The Art of Public Speaking PDF

The Art of Public Speaking THIRTEENTH EDITION Stephen E. Lucas University of Wisconsin—Madison with Paul Stob Vanderbilt University THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING, THIRTEENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2020 by Stephen E. Lucas. All righ...

The Art of Public Speaking THIRTEENTH EDITION Stephen E. Lucas University of Wisconsin—Madison with Paul Stob Vanderbilt University THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING, THIRTEENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2020 by Stephen E. Lucas. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995, 1992, 1989, 1986, 1983. No part of this publication may be reproduced or ­distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19 18 ISBN 978-1-259-92460-6 (bound edition) MHID 1-259-92460-2 (bound edition) ISBN 978-1-260-41293-2 (loose-leaf edition) MHID 1-260-41293-8 (loose-leaf edition) ISBN 978-1-260-41287-1 (annotated instructor’s edition) MHID 1-260-41287-3 (annotated instructor’s edition) Portfolio Manager: Sarah Remington Product Developer: Betty Chen Marketing Manager: Laura Young Program Manager: Marianne Musni Senior Content Project Manager: Danielle Clement Content Project Manager: Tim Coté Senior Buyer: Laura M. Fuller Designer: Egzon Shaqiri Content Licensing Specialist: Carrie Burger Cover Image: ©skyboysv/Shutterstock Compositor: Lumina Datamatics All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an e­ xtension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Lucas, Stephen, 1946– author. | Stob, Paul, author. Title: The art of public speaking / Stephen E. Lucas with Paul Stob. Description: Thirteenth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, Identifiers: LCCN 2018038517| ISBN 9781259924606 (bound edition : alk. paper) | ISBN 1259924602 (bound edition : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781260412932 (loose-leaf edition) | ISBN 1260412938 (loose-leaf edition) Subjects: LCSH: Public speaking. Classification: LCC PN4129.15.L83 2019 | DDC 808.5/1—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018038517 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the ­information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered About the Author S tephen E. Lucas is Professor of Communication Arts and Evjue-Bascom Professor in the Humanities at the Univer- sity of Wisconsin–Madison. He received his bachelor’s degree from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and his master’s and doctorate degrees from Penn State University. Professor Lucas has been recognized for his work as both a scholar and a teacher. His first book, Portents of Rebellion: R ­ hetoric and Revolution in Philadelphia, 1765–1776, received the Golden Anniversary Award of the National Communication Association and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize. His major articles include “The Schism in Rhetorical Scholarship,” “The Renaissance of American Public Address: Text and Context in Rhetorical Criti- cism,” “The Stylistic Artistry of the Declaration of Independence,” and “The Rhetorical Ancestry of the Declaration of Indepen- dence,” for which he received the Golden A ­ nniversary Monograph Award of the National Communication Association. His most recent book is Words of a Century: The Top 100 A ­ merican Speeches, Courtesy of Stephen Lucas 1900–1999. Professor Lucas has received a number of teaching awards, including the Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Teaching at the University of Wisconsin and the National Communication Association’s Donald Ecroyd Award for Outstanding Teaching in Higher Education. He is featured in the Educational Video Group’s program on the history of American public address, and he appeared on the History Channel’s documentary on the Declaration of Independence. Professor Lucas has directed the introductory public speaking course at the University of Wisconsin–Madison since 1973. Over the years he has been respon- sible for numerous teaching innovations and has supervised the t­raining of hun- dreds of graduate assistants. He has also served as a judge for the major national English-language public speaking competitions in China, has lectured at numer- ous Chinese universities, has conducted workshops for C ­ hinese instructors on teaching public speaking, and has been instrumental in the development of public speaking as a dedicated course in the English curriculum of Chinese universities. The Art of Public Speaking has been translated into several languages, including Chinese, Portuguese, Korean, ­Romanian, and Japanese. Stephen Lucas and his wife, Patty, live in Madison, Wisconsin, and have two sons, Jeff and Ryan. His interests include travel, sports, art, and photography. iii  Brief Contents SPEAKING AND LISTENING 1 Speaking in Public 2 2 Ethics and Public Speaking 26 3 Listening 44 4 Giving Your First Speech 60 SPEECH PREPARATION: GETTING STARTED 5 Selecting a Topic and a Purpose 74 6 Analyzing the Audience 94 7 Gathering Materials 114 8 Supporting Your Ideas 134 SPEECH PREPARATION: ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech 158 10 Beginning and Ending the Speech 176 11 Outlining the Speech 196 PRESENTING THE SPEECH 12 Using Language 212 13 Delivery 230 14 Using Visual Aids 250 VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING 15 Speaking to Inform 268 16 Speaking to Persuade 290 17 Methods of Persuasion 316 18 Speaking on Special Occasions 344 19 Presenting Your Speech Online 356 20 Speaking in Small Groups 372 APPENDIX Speeches for Analysis and Discussion A-1 iv  Contents A Note from the Author xvi Highlights of the Thirteenth Edition xvii McGraw-Hill Connect and Instructor Resources xviii Acknowledgments xxii Reviewers, Contributors, and Symposia Participants xxiii PART ONE   SPEAKING AND LISTENING Chapter 1 Speaking in Public 2 The Power of Public Speaking 4 The Tradition of Public Speaking 5 Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation 6 Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation 8 Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 8 Nervousness Is Normal 9 Dealing with Nervousness 10 Public Speaking and Critical Thinking 16 The Speech Communication Process 17 Speaker 17 Message 18 Channel 18 Listener 18 Feedback 19 Interference 20 Situation 20 The Speech Communication Process: Example with Commentary 21 Public Speaking in a Multicultural World 21 Cultural Diversity in the Modern World 21 Cultural Diversity and Public Speaking 22 Avoiding Ethnocentrism 23 Courtesy of Josh Shipp Chapter 2 Ethics and Public Speaking 26 The Importance of Ethics 28 Guidelines for Ethical Speaking 29 Make Sure Your Goals Are Ethically Sound 29 Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech 30 Be Honest in What You Say 31 v  Avoid Name-Calling and Other Forms of Abusive Language 32 Put Ethical Principles into Practice 33 Plagiarism 34 Global Plagiarism 35 Patchwork Plagiarism 35 Incremental Plagiarism 36 Plagiarism and the Internet 38 Guidelines for Ethical Listening 39 Be Courteous and Attentive 39 Avoid Prejudging the Speaker 40 Maintain the Free and Open Expression of Ideas 40 Chapter 3 Listening 44 Listening Is Important 46 Listening and Critical Thinking 47 Four Causes of Poor Listening 48 Not Concentrating 48 Listening Too Hard 48 Jumping to Conclusions 49 Focusing on Delivery and Personal Appearance 50 How to Become a Better Listener 51 Take Listening Seriously 51 Be an Active Listener 51 Resist Distractions 51 Don’t Be Diverted by Appearance or Delivery 53 Suspend Judgment 54 Focus Your Listening 54 Develop Note-Taking Skills 56 ©sturti/Getty Images Chapter 4 Giving Your First Speech 60 Preparing Your Speech 60 Developing the Speech 60 Organizing the Speech 63 Delivering Your Speech 65 Speaking Extemporaneously 66 Rehearsing the Speech 66 Presenting the Speech 67 Sample Speeches with Commentary 68 vi Contents  PART TWO   SPEECH PREPARATION: GETTING STARTED Chapter 5 Selecting a Topic and a Purpose 74 Choosing a Topic 76 Topics You Know a Lot About 76 Topics You Want to Know More About 77 Brainstorming for Topics 78 Determining the General Purpose 79 Determining the Specific Purpose 80 Tips for Formulating the Specific Purpose Statement 82 Questions to Ask About Your Specific Purpose 84 Phrasing the Central Idea 86 What Is the Central Idea? 86 Guidelines for the Central Idea 88 Chapter 6 Analyzing the Audience 94 Audience-Centeredness 96 Your Classmates as an Audience 96 The Psychology of Audiences 97 Demographic Audience Analysis 98 Age 99 Religion 100 Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Background 100 Gender and Sexual Orientation 101 Group Membership 102 Situational Audience Analysis 102 Size 103 Physical Setting 103 Disposition Toward the Topic 103 Disposition Toward the Speaker 105 Disposition Toward the Occasion 106 Getting Information About the Audience 107 Adapting to the Audience 109 Audience Adaptation Before the Speech 110 Audience Adaptation During the Speech 110 ©Handout/Getty Images Contents vii  Chapter 7 Gathering Materials 114 Using Your Own Knowledge and Experience 114 Doing Library Research 116 Librarians 116 The Catalogue 117 Reference Works 117 Newspaper and Periodical Databases 118 Academic Databases 119 Searching the Internet 120 Search Engines 120 Specialized Research Resources 