Lecture Study Guide Chapter 1 PDF

Lecture Study Guide Chapter 1 -Know the characteristics of living organisms Cellular composition, metabolism, Growth, Excretion, Responsive, Movement, Reproduction\ -Know the levels of structural organization and body systems (figure 1.4 on page 9 is helpful) Structural Organization -Chemical, Ce...

Lecture Study Guide Chapter 1 -Know the characteristics of living organisms Cellular composition, metabolism, Growth, Excretion, Responsive, Movement, Reproduction\ -Know the levels of structural organization and body systems (figure 1.4 on page 9 is helpful) Structural Organization -Chemical, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism body systems integument- structure that are found in the skin Skeletal- Joints and articulation Muscle- skeletal muscles Nervous- contains everything in the body Endocrine- maintains homeostasis Cardiovascular- pumps oxygen Lymphatic- provides immunity Respiratory- how we breath Digestive- digests food Urinary- removes waste from blood Reproductive- have we have babies -Be able to describe anatomical position and why it is important Standing straight, palms facing forward, feet slightly apart, head and toes facing forward. -Be able to use the major anatomical terms Superior- Towards the top Inferior- Towards the bottom Proximal- close to the point of origin Distal- away from the point of origin Medial- close to the midline Lateral- away form the midline Anterior/ Ventral- the Front Posterior/ Dorsal- The Back\ -Know body planes/sections (which one is a horizontal plane?) We don't talk about the oblique plane much, so you don't have to worry about that one Sagittal Plane- divides the body into right and left Frontal- divides the body from anterior and posterior Transverse plane- divides the body into superior and anterior\ -Know the anterior versus posterior body cavities, what are their subdivisions, what organs do they contain Dorsal Body Cavity- Cranial Cavity (houses the brain) Vertebral (houses the spinal cord) Ventral Body Cavity- divided by the diaphragm. Thoracic Cavity (contains the heart and lungs) Abdominal Cavity (the digestive organs) Pelvic Cavity (bladder, reproductive organs, rectum) -What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity? The Diaphragm -What major organs can be found within the four body quadrants? (just basics here) The liver, spleen, appendix, and sigmoid colon\ -What is a serous membrane A thin membrane that lines the internal body cavities and organs, such as the heart, lungs and abdominal cavity\ -What is the visceral versus parietal layers? Visceral- covers the organs Parietal- lines the wall of the body cavity\ -What are the three main serous membranes/body cavities. Heart, lungs, and abdominal cavity\ -Know the basics of X-ray, CT, and MRI. This is best seen on page 21 "Medical Imaging" (just the basics here) X-ray and CT require the use of ionizing radiation while MRI uses a magnetic field to detect body protons\ -Be able to define homeostasis Maintaining an internal balance -KNOW negative feedback loops Goes against initial change in a regulated variable; reduce output\ -KNOW positive feedback loops Less common that negative; effector activity increases and reinforces initial stimulus; shuts off when conditions return to normal. EX: reproductive systems, clotting, natural birth\ -Form follows function. What does this mean? How can this relate to our cells, tissue, organs? Best suits its function It relates because if the cell, tissue, or organs are to big or small they won't be able to work.\ -Define gradient, know our main types of gradients (3 main types) Gradient- present any time more of something exists in one area than another, where two areas are connected. Such as Temperature, Concentration, Pressure\ -Why might cell to cell communication be important Cells in the Body must work in a coordinated fashion to ensure homeostasis of entire organism. What are the Core Principles in A& P Feedback Loops, Relationships between structure & Function, Gradients, Cell-to-cell communication. Lecture Study Guide Chapter 2\ -Define Chemistry and Matter Chemistry- Study of matter and its interactions Matter- anything that has mass and occupies space; can exist in three states: solid, liquid, or gas\ -Know the three types of subatomic particles and their charge Protons-positive Neutrons- no charge Electrons- negative\ -Know the basics of electron shells, how many electrons can the first shell hold? second? third? Electron Shells- regions surrounding atomic nucleus where electrons exist 1^st^- can hold 2 2^nd^- can hold 8 3^rd^- can hold 18 but is satisfied with 8\ -What is the difference between an atom and an element Atom -- smallest unit of matter that retains original properties Element- substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical means -Define mass number Can tell you the most common number of neutrons in the nucleus\ -Define isotopes Atom with same atomic \# but different mass \# -Know the different