auggie illustrates how play fosters social skills and cooperation. Their shared experiences, such as playing together and participating in school activities, help Jack learn about loyalty, empathy, and standing up for friends, which are crucial social competencies in early childhood. Risk and Resilience 1. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory a. Range from immediate system to more of an existential chronosystem b. The theory consists of several interconnected systems: 1. Microsystem: The immediate environment in which an individual interacts, including family, school, peers, and neighborhood. These settings have the most direct influence on development. 2. Mesosystem: The relationships and interactions between different microsystems. For example, how a child’s experiences at home influence their performance at school. 3. Exosystem: The larger social system that indirectly affects the individual. This includes settings that do not involve the individual directly, like a parent's workplace or community resources. 4. Macrosystem: The overarching cultural and societal norms, values, and laws that shape the environment in which individuals live. This includes things like economic conditions, cultural beliefs, and political systems. 5. Chronosystem: The dimension of time, reflecting the transitions and changes in the individual’s life as well as socio-historical contexts. This considers how events like moving to a new city or significant societal changes impact development. 2. Early childhood adversity, ACES study a. ACEs is the term given to describe all types of abuse, neglect, and other traumatic experiences that occur to individuals under the age of 18. b. The landmark Kaiser ACE study examined the relationship between these experiences during childhood and reduced well-being later in life. c. Types of ACEs i. Abuse ii. Household Challenges iii. Neglect d. Example: 1) Injury → Traumatic Brain Injury, Fractures, Burns  2) Mental Health → Depression, Anxiety, Sucide, PTSD 3) Maternal Health → Unintended pregnancy, Pregnancy complications, Fetal death 4) Infectious Disease → HIV, STDs 5) Chronic Disease → Cancer, Diabetes 6) Risky Behaviors → Alcohol & Drugs, Abuse, Unsafe sex 7) Opportunities → Education, Occupation, Income * Early Adversity Has Lasting Impacts* - ACEs are Cumulative 3. Definitions of resilience, risk, positive adaptation, competence a. Resilience: Processes or patterns of positive adoption & development in the context of significant risk or adversity. → learning to cope with adversity is an important part of healthy child development. b. Risk: A condition that carries high odds for measured maladjustment in critical domains i. Examples: 1. Poverty & community violence 2. Childhood medical illness 3. Parental mental illness c. Positive adaptation: Meeting stage-salient(significant) developmental tasks i. Positive internal function 1. Psychological well-being 2. Physical health ii. Positive external function 1. School or work performance 2. Relationships iii. Competence 1. “ Effective functioning in the world in reference to expectations based on norms of behavior in a given context, culture, and time in history.” → Understanding and adapting to the social norms and values around you to function effectively in society. 2. Developmental tasks: Universal vs. Context-specific 4. Human adaptive systems a. Resilience is powered by basic human adaptive systems shaped through biological & cultural evolution. b. Protective systems which include individual capabilities, social supports & relationships, and community resources. c. “Ordinary magic” → we don’t need to be special be be resilience 5. 4 models of resilience: compensatory/main effect, protective/moderating, challenge, GxE interactions a. Compensatory or “main effect” i. Factors that neutralize or counterbalance exposure to risk or stress. ii. Direct, independent, and positive effects on outcome. iii. Act regardless of risk level iv. Assets, resources & promotive factors v. Ex. Good parenting, high SES, solid cognitive abilities b. Protective or “moderating effect” i. Factor or process has effects that vary depending on the level of risk. ii. The higher the risk = the stronger the effects. iii. buffering” or “ameliorating” influence iv. Ex. Good parenting, airbags, antibodies c. Challenge i. “Manageable doses of exposure to adversity prepare an organism for adversity by strengthening capacity for mobilizing an adaptive response” ii. “Inoculation” or “ steeling” effect iii. Ex. Vaccination 1. Allow for a more robust when you do get the sickness d. Gene-environment interaction i. Moderating influence of genes, behavior & personality on differential reactivity in the context of adversity. ii. Some children are more susceptible or sensitive to the influence of context. 1. differential susceptibility 2. sensitivity to context 6. Developmental considerations in resilience → how different stages of growth affect a person's ability to adapt and thrive despite challenges a. If you feel good in one area of your life you are more likely to do well socially b. There is coherence in the development of competence within domains. i. Ex. Social competence & attachment c. Developmental cascades or “snowball effects” i. How early experiences and behaviors can lead to a series of consequences that impact later development ii. Spreading effects of achievements or failures over time from 1 domain of function to others. d. Severity, chronicity & timing of exposures e. “Late bloomers” & “turnaround i. You might do bad in adolescence but it take a turn as you grow up 7. Luthar on the role of relationships a. “Relationships lie at the roots of resilience” i. Parenting quality ii. Close relationships w/ competent adults iii. Connection to prosocial peers b. Protective Systems i. Attachments Relationships ii. Agency & MAstery Motivation System iii. Intelligence → Problem solving, do task in order, planning ahead, iv. Self- Regulation → control how you respond to things v. Meaning Making → extend resource, life have meaning vi. Cultural Traditions & Religion/ Spirituality 8. Post-traumatic growth a. Transformation - Adaptive function improves in the aftermath of adversity i. Ex: Posttraumatic Growth → Personal Strength, Closer Relationships, Greater Appreciation for Life, New Possibilities, Spiritual Development 1. The tree needs a little adverse like wind to be able to grow so that their roots can grow stronger , similar to humans needing a little of Adverse. 9. Serotonin transporter gene variations and rearing environments in Rhesus monkeys a. Story of S & L Alleles: Rhesus Monkey i. ss= moderate serotonin response to stress ii. ll = robust serotonin response to stress 1. “Good” genes offer protection from “bad” environments. 2. “Good” environment can protect individuals carrying a “bad” gene from poor developmental outcomes. 10. He Named Me Malala* a. Risk i. Advocacy for Education: Malala risks her life by fighting for girls' education in Pakistan. This puts her in danger from the Taliban, who oppose her efforts. ii. Family Support: Her father also takes risks by supporting her activism, showing the dangers faced by those who challenge oppressive groups. b. Resilience i. Overcoming the Attack: After being shot by the Taliban, Malala shows incredible resilience by recovering and continuing her fight for education. ii. Staying Strong: She remains committed to helping girls get an education, using her story to inspire others, even after her traumatic experience. iii. Support from Family: The love and support from her family help her stay strong and focused on her mission.