120 Evaluating Internet Documents 122 Interviewing 125 Before the Interview 125 During the Interview 126 After the Interview 128 Tips for Doing Research 128 Start Early 128 Make a Preliminary Bibliography 128 Take Notes Efficiently 129 Think About Your Materials as You Research 131 Chapter 8 Supporting Your Ideas 134 Examples 136 Brief Examples 137 Extended Examples 137 Hypothetical Examples 138 Tips for Using Examples 138 Statistics 141  Understanding Statistics 142   Tips for Using Statistics 145 Testimony 148 Expert Testimony 149 Peer Testimony 149 Quoting Versus Paraphrasing 150 Tips for Using Testimony 150 Citing Sources Orally 153 ©Cooper Neill/Getty Images viii Contents  PART THREE  SPEECH PREPARATION: ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING Chapter 9 Organizing the Body of the Speech 158 Organization Is Important 158 Main Points 160 Number of Main Points 162 Strategic Order of Main Points 162 Tips for Preparing Main Points 167 Supporting Materials 168 Connectives 170 Transitions 171 Internal Previews 171 Internal Summaries 172 Signposts 172 Chapter 10 Beginning and Ending the Speech 176 The Introduction 178 Get Attention and Interest 178 Reveal the Topic 183 Establish Credibility and Goodwill 184 Preview the Body of the Speech 185 Sample Introduction with Commentary 186 Tips for the Introduction 187 The Conclusion 188 Signal the End of the Speech 188 Reinforce the Central Idea 190 Sample Conclusion with Commentary 193 Tips for the Conclusion 193 Chapter 11 Outlining the Speech 196 The Preparation Outline 196 Guidelines for the Preparation Outline 198 Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary 202 The Speaking Outline 205 Guidelines for the Speaking Outline 206 Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary 208 Contents ix  PART FOUR   PRESENTING THE SPEECH Chapter 12 Using Language 212 Meanings of Words 212 Using Language Accurately 214 Using Language Clearly 216 Use Familiar Words 216 Choose Concrete Words 217 Eliminate Clutter 218 Using Language Vividly 219 Imagery 219 Rhythm 222 Using Language Appropriately 224 Appropriateness to the Occasion 225 Appropriateness to the Audience 225 Appropriateness to the Topic 226 Appropriateness to the Speaker 226 A Note on Inclusive Language 226 Chapter 13 Delivery 230 What Is Good Delivery? 232 Methods of Delivery 232 Reading from a Manuscript 232 Reciting from Memory 233 Speaking Impromptu 233 Speaking Extemporaneously 234 The Speaker’s Voice 235 Volume 235 Pitch 236 Rate 236 Pauses 236 ©fstop123/Getty Images Vocal Variety 237 Pronunciation 237 Articulation 238 Dialect 239 The Speaker’s Body 239 Personal Appearance 240 Movement 240 Gestures 241 Eye Contact 242 Practicing Delivery 242 Answering Audience Questions 244 Preparing for the Question-and-Answer Session 244 Managing the Question-and-Answer Session 245 x Contents Chapter 14 Using Visual Aids 250 Kinds of Visual Aids 252 Objects and Models 252 Photographs and Drawings 252 Graphs 253 Charts 255 Video 255 The Speaker 256 Presentation Technology 256 Pluses and Minuses of Presentation Technology 257 Planning to Use Presentation Technology 258 Guidelines for Preparing Visual Aids 259 Prepare Visual Aids Well in Advance 259 Keep Visual Aids Simple 259 Make Sure Visual Aids Are Large Enough 259 Use a Limited Amount of Text 259 Use Fonts Effectively 260 Use Color Effectively 260 Use Images Strategically 261 Guidelines for Presenting Visual Aids 262 Display Visual Aids Where Listeners Can See Them 262 Avoid Passing Visual Aids Among the Audience 262 Display Visual Aids Only While Discussing Them 263 Explain Visual Aids Clearly and Concisely 263 Talk to Your Audience, Not to Your Visual Aid 264 Practice with Your Visual Aids 264 Check the Room and Equipment 265 ©Patrick T. Fallon/Bloomberg/Getty Images PART FIVE   VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 268 Types of Informative Speeches: Analysis and Organization 270 Speeches About Objects 270 Speeches About Processes 272 Speeches About Events 274 Speeches About Concepts 275 Guidelines for Informative Speaking 277 Don’t Overestimate What the Audience Knows 277 Relate the Subject Directly to the Audience 278 Don’t Be Too Technical 280 Avoid Abstractions 281 Personalize Your Ideas 283 Be Creative 284 Sample Speech with Commentary 285 Contents xi  Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 290 The Importance of Persuasion 292 Ethics and Persuasion 292 The Psychology of Persuasion 293 The Challenge of Persuasive Speaking 293 How Listeners Process Persuasive Messages 294 The Target Audience 295 Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact 296 What Are Questions of Fact? 296 Analyzing Questions of Fact 297 Organizing Speeches on Questions of Fact 298 Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value 298 What Are Questions of Value? 298 Analyzing Questions of Value 299 Organizing Speeches on Questions of Value 299 Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy 300 What Are Questions of Policy? 300 Types of Speeches on Questions of Policy 301 Analyzing Questions of Policy 302 Organizing Speeches on Questions of Policy 304 Sample Speech with Commentary 310 ©Joshua Blanchard/Getty Images Chapter 17 Methods of Persuasion 316 Building Credibility 318 Factors of Credibility 318 Types of Credibility 319 Enhancing Your Credibility 320 Using Evidence 322 How Evidence Works: A Case Study 322 Tips for Using Evidence 324 Reasoning 325 Reasoning from Specific Instances 327 Reasoning from Principle 328 Causal Reasoning 328 Analogical Reasoning 329 Fallacies 330 Appealing to Emotions 334 What Are Emotional Appeals? 334 Generating Emotional Appeal 335 Ethics and Emotional Appeal 337 Sample Speech with Commentary 338 xii Contents  Chapter 18 Speaking on Special Occasions 344 Speeches of Introduction 344 Speeches of Presentation 348 Speeches of Acceptance 349 Commemorative Speeches 350 Chapter 19 P  resenting Your Speech Online 356 The Special Nature of the Online Environment 358 Kinds of Online Speeches 358 Guidelines for Online Speaking 359 Control the Visual Environment 359 Adapt Your Nonverbal Communication 362 Adjust Your Pacing 362 Don’t Forget Your Audience 363 Practice, Practice, Practice 363 The Technology of Real-Time Online Speeches 366 Choosing the Software 366 Learning the Software 366 Have a Backup Plan 366 Sample Speech with Commentary 367 ©Nick David/Getty Images Chapter 20 Speaking in Small Groups 372 What Is a Small Group? 374 Leadership in Small Groups 374 Kinds of Leadership 374 Functions of Leadership 376 Responsibilities in a Small Group 377 Commit Yourself to the Goals of Your Group 377 Fulfill Individual Assignments 378 Avoid Interpersonal Conflicts 378 Encourage Full Participation 379 Keep the Discussion on Track 380 The Reflective-Thinking Method 380 Define the Problem 380 Analyze the Problem 382 Establish Criteria for Solutions 383 Generate Potential Solutions 384 Select the Best Solution 384 Presenting the Recommendations of the Group 386 Oral Report 386 Symposium 387 Contents xiii Panel Discussion 387  Appendix Speeches for Analysis and Discussion A-1 Lady Liberty A-2 Using a Tourniquet to Save a Life A-3 The Living-Wage Solution A-5 Phony Pharmaceuticals A-7 Make a Wish A-9 Elie Wiesel A-10 Notes N1 Index I1 SPEECHES The Courtyard (Sample Speech with Commentary) 69 Fearless (Sample Speech with Commentary) 70 Supervolcanoes: The Sleeping Giants (Sample Speech with Commentary) 285 Getting the Lead Out (Sample Speech with Commentary) 310 Changing Lives Through the Literacy Network (Sample Speech with Commentary) 338 Presenting the National Teacher of the Year Award Barack Obama 348 Accepting the National Teacher of the Year Award Shanna Peeples 350 Ida B. Wells 353 charity: water (Sample Speech with Commentary) 368 Lady Liberty A-2 Using a Tourniquet to Save a Life A-3 The Living-Wage Solution A-5 Phony Pharmaceuticals A-7 Make a Wish A-9 Elie Wiesel A-10 xiv Contents SPEECHES BY GENRE INTRODUCTORY SPEECHES The Courtyard 69 Fearless 70 INFORMATIVE SPEECHES Space Junk (Sample Introduction with Commentary) 187 Space Junk (Sample Conclusion with Commentary) 193 Beneficial Bacteria (Sample Preparation Outline with Commentary) 203 Beneficial Bacteria (Sample Speaking Outline with Commentary) 208 Supervolcanoes: The Sleeping Giants 285 Lady Liberty A-2 Using a Tourniquet to Save a Life A-3 PERSUASIVE SPEECHES Getting the Lead Out 310 Changing Lives Through the Literacy Network 338 The Living-Wage Solution A-5 Phony Pharmaceuticals A-7 SPEECHES OF PRESENTATION Presenting the National Teacher of the Year Award Barack Obama 348 SPEECHES OF ACCEPTANCE Accepting the National Teacher of the Year Award Shanna Peeples 350 COMMEMORATIVE SPEECHES Ida B. Wells 353 Make a Wish A-9 Elie Wiesel A-10 ONLINE SPEECHES charity: water 368 Contents xv  A Note from the Author W hen I wrote the first edition of The Art of Public Speaking, I could not have imagined the extraordinary response the book would receive. I am deeply appreciative of the students and teachers who have made it the leading work on its subject at colleges and universities across the United States and around the world. In preparing this edition, I have retained what readers have identified as the main strengths of the book. The Art of Public Speaking is informed by classical and ­contemporary theories of rhetoric, but it does not present