types of mixtures Suspension, Colloids, Solution\ -Define chemical bond, ionic bond, covalent bonds Chemical bond- is not a physical structure but an energy relationship or attractive force between atoms Ionic bond- formed when electrons transferred from a metal atom to a nonmetal atom Covalent- Strongest bond; from when two or more nonmetals share electrons\ -Define compound Two or more atoms from different elements combine by chemical bonding\ -What is a valence shell, valence electrons Valence shell- outermost shell Valence electron- determines how an atom interacts with other atoms and whether it will form bonds with a specific atom. -Define octet rule 1. [Main-group elements tend to bond in a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, similar to noble gases](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=33160a3ac16a4bf6JmltdHM9MTcyNjYxNzYwMCZpZ3VpZD0zY2VlM2VlNS1mNGIzLTY3NWMtMDBmNS0yYTNlZjVlNDY2MGEmaW5zaWQ9NjA0Mw&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=3cee3ee5-f4b3-675c-00f5-2a3ef5e4660a&psq=octet+rule&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvT2N0ZXRfcnVsZQ&ntb=1)[**^1^**](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=a5d66f7662d659a6JmltdHM9MTcyNjYxNzYwMCZpZ3VpZD0zY2VlM2VlNS1mNGIzLTY3NWMtMDBmNS0yYTNlZjVlNDY2MGEmaW5zaWQ9NjA0NA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=3cee3ee5-f4b3-675c-00f5-2a3ef5e4660a&psq=octet+rule&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9lbi53aWtpcGVkaWEub3JnL3dpa2kvT2N0ZXRfcnVsZQ&ntb=1) 2. [Atoms prefer to have eight electrons in their valence shell for stability](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=37c4ff9fb47965f6JmltdHM9MTcyNjYxNzYwMCZpZ3VpZD0zY2VlM2VlNS1mNGIzLTY3NWMtMDBmNS0yYTNlZjVlNDY2MGEmaW5zaWQ9NjA0NQ&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=3cee3ee5-f4b3-675c-00f5-2a3ef5e4660a&psq=octet+rule&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9jaGVtLmxpYnJldGV4dHMub3JnL0Jvb2tzaGVsdmVzL1BoeXNpY2FsX2FuZF9UaGVvcmV0aWNhbF9DaGVtaXN0cnlfVGV4dGJvb2tfTWFwcy9TdXBwbGVtZW50YWxfTW9kdWxlc18oUGh5c2ljYWxfYW5kX1RoZW9yZXRpY2FsX0NoZW1pc3RyeSkvRWxlY3Ryb25pY19TdHJ1Y3R1cmVfb2ZfQXRvbXNfYW5kX01vbGVjdWxlcy9FbGVjdHJvbmljX0NvbmZpZ3VyYXRpb25zL1RoZV9PY3RldF9SdWxl&ntb=1) -What is a cation and anion, what are their charges? Cation- forms when metal loses one or more electrons. Positive Anion- forms when a nonmetal gains one or more electrons. Negative -Define hydrogen bond Weak attraction between partially positive end of one molecule and partially negative end of another molecule\ -What is chemical notation Symbols and abbreviations used to demonstrate what occurs in a reaction; the chemical equation\ -What is a chemical reaction A chemical bond is formed, broken, or rearranged, or when electrons are transferred between two or more atoms\ -Know the forms of energy in the human body (3 kinds mainly) Chemical, Electrical, Mechanical.\ -Define endergonic versus exergonic reactions Endergonic reactions require input of energy from another source; products contain more energy than reactants because energy was invested so reaction could proceed Exergonic reactions release excess energy, so products have less energy than reactants\ -KNOW reaction rates and enzymes Enzymes are called biological catalyst Reaction rate- Concentration, Temperature, Reactant properties, Presence or absence of catalyst\ -What is activation energy The energy required for all chemical reactions -What are biological catalysts called? Enzymes\ -KNOW enzymes. how do they relate to energy, do they become permanently altered in reactions? What may be caused by enzyme deficiencies? - Speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy - Highly specific for individual substrates (substance that can bind to the enzyme's active site) - Do not alter the reactants or products - Not permanently altered in reactions catalyzed -What are the properties of water (basics) High heat capacity -- able to absorb heat without significantly\ changing temperature itself\ Carries heat with it when it evaporates (when changing from\ liquid to gas)\ Cushions and protects body structures because of relatively high\ density\ Acts as a lubricant between two adjacent surfaces (reduces\ friction) -Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic hydrophobic; do not dissolve in water Water is only able to dissolve hydrophilic solutes\ -Know acids versus base. (related to pH) Acid -- hydrogen ion or proton donor; number of hydrogen ions increases in water when acid is added\ Base (alkali) -- hydrogen ion acceptor; number of hydrogen ions decreases in water when base is added -What are carbohydrates, monosaccharides and disaccharides, polysaccharides Carbohydrates = sugars; composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Monosaccharides -- single sugar rings Disaccharides are formed by union of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis Polysaccharides consist of many monosaccharides joined to one another by dehydration synthesis reactions -What are