theory for its own sake. ­Keeping a steady eye on the practical skills of public speaking, it offers full coverage of all major aspects of speech preparation and presentation. It also follows David Hume’s advice that one “who would teach eloquence must do it chiefly by examples.” Whenever possible, I have tried to show the principles of public speaking in action in addition to describing them. Thus you will find in the book a large number of narratives, speech excerpts, and full sample speeches that ­illustrate the prin- ciples of effective public speaking. Because the immediate task facing students is to present speeches in the classroom, I rely heavily on examples that relate directly to students’ classroom needs and experi- ences. The speech classroom, however, is a training ground where students develop skills that will serve them throughout life. Therefore, I also include a large number of illustrations drawn from the kinds of speaking experiences students will face after they graduate from college. Because speeches are performative acts, students need to be able to view speakers in action as well as to read their words on the printed page. The Art of ­Public Speaking has an extensive video program that is available both on DVD and on Connect, McGraw-Hill’s online learning platform. The video program includes over 40 full stu- dent speeches, plus more than 60 speech excerpts. Eleven of the full speeches and 18 of the excerpts are new to this edition. Connect also provides a wide range of teaching and learning resources in addition to the speech videos. These resources include SmartBook, hands-on study tools, ­critical-thinking exercises, speech-analysis questions, worksheets, assessment forms, and more. Taken together, The Art of Public Speaking and the digital resources available on Connect provide a time-tested interactive public speaking program that meets the needs of students and teachers alike. The Art of Public Speaking has changed over the years in response to changes in technology, student demographics, and instructional needs. But it has never lost sight of the fact that the most important part of speaking is thinking. The ability to think critically is vital to a world in which personality and image too often substitute for thought and substance. While helping students become capable, responsible speakers, The Art of Public Speaking also aims to help them become capable, responsible thinkers who value the role of civil discourse in a democratic society. xvi Highlights of the Thirteenth Edition of The Art of Public Speaking Fully updated for the thirteenth edition, the award-winning Art of Public Speaking offers a time-tested approach that has made it the most widely used college text- book on its subject in the world. Seamlessly coordinated with Connect, McGraw- Hill Education’s pathbreaking online program, it supplies a proven set of teaching and learning tools that is without parallel among public speaking books. For experienced instructors, The Art of Public Speaking presents a solid, fully customizable foundation and an abundance of teaching aids from which to choose, allowing for complete teaching flexibility in the course. For novice instructors, its wisdom, steady hand, and unmatched ancillary package instill con- fidence and build success in the classroom from day one. New chapter on presenting online speeches. This chapter gives students the guidance they need for effective online speaking. Distinguishing between recorded and real-time online speeches, it explains the unique features of each and how students can adapt to those features when preparing, rehears- ing, and delivering their speeches. Practical guidelines help students control the visual environment, create a suitable relationship with the online audi- ence, and use online presentation software skillfully and professionally. A full sample speech with commentary illustrates the principles of effective online speaking in action. Video of the speech is available on DVD and Connect, in both final and needs improvement versions. New full student speeches. The Art of Public Speaking video program is designed to bridge the gap between the written page and the spoken word. Toward this end, the thirteenth edition has 11 new full speeches for analysis and discus- sion, all of which are available in both print and digital formats. They include two new speeches of self-introduction, two new informative speeches (includ- ing a demonstration speech), a new persuasive speech, a new commemorative speech, and a new online speech—plus four new needs improvement speeches. Other video resources. The Art of Public Speaking’s video program also includes more than 60 speech excerpts that are fully integrated into the eBook. Stu- dents can access these excerpts—along with full speeches—as they read the book to see the principles of public speaking in action. Whether a full speech or an excerpt, each video illustrates specific skills and concepts from the text. Improved coverage of introduction and conclusions. Chapter 10 features new sample introductions and conclusions with commentary, both of which are also available on video. The chapter also includes a new section on using visual aids to gain attention and interest at the start of a speech. Fresh real-world examples. Every chapter of The Art of Public Speaking opens with an engaging and relevant example, and dozens of additional examples appear throughout the chapters, each demonstrating the importance of pub- lic speaking in school, business, and social settings. As in every edition, examples have been updated for currency, relevance, and interest. Improved discussion of audience analysis. Chapter 6, on audience analysis, has been fine-tuned to take account of changes in audience demographics and A Note from the Author xvii  public attitudes. This is most evident in the treatment of gender and sexual orientation, but there are changes throughout the chapter to keep it up to date. Updated MLA and APA citation models. Chapter 7, on gathering materials, presents all-new sample bibliography entries, reflecting the latest MLA and APA citation formats to help students correctly cite academic, digital, and other sources. As in each edition, the chapter as a whole has been revised to reflect technological changes. Enhanced discussion of presentation technology. Guidance on the use of visual aids and presentation technology has been updated in accord with current developments. Best practices are illustrated by abundant examples in the book and on speech videos. McGraw-Hill Connect and Instructor Resources MCGRAW-HILL CONNECT McGraw-Hill Connect® is a highly reliable, easy-to-use homework and learning management solution that utilizes learning science and award-winning adaptive tools to improve student results. Connect’s assignments help students contextualize what they’ve learned through application, so they can better understand the material and think criti- cally about it. xviii A Note from the Author SMARTBOOK WITH LEARNING RESOUCES SmartBook provides an interactive reading experience that helps students study more efficiently through adaptive highlighting and review. As a student uses SmartBook, it creates a personalized learning path that highlights the most important concepts the student needs to grasp at that moment in time. The learn- ing path continuously adapts by delivering a variety of dynamic digital learning resources that are catered to each student’s needs. These resources help students learn the material, retain more knowledge, and earn better grades. CONNECT EBOOK The Connect eBook makes it easy for students to access their study material on smartphones and tablets. They can study on the go and don’t need Internet access to use the eBook with full functionality. INSIGHT ANALYTICS Connect Insight® provides instructors easy-to-read reports on individual stu- dents, on the class as a whole, and on specific assignments. The Connect Insight dashboard delivers data on performance, study behavior, and effort. Instructors can quickly identify students who are struggling and can help them focus on mate- rial that they need to master. A Note from the Author xix  LEARNSMART REPORTS LearnSmart Instructor Reports make it easy to pinpoint the help individual stu- dents need to improve their performance. Reports also identify concepts and learning objectives that may be unclear to the class as a whole. With this informa- tion, instructors can target areas for discussion and review. Some key LearnSmart reports include: Progress Overview report—View student progress for all LearnSmart modules, including how long students have spent working in each module and which mod- ules they have used outside of those that were assigned. Missed Questions report—Identify specific LearnSmart probes, organized by chapter, that are problematic for students. Most Challenging Learning Objectives report—Learn which topics are most chal- lenging for your students. Reports are organized by chapter and include specific page references. Use this information to tailor your lecture time and assignments to cover areas that require additional attention and practice. Metacognitive Skills report—View statistics showing how knowledgeable your ­students are about their own comprehension and learning. SPEECH CAPTURE Designed for use in face-to-face, real-time classrooms, as well as online courses, Speech Capture allows instructors to evaluate their students’ speeches using fully customizable rubrics. Instructors can also create and manage peer review assign- ments and upload videos on behalf of students for optimal flexibility. Students can access rubrics and leave comments when preparing self-reviews and peer reviews. They can easily upload a video of their speech from their hard drive or use Connect’s built-in video recorder. Students can even attach and upload addi- tional files or documents, such as a works-cited page or a PowerPoint presentation. Peer Review—Peer review assignments are easier than ever. Create and manage peer review assignments and customize privacy settings. Speech Assessment—Speech Capture lets instructors customize assignments, including self-reviews and peer reviews. Connect saves frequently used comments so instructors can apply them in multiple reviews. SUPPORT TO ENSURE SUCCESS www.mheducation.com/connect Connect integrates with your LMS to provide single sign-on and automatic syncing of grades. Integration with Blackboard®, D2L®, and Canvas also pro- vides automatic syncing of the course calendar and assignment-level linking. Connect offers comprehensive service, support, and training throughout every phase of implementation. For guidance on how to use Connect, or to learn tips and tricks from other users, instructors have access to tutorials as they work. Our Digital Faculty Consultants and Student Ambassadors offer insight into how to achieve the results instructors want with Connect. xx A Note from the Author RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS Annotated Instructor’s Edition. The Annotated Instructor’s Edition provides a wealth of teaching aids for each chapter in the book. It is also cross-referenced with Connect, the Instructor’s Manual, the Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM, and other supplements that accompany The Art of Public Speaking. Instructor’s Manual. This comprehensive guide to teaching from The Art of Public Speaking contains suggested course outlines and speaking assign- ments; chapter outlines; supplementary exercises and classroom activities; and teaching tips for all exercises and activities. Test Bank. The Test Bank furnishes close to 3,000 exam questions based on The Art of Public Speaking. PowerPoint Slides with Video Clips. The PowerPoint presentations for The Art of Public Speaking provide chapter highlights that help instructors create focused, individualized lesson plans utilizing high-quality slides developed specifically for the thirteenth edition. Teaching Public Speaking Online. Revised for the thirteenth edition, the Teaching Public Speaking Online manual includes new and revised chapter exercises and discusses performance analytics and approaches to blended and online classrooms. Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. Provides convenient digital access to the Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint Slides, Teaching Public Speaking Online, S­ elections from the Communication Teacher, and the Handbook for Teachers of Non-Native Speakers of English. Speeches for Analysis and Discussion. This DVD contains 45 full-length student speeches, 11 of which are new to this edition. Included are nine sets of paired needs improvement and final version presentations. In each set, the needs improvement version illustrates a work-in-progress that can be compared with the final version to help students understand the differences between an ordi- nary speech and a superior one. A Note from the Author xxi  Acknowledgments “’Tis the good reader,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson, “that makes the good book.” I have been fortunate to have very good readers indeed, and I would like to thank the reviewers and other contributors for their expertise and recommendations. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude to the students at the University of Wisconsin whose speeches provided the material for many of the examples in the book. I am grateful as well to the teaching staff of Communication Arts 100 and especially to Sarah Jedd, assistant course director, for her splendid work in that capacity and for her unerring insights about the book and its pedagogy. Thanks go to Ann Weaver for her work on the Instructor’s Manual and the Test Bank; to Jennifer Cochrane for her generous advice about the online speaking chapter, as well as for her supplement on using The Art of Public Speaking in an online course; and to Michael Trevis for his help with the figures in Chapter 19. Kim Berry, Sue Zaeske, KC Councilor, Tim Pierce, Diane Reid, Margaret Procario, and Joan Cartwright offered valuable counsel. I am appreciative to Shanna Peeples for permission to print her speech accepting the National Teacher of the Year Award, which appears in Chapter 18. Josh Shipp, whose inspiring story opens Chapter 1, granted permission to use the photograph of him that appears there; Megan Bate, of Brilliant Partners, facilitated the approval process. Karyn Morrison helped track down textual sources. Jen Richards did a superb job of photo research. Above all, I am indebted to Paul Stob, who has worked with me in various capacities on four editions of the book and has become indispensable to its success. Over time, he has become more and more a collaborator, as opposed to a contributor, and with this edition his name is, fittingly, on the title page. I have been fortunate to work with many talented and dedicated people at McGraw- Hill. Sarah Remington joined the book in this edition and provided astute editorial direc- tion. Betty Chen skillfully juggled a mass of details and kept the entire project on track. Marianne Musni expertly managed the production process. Esther Go, Briana Porco, ­Danielle Clement, Tim Coté, Carrie Burger, Egzon Shaqiri, and Jamie LaFerrara all made valuable contributions. Laura Young has been indefatigable as the book’s marketing man- ager. I would be remiss if I did not also thank Mike Ryan, David Patterson, and Mary Ellen ­Curley for their executive support and direction. As always, my biggest debt is to my wife, Patty, whose love and support have sustained me through the years. There might be an Art of Public Speaking without her, but there would be no one with whom to share it. Stephen E. Lucas Madison, Wisconsin xxii Reviewers, Contributors, and Symposia Participants Darlene Earley Andrews, Southern Union State Community College Valerie Balkun, Johnson & Wales University Ray Bell, Calhoun Community College Shannon Bowden, Mississippi Valley State University Lynn Bower, Ohio University Kathleen E. Bruce, San Joaquin Delta College Paula Casey, Colorado Mesa University Nancy Fisher, Ohio State University Jennifer Foster, University of Central Oklahoma Jeffrey Fox, Northern Kentucky University Lakesha Jefferson, South Suburban College Keri Keckley, Crowder College Samuel Lawrence, University of Central Oklahoma Charity Lyon, Northwestern Oklahoma State University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Shellie Michael, Volunteer State Community College Hanna Newman, Minnesota State University Kimberly OmniEssence, Milwaukee Area Technical College Maggie Price, Minneapolis Community and Technical College Susan Rabideau, University of Wisconsin Nancy Riecken, Ivy Tech Community College Haydee Serna-Masters, Grand Canyon University Christine Shaw, Ohio University Toni Shields, Ivy Tech Community College Theresa White, Coastal Alabama Community College Cheryl Wilson, Harrisburg Area Community College Roberta Zetocha, Southeast Community College Acknowledgments xxiii This page intentionally left blank The Art of Public Speaking  1 Speaking in Public The Power of Public Speaking The Tradition of Public Speaking Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class Public Speaking and Critical Thinking The Speech Communication Process Public Speaking in a Multicultural World G rowing up in Oklahoma, Josh Shipp had no intention of becoming a public speaker. Abandoned by his birth mother, Shipp bounced around the foster care system for most of his childhood. Neglected and abused, he became addicted to drugs, tried to take his own life, and ended up in jail. Then, at age 17, at his lowest point, his foster parent told him: “We don’t see you as a problem, we see you as an opportunity.” It dawned upon Josh that his life mattered. He realized that “one caring adult” was all it took to change someone’s life. Since that time, he has devoted himself to helping the hopeless. He became an advocate for children in foster care and began working with at-risk teenagers. Today he is a nationally recog- nized teen expert who has been praised for his ability to help kids and parents alike work through tough situations. How has Josh achieved all this? Partly through his determination, partly through his dedication to helping others, and partly through his passion for life. But also essential is his ability to communicate with people through public speaking. In a TEDx Talk that has been viewed online more than 4 million times, Josh shared his story of growing up in the foster care system and of realizing that his life had meaning. But he also challenged his audience by telling them, “The difference between a statistic and a success story is you.” With this line, Josh turned his personal experience into a call for others to help improve the world. 2 Courtesy of Josh Shipp  If you had asked Josh early in his life, “Do you see yourself as an important public speaker?” he would have laughed at the idea. Yet today he has spoken in person to an estimated 2 million people. He has lectured at Harvard, MIT, Stanford, and UCLA. He has appeared on such media outlets as CNN, MTV, Lifetime, and Oprah. His message of help and hope has touched people across the country. In the words of one listener, “If his story doesn’t change the way you look at life, I don’t know what will.” The Power of Public Speaking Throughout history people have used public speaking as a vital means of communi- cation. What the Greek leader Pericles said more than 2,500 years ago is still true today: “One who forms a judgment on any point but cannot explain” it clearly “might as well never have thought at all on the subject.”1 Public speaking, as its name implies, is a way of making your ideas public—of sharing them with other people and of influencing other people. During modern times, many women and men around the globe have spread their ideas and influence through public speaking. In the United States, the list includes Franklin Roosevelt, Billy Graham, Cesar Chavez, Barbara Jordan, Martin Luther King, Ronald Reagan, Hillary Clinton, and Barack Obama. In other coun- tries, we have seen the power of public speaking employed by people such as Marga- ret Thatcher, Nelson Mandela, and Malala Yousafzai. As you read these names, you may think to yourself, “That’s fine. Good for them. But what does that have to do with me? I don’t plan to be a president or a preacher or a crusader for any cause.” Nevertheless, the need for public speaking will almost certainly touch you sometime in your life—maybe tomorrow, maybe not for five years. Can you imagine yourself in any of these situations? You are one of seven management trainees in a large corporation. One of you will get the lower-management job that has just opened. At a large staff meeting you and the other trainees will each discuss the project he or she has been developing. One by one your colleagues make their presen- tations. They have no experience in public speaking and are intimidated by the higher ranking managers present. Their speeches are stumbling and awkward. You, however, call upon all the skills you learned in your public speaking course. You deliver an informative talk that is clear, well reasoned, and articulate. You get the job. One of your children has a learning disability. You hear that your local school board has decided, for budget reasons, to eliminate the special teacher who has been helping your child. At an open meeting of the school board, you stand up and deliver a thoughtful, compelling speech on the necessity for keeping the special teacher. The school board changes its mind. You are the assistant manager in a branch office of a national company. Your immediate superior, the branch manager, is about to retire and there will be a retirement dinner. All the executives from the home office will attend. As his close working associate, you are asked to give a farewell toast at the party. You prepare and deliver a speech that is both witty and touching—a perfect tribute to your boss. After the speech, everyone 4 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public  applauds enthusiastically, and a few people have tears in their eyes. The following week you are named branch manager. Fantasies? Not really. Any of these situations could occur. In a recent survey of more than 200 employers, respondents stated that the most important skill they want from job applicants is the “ability to verbally communicate with persons inside and outside the organization.” In another survey, 1,200 job recruiters reported that one skill was more important and harder to find than any other. That skill? Effective communication.2 The importance of such skills is true across the board—for accountants and architects, teachers and technicians, scientists and stockbrokers. Even in highly spe- cialized fields such as civil and mechanical engineering, employers consistently rank the ability to communicate above technical knowledge when deciding whom to hire and whom to promote. Businesses are also asking people to give more speeches in the early stages of their careers, and many young professionals are using public speaking as a way to stand out in today’s highly competitive job market.3 In fact, the ability to speak effec- tively is so prized that college graduates are increasingly being asked to give a presen- tation as part of their job interview. Nor has the growth of the Internet and other new technologies reduced the need for public speaking. In this age of Instagram and Twitter, businesses are concerned that college graduates are losing the ability to talk in a professional way. As career expert Lindsey Pollak states, “It’s so rare to find somebody who has that combina- tion of really good technical skills and really good verbal communication skills. You will be head and shoulders above your colleagues if you can combine those two.”4 The same is true in community life. Public speaking is a vital means of civic engagement. It is a way to express your ideas and to have an impact on issues that matter in society. As a form of empowerment, it can—and often does—make a differ- ence in things people care about very much. The key phrase here is “make a differ- ence.” This is what most of us want to do in life—to make a difference, to change the world in some small way. Public speaking offers you an opportunity to make a differ- ence in something you care about very much. The Tradition of Public Speaking Given the importance of public speaking, it’s not surprising that it has been taught and studied around the globe for thousands of years. Almost all cultures have an equivalent of the English word “orator” to designate someone with special skills in public speaking. The oldest known handbook on effective speech was written on papyrus in Egypt some 4,500 years ago. Eloquence was highly prized in ancient India, Africa, and China, as well as among the Aztecs and other pre-European ­cultures of North and South America.5 In classical Greece and Rome, public speaking played a central role in education and civic life. It was also studied extensively. Aristotle’s Rhetoric, composed during the third century b.c., is still considered the most important work on its subject, and many of its principles are followed by speakers (and writers) today. The great Roman leader Cicero used his speeches to defend liberty and wrote several works about ­oratory in general. Over the centuries, many other notable thinkers have dealt with issues of ­rhetoric, speech, and language—including the Roman educator Quintilian, the The Tradition of Public Speaking 5  Christian preacher St. Augustine, the medieval writer Christine de Pizan, the British ­philosopher Francis Bacon, and the American critic Kenneth Burke. In recent years, communication researchers have provided an increasingly scientific basis for ­understanding the methods and strategies of effective speech. Your immediate objective is to apply those methods and strategies in your ­classroom speeches. What you learn, however, will be applicable long after you leave ­college. The principles of public speaking are derived from a long tradition and have been confirmed by a substantial body of research. The more you know about those principles, the more effective you will be in your own speeches—and the more effec- tive you will be in listening to the speeches of other people. Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation How much time do you spend each day talking to other people? The average adult spends about 30 percent of her or his waking hours in conversation. By the time you read this book, you will have spent much of your life perfecting the art of conversa- tion. You may not realize it, but you already employ a wide range of skills when talking to people. These skills include the following: 1. Organizing your thoughts logically. Suppose you were giving someone direc- tions to get to your house. You wouldn’t do it this way: When you turn off the highway, you’ll see a big diner on the left. But before that, stay on the highway to Exit 67. Usually a couple of the neighbors’ dogs are in the street, so go slow after you turn at the blinking light. Com- ing from your house you get on the highway through Maple Street. If you pass the taco stand, you’ve gone too far. The house is blue. Instead, you would take your listener systematically, step by step, from his or her house to your house. You would organize your message. 2. Tailoring your message to your audience. You are a geology major. Two people ask you how pearls are formed. One is your roommate; the other is your nine-year-old niece. You answer as follows: To your roommate: “When any irritant, say a grain of sand, gets inside the oyster’s shell, the oyster automatically secretes a substance called nacre, which is principally calcium carbonate and is the same material that lines the oyster’s shell. The nacre accumulates in layers around the irritant core to form the pearl.” To your niece: “Imagine you’re an oyster on the ocean floor. A grain of sand gets inside your shell and makes you uncomfortable. So you decide to cover it up. You cover it with a material called mother-of-pearl. The cov- ering builds up around the grain of sand to make a pearl.” 3. Telling a story for maximum impact. Suppose you are telling a friend about a funny incident at last week’s football game. You don’t begin with the punch line (“Keisha fell out of the stands right onto the field. Here’s how it started....”). Instead, you carefully build up your story, adjusting your words and tone of voice to get the best effect. 6 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public  Many skills used in conversation also apply in public speaking. As you learn to speak more effectively, you may also learn to communicate more effectively in other situations. ©Ariel Skelley/Getty Images 4. Adapting to listener feedback. Whenever you talk with someone, you are aware of that person’s verbal, facial, and physical reactions. For example: You are explaining an interesting point that came up in biology class. Your ­listener begins to look confused, puts up a hand as though to stop you, and says “Huh?” You go back and explain more clearly. A friend has asked you to listen while she practices a speech. At the end you tell her, “There’s just one part I really don’t like—that quotation from the attorney general.” Your friend looks very hurt and says, “That was my favorite part!” So you say, “But if you just worked the quotation in a little differently, it would be wonderful.” Each day, in casual conversation, you do all these things many times without thinking about them. You already possess these communication skills. And these are among the most important skills you will need for public speaking. To illustrate, let’s return briefly to one of the hypothetical situations at the begin- ning of this chapter. When addressing the school board about the need for a special teacher: You organize your ideas to present them in the most persuasive manner. You steadily build up a compelling case about how the teacher benefits the school. You tailor your message to your audience. This is no time to launch an impassioned defense of special education in the United States. You must show how the issue is important to the people in that very room—to their children and to the school. You tell your story for maximum impact. Perhaps you relate an anecdote to demonstrate how much your child has improved. You also have statistics to show how many other children have been helped. You adapt to listener feedback. When you mention the cost of the special teacher, you notice sour looks on the faces of the school board members. So you patiently explain how small that cost is in relation to the overall school budget. Similarities Between Public Speaking and Conversation 7  In many ways, then, public speaking requires the same skills used in ordinary conversation. Most people who communicate well in daily talk can learn to commu- nicate just as well in public speaking. By the same token, training in public speaking can make you a more adept communicator in a variety of situations, such as conver- sations, classroom discussions, business meetings, and interviews. Differences Between Public Speaking and Conversation Despite their similarities, public speaking and everyday conversation are not identi- cal. Imagine that you are telling a story to a friend. Then imagine yourself telling the story to a group of seven or eight friends. Now imagine telling the same story to 20 or 30 people. As the size of your audience grows, you will find yourself adapting to three major differences between conversation and public speaking: 1. Public speaking is more highly structured. It usually imposes strict time limita- tions on the speaker. In most cases, the situation does not allow listeners to interrupt with questions or commentary. The speaker must accomplish her or his purpose in the speech itself. Consequently, public speaking demands much more detailed plan- ning and preparation than ordinary conversation. When preparing his TEDx Talk on making a difference in the life of a child, Josh Shipp spent almost a full year writing, revising, and rehearsing. That’s detailed planning! 2. Public speaking requires more formal language. Slang, jargon, and bad grammar have little place in public speeches. Whether one is delivering a classroom speech, a TED Talk, a business presentation, or a famous work such as “I Have a Dream,” the language should rise to the level of the occasion. Listeners usually react negatively to speakers who do not elevate and polish their language when addressing an audience. A speech should be “special.” 3. Public speaking requires a different method of delivery. When conversing infor- mally, most people talk quietly, interject stock phrases such as “like” and “you know,” adopt a casual posture, and use what are called vocalized pauses (“uh,” “er,” “um”). Effective public speakers, however, adjust their voices to be heard clearly throughout the audience. They assume a more erect posture. They avoid distracting mannerisms and verbal habits. With study and practice, you will master these differences and expand your con- versational skills into speechmaking. Your speech class will provide the opportunity for this study and practice. Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class stage fright One of the major concerns of students in any speech class is stage fright. We may as Anxiety over the prospect of well face the issue squarely. Many people who converse easily in all kinds of everyday giving a speech in front of an situations become frightened at the idea of standing up before a group to make a audience. speech. If you are worried about stage fright, you may feel better knowing that you are not alone. A 2014 survey by researchers at Chapman University asked 1,500 ­participants from across the country to name their greatest fear. Public speaking 8 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public topped the list. A 2012 study produced similar results, with 62 percent of respon- dents being terrified by the prospect of speaking in public. In comparison, only 43 percent said they were afraid of dying.6 In a different study, researchers concentrated on social situations and, again, asked their subjects to list their greatest fears. More than 9,000 people were inter- viewed. Here is the ranking of their answers:7 Greatest Fear Public speaking Speaking up in a meeting or class Meeting new people Talking to people in authority Important examination or interview Going to parties Talking with strangers Again, speechmaking is at the top in provoking anxiety. NERVOUSNESS IS NORMAL If you feel nervous about giving a speech, you are in very good company. Some of the greatest public speakers in history have suffered from stage fright, including Abraham Lincoln, Margaret Sanger, and Winston Churchill. The famous Roman orator Cicero said, “I turn pale at the outset of a speech and quake in every limb and in my soul.”8 Jennifer Lawrence, Conan O’Brien, and Oprah Winfrey all report being anxious about speaking in public. Early in his career, Leonardo DiCaprio was so nervous about giving an acceptance speech that he hoped he would not win the Academy Award for which he had been nominated. Eighty-one percent of business executives say public speaking is the most nerve-wracking experience they face.9 What come- dian Jerry Seinfeld said in jest sometimes seems literally true: “Given a choice, at a funeral most of us would rather be the one in the coffin than the one giving the eulogy.” Actually, most people tend to be anxious before doing something important in public. Actors are nervous before a play, politicians are nervous before a campaign speech, athletes are nervous before a big game. The ones who succeed have learned to use their nervousness to their advantage. Listen to legendary tennis player Roger Federer, speaking after his 2017 Wimbledon title match. No matter how much you practice, he said, you have to be able to perform “when the pressure comes of matches, the nerves, the stomach, when you’re not free and you’re tense.” Putting his butterflies to good use, Federer beat Marin Cilic in straight sets to win his eighth Wimbledon crown and his nineteenth Grand Slam championship. Much the same thing happens in speechmaking. Most experienced speakers have stage fright before taking the floor, but their nervousness is a healthy sign that they are getting “psyched up” for a good effort. Novelist and lecturer I. A. R. Wylie once said: “I rarely rise to my feet without a throat constricted with terror and a furiously thumping heart. When, for some reason, I am cool and self-assured, the speech is always a failure.” Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 9  In other words, it is perfectly normal—even desirable—to be nervous at the start of a speech. Your body is responding as it would to any stressful situation—by pro- adrenaline ducing extra adrenaline. A hormone released into the This sudden shot of adrenaline is what makes your heart race, your hands shake, bloodstream in response to your knees knock, and your skin perspire. Every public speaker experiences all these physical or mental stress. reactions to some extent. The question is: How can you control your nervousness and make it work for you rather than against you? DEALING WITH NERVOUSNESS Rather than trying to eliminate every trace of stage fright, you should aim at trans- positive nervousness forming it from a negative force into what one expert calls positive nervousness—“a Controlled nervousness that zesty, enthusiastic, lively feeling with a slight edge to it.... It’s still nervousness, but helps energize a speaker for it feels different. You’re no longer victimized by it; instead, you’re vitalized by it. her or his presentation. You’re in control of it.”10 Don’t think of yourself as having stage fright. Instead, think of it as “stage excite- ment” or “stage enthusiasm.”11 It can help you get focused and energized in the same way as it helps athletes, musicians, and others get primed for a game or a concert. Jane Lynch, talking about her gig hosting Saturday Night Live, said that she got through it with “that perfect cocktail of nervousness and excitement.” Think of that cocktail as a normal part of giving a successful speech. Here are six time-tested ways you can turn your nervousness from a negative force into a positive one. Acquire Speaking Experience You have already taken the first step. You are enrolled in a public speaking course, where you will learn about speechmaking and gain speaking experience. Think back to your first day in kindergarten, your first date, your first day at a new job. You were probably nervous in each situation because you were facing something new and unknown. Once you became accustomed to the situation, it was no longer ­threatening. So it is with public speaking. For most students, the biggest part of stage fright is fear of the unknown. The more you learn about public speaking and the more speeches you give, the less threatening speechmaking will become. Of course, the road to confidence will sometimes be bumpy. Learning to give a speech is not much different from learning any other skill—it proceeds by trial and error. The purpose of your speech class is to shorten the process, to minimize the errors, to give you a nonthreatening arena—a sort of laboratory—in which to under- take the “trial.” Your instructor recognizes that you are a novice and is trained to give the kind of guidance you need to get started. In your fellow students you have a highly sympa- thetic audience who will provide valuable feedback to help you improve your speak- ing skills. As the class goes on, your fears about public speaking will gradually recede until they are replaced by only a healthy nervousness before you rise to speak.12 Prepare, Prepare, Prepare Another key to gaining confidence is to pick speech topics you truly care about—and then to prepare your speeches so thoroughly that you cannot help but be successful. Here’s how one student combined enthusiasm for his topic with thorough prepara- tion to score a triumph in speech class: 10 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public  The need for public speaking arises in many situations. Here U.S Army General John Nicholson speaks during a press conference at NATO head- ­­quarters in Brussels. ©Dursun Aydemir/Anadolu Agency/ Getty Images Jesse Young was concerned about taking a speech class. Not having any experience as a public speaker, he got butterflies in his stomach just thinking about talking in front of an audience. But when the time came for Jesse’s first speech, he was determined to make it a success. Jesse chose Habitat for Humanity as the topic for his speech. He had been a volunteer for three years, and he believed deeply in the organiza- tion and its mission. The purpose of his speech was to explain the origins, ­philosophy, and activities of Habitat for Humanity. As Jesse spoke, it became clear that he was enthusiastic about his sub- ject and genuinely wanted his classmates to share his enthusiasm. Because he was intent on communicating with his audience, he forgot to be nervous. He spoke clearly, fluently, and dynamically. Soon the entire class was engrossed in his speech. Afterward, Jesse admitted that he had surprised even himself. “It was amazing,” he said. “Once I passed the first minute or so, all I thought about were those people out there listening. I could tell that I was really getting through to them.” How much time should you devote to preparing your speeches? A standard rule of thumb is that each minute of speaking time requires one to two hours of prepara- tion time—perhaps more, depending on the amount of research needed for the speech. This may seem like a lot of time, but the rewards are well worth it. One pro- fessional speech consultant estimates that proper preparation can reduce stage fright by up to 75 percent.13 If you follow the techniques suggested by your instructor and in the rest of this book, you will stand up for every speech fully prepared. Imagine that the day for your first speech has arrived. You have studied your audience and selected a topic you know will interest them. You have researched the topic thoroughly and prac- ticed the speech several times until it feels absolutely comfortable. You have even tried it out before two or three trusted friends. How can you help but be confident of success? Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 11  Think Positively Confidence is mostly the well-known power of positive thinking. If you think you can do it, you usually can. On the other hand, if you predict disaster and doom, that is almost always what you will get. This is especially true when it comes to public speaking. Speakers who think negatively about themselves and the speech experience are much more likely to be overcome by stage fright than are speakers who think positively. Here are some ways you can transform negative thoughts into positive ones as you work on your speeches: Negative Thought Positive Thought I wish I didn’t have to give This speech is a chance for me to share this speech. my ideas and gain experience as a speaker. I’m not a great public speaker. No one’s perfect, but I’m getting ­better with each speech I give. I’m always nervous when I give Everyone’s nervous. If other a speech. people can handle it, I can, too. No one will be interested in I have a good topic and I’m fully what I have to say. prepared. Of course they’ll be interested. Many psychologists believe that the ratio of positive to negative thoughts in regard to stressful activities such as speechmaking should be at least five to one. That is, for each negative thought, you should counter with a minimum of five posi- tive ones. Doing so will not make your nerves go away completely, but it will help keep them under control so you can concentrate on communicating your ideas rather than on brooding about your fears and anxieties. Use the Power of Visualization Visualization is closely related to positive thinking. It is used by athletes, musicians, actors, speakers, and others to enhance their performance in stressful situations. How does it work? Listen to Jamie Anderson, who, during the 2014 Winter Olym- pics, won the first-ever gold medal in the women’s slopestyle event. Afterward, she talked about how she used visualization to settle her nerves before the winning ride: visualization There was so much anticipation leading up to this event, I just had to Mental imaging in which calm my mind and have the trust and faith that I was capable of doing what speakers vividly picture I really wanted to do. At the top of the course, I took a moment, took a themselves giving a successful deep breath, and saw everything I wanted to see happen.... I was visual- presentation. izing it, seeing it to the end, and knowing that I was going to land every- thing perfectly with as much style as possible. Of course, visualization doesn’t mean that Anderson wins every competition she enters. But research has shown that the kind of mental imaging she describes can significantly increase athletic performance.14 It has also shown that visualization can help speakers control their stage fright.15 The key to visualization is creating a vivid mental blueprint in which you see yourself succeeding in your speech. Picture yourself in your classroom rising to 12 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public speak. See yourself at the lectern, poised and self-assured, making eye contact with your audience and delivering your introduction in a firm, clear voice. Feel your con- fidence growing as your listeners get more and more caught up in what you are say- ing. Imagine your sense of achievement as you conclude the speech knowing you have done your very best. As you create these images in your mind’s eye, be realistic but stay focused on the positive aspects of your speech. Don’t allow negative images to eclipse the posi- tive ones. Acknowledge your nervousness, but picture yourself overcoming it to give a vibrant, articulate presentation. If one part of the speech always seems to give you trouble, visualize yourself getting through it without any hitches. And be specific. The more lucid your mental pictures, the more successful you are likely to be. As with your physical rehearsal of the speech, this kind of mental rehearsal should be repeated several times in the days before you speak. It doesn’t guarantee that every speech will turn out exactly the way you envision it—and it certainly is no substitute for thorough preparation. But used in conjunction with the other methods of combating stage fright, it is a proven way to help control your nerves and to craft a successful presentation. Know That Most Nervousness Isn’t Visible Many novice speakers are worried about appearing nervous to the audience. It’s hard to speak with poise and assurance if you think you look tense and insecure. One of the most valuable lessons you will learn as your speech class proceeds is that only a fraction of the turmoil you feel inside is visible on the outside. “Your nervous system may be giving you a thousand shocks,” says one experienced speaker, “but the viewer can see only a few of them.”16 Even though your palms are sweating and your heart is pounding, your listeners probably won’t realize how tense you are—especially if you do your best to act cool and confident on the outside. Most of the time when students confess after a speech, “I was so nervous I thought I was going to die,” their classmates are surprised. To them the speaker looked calm and assured. Knowing this should make it easier for you to face your listeners with confidence. As one student stated after watching a videotape of her first classroom speech, “I was amazed at how calm I looked. I assumed everyone would be able to see how scared I was, but now that I know they can’t, I won’t be nearly so nervous in the future. It really helps to know that you look in control even though you may not feel that way.” Don’t Expect Perfection It may also help to know that there is no such thing as a perfect speech. At some point in every presentation, every speaker says or does something that does not come across exactly as planned. Fortunately, such moments are usually not evident to the audience. Why? Because the audience doesn’t know what the speaker plans to say. It hears only what the speaker does say. If you momentarily lose your place, reverse the order of a couple of statements, or forget to pause at a certain spot, no one need be the wiser. When such moments occur, just proceed as if nothing happened. Even if you do make an obvious mistake during a speech, that is no catastrophe. If you have ever listened to Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream,” you may recall that he stumbles twice during the speech. Most likely, however, you don’t remember. Why? Because you were focusing on King’s message rather than on the fine points of his delivery. Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 13  One of the biggest reasons people are concerned about making a mistake in a speech is that they view speechmaking as a performance rather than an act of com- munication. They feel the audience is judging them against a scale of absolute perfec- tion in which every misstated word or awkward gesture will count against them. But speech audiences are not like judges in a violin recital or an ice-skating contest. They are not looking for a virtuoso performance, but for a well-thought-out address that communicates the speaker’s ideas clearly and directly. Sometimes an error or two can actually enhance a speaker’s appeal by making her or him seem more human. As you work on your speeches, make sure you prepare thoroughly and do all you can to get your message across to your listeners. But don’t panic about being perfect or about what will happen if you make a mistake. Once you free your mind of these burdens, you will find it much easier to approach your speeches with confidence and even with enthusiasm.17 Besides stressing the six points just discussed, your instructor will probably give you several tips for dealing with nervousness in your first speeches. They may include: Be at your best physically and mentally. It’s not a good idea to stay up until 3:00 a.m. partying with friends or cramming for an exam the night before your speech. A good night’s sleep will serve you better. As you are waiting to speak, quietly tighten and relax your leg muscles, or squeeze your hands together and then release them. Such actions help reduce tension by providing an outlet for your extra adrenaline. checklist Speaking with Confidence YES NO 1. Am I enthusiastic about my speech topic? 2. Have I thoroughly developed the content of my speech? 3. Have I worked on the introduction so my speech will get off to a good start? 4. Have I worked on the conclusion so my speech will end on a strong note? 5. Have I rehearsed my speech orally until I am confident about its delivery? 6. Have I worked on turning negative thoughts about my speech into positive ones? 7. Do I realize that nervousness is normal, even among experienced speakers? 8. Do I understand that most nervousness is not visible to the audience? 9. Am I focused on communicating with my audience, rather than on worrying about my nerves? 10. H  ave I visualized myself speaking confidently and getting a positive response from the audience? 14 CHAPTER 1 Speaking in Public  Like many well-known public figures, Adele often experiences stage fright before taking the stage. Here she accepts the 2017 Grammy Award for Record of the Year. ©Christopher Polk/Getty Images Take a couple of slow, deep breaths before you start to speak. When they are tense, most people take short, shallow breaths, which only reinforces their anxiety. Deep breathing breaks this cycle of tension and helps calm your nerves. Work especially hard on your introduction. Research has shown that a speaker’s anxiety level begins to drop significantly after the first 30 to 60 seconds of a presentation.18 Once you get through the introduction, you should find smoother sailing the rest of the way. Make eye contact with members of your audience. Remember that they are indi- vidual people, not a blur of faces. And they are your friends. Concentrate on communicating with your audience rather than on worrying about your stage fright. If you get caught up in your speech, your audience will, too. Use visual aids. They create interest, draw attention away from you, and make you feel less self-conscious. If you are like most students, you will find your speech class to be a very positive experience. As one student wrote on her course evaluation at the end of the class: I was really dreading this class. The idea of giving all those speeches scared me half to death. But I’m glad now that I stuck with it. It’s a small class, and I got to know a lot of the students. Besides, this is one class in which I got to express my ideas, instead of spending the whole time listen- ing to the teacher talk. I even came to enjoy giving the speeches. I could tell at times that the audience was really with me, and that’s a great feeling. Over the years, thousands of students have developed confidence in their speechmaking abilities. As your confidence grows, you will be better able to stand before other people and tell them what you think and feel and know—and Developing Confidence: Your Speech Class 15  to make them think and feel and know those same things. The best part about confi- dence is that it nurtures itself. After you score your first triumph, you will be that much more confident the next time. And as you become a more confident public speaker, you will likely become more confident in other areas of your life as well. Public Speaking and Critical Thinking That guy at the party last night really owned me when we were talking about the economy. I know my information is right, and I’m sure his argu- ment didn’t make sense, but I can’t put my finger on the problem. critical thinking I worked really hard on my term paper, but it’s just not right. It doesn’t seem Focused, organized thinking to hang together, and I can’t figure out what’s wrong. about such things as the logical Political speeches are so one-sided. The candidates sound good, but they relationships among ideas, the all talk in slogans and generalities. It’s really hard to decide who has the soundness of evidence, and best stands on the issues. the differences between fact and opinion. Have you ever found yourself in similar situations? If so, you may find help in your speech class. Besides building confidence, a course in public speaking can develop your skills as a critical thinker. Those skills can make the difference between the articulate debater and the pushover, the A student and the C student, the thoughtful voter and the coin tosser. What is critical thinking? To some extent, it’s a matter of logic—of being able to spot weaknesses in other people’s arguments and to avoid them in your own. It also involves related skills such as distinguishing fact from opinion, judging the credibility of statements, and assessing the soundness of evidence. In the broadest sense, criti- cal thinking is focused, organized thinking—the ability to see clearly the relationships among ideas.19 If you are wondering what this has to do with your public speaking class, the answer is, quite a lot. As the class proceeds, you will probably spend a good deal of time organizing your speeches. While this may seem like a purely mechanical exer- cise, it is closely interwoven with critical thinking. If the structure of your speech is disjointed and confused, odds are that your thinking is also disjointed and confused. If, on the other hand, the structure is clear and cohesive, there is a good chance your thinking is, too. Organizing a speech is not just a matter of arranging the ideas you already have. Rather, it is an important part of shaping