lipids, fatty acids and triglycerides, different types of fatty acids Lipids -- group of nonpolar hydrophobic molecules composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen - Not all lipids are polymers (made of monomers) Fatty acids -- lipid monomers consisting of 4 to 20 carbon atoms; may have none, one, or more double bonds between carbons in hydrocarbon chain Triglyceride -- three fatty acids linked by dehydration synthesis to a modified 3-carbon carbohydrate, glycerol; storage polymer for fatty acids (also called a neutral fat)\ \ -Define phospholipid Phospholipids -- composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid "tails" and one phosphate "head" in place of third fatty acid -Define steroid Steroids -- nonpolar and share a four-ring hydrocarbon structure called the steroid nucleus\ -What is a protein, what are amino acids, know protein structure Proteins consist of one or more polypeptide chains folded into distinct structures which must be maintained to be functional. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein that your body needs to function properly**.** Primary structure -- amino acid sequence of polypeptide chain\ Secondary structure -- segments of primary structure folded in specific ways and held together by hydrogen bonds\ ♣ Alpha helix -- coiled spring\ ♣ Beta-pleated sheet -- Venetian blind Tertiary structure -- 3-D shape that peptide chain assumes\ (twists, folds, and coils including secondary structure)\ Quaternary structure -- linking together more than one polypeptide chain in a specific arrangement: critical to function of protein as a whole -What are nucleotides and nucleic acids Nucleotides -- monomers that combine to form the polymer nucleic acids Nucleic acid is** a chemical compound that carries genetic information and directs protein synthesis in living things.** -What are nucleotides composed of. ♣ Nitrogenous base with a hydrocarbon ring structure\ ♣ Five-carbon pentose sugar, ribose or dexoyribose\ ♣ Phosphate group -What is ATP?? Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) = main source of chemical energy in body\ -What is the difference between DNA and RNA DNA, an extremely large molecule found in nuclei of cells; composed of two long chains that twist around each other to form a double helix RNA -- single strand of nucleotides; can move between nucleus of cell and cytosol; critical to making proteins What is the pH of blood and Intracellular Blood Ph is 7.35-7.45 Intracellular pH is 7.2 Lecture Study Guide Chapter 3\ -Know the basic processes of cells Cell metabolism, transport of substances, communication, Cell reproduction\ -What is cytosol what is its function how is cytosol different from cytoplasm Cytosol- intracellular fluid, mostly water and the difference between them is that the Cytosol is in the cytoplasm\ -What are organelles Varity of cellular machines very specific functions serve to separate potentially damanging chemical reactions from surrounding cell structures\ -Know all the cellular structures and their basic functions, table 3.2 is helpful for this Plasma membrane- surrounds each cell, isolating its internal structures and process from external environment Cytoplasm- intercellular space Nucleus-most cells contain a single roughly spherical organelle -Know the basic structure of the plasma membrane and which portions are\ hydrophilic/hydrophobic ♣ Molecules must have parts that interact with water in both fluid compartments without falling apart\ ♣ Molecules must have parts that repel water, to keep one side from crossing to the other\ ♣ Phospholipids are amphiphilic -- have both a hydrophilic polar head (phosphate) facing each fluid compartment and hydrophobic tails (fatty acids) that face one another\ forming a water-resistant barrier The Polar head is Hydrophilic, and the Nonpolar Tails are hydrophobic\ -How are carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids distributed in the plasma membrane - Cholesterol -- lipid molecule, stabilizes plasma membrane's fluid structure during temperature changes - Glycolipids and glycoproteins, carbohydrate bound to either lipid or protein respectively, serve to identify cell as part of body and for cell recognition\ -What is the phospholipid bilayer -What is the fluid mosaic model The fluid mosaic model is one way of understanding biological membranes, consistent with most experimental observations. This model states that the components of a membrane such as proteins or glycolipids, form a mobile mosaic in the fluid-like environment created by a sea of phospholipids. There are restrictions to lateral movements, and subdomains within the membrane have specific functions.\ -What is cholesterol Cholesterol -- lipid molecule, stabilizes plasma membrane's fluid\ structure during temperature changes -Integral versus peripheral proteins Integral/Transmembrane proteins -- span entire plasma membrane\ Peripheral proteins are found only on one side of plasma membrane\ -Basic function of the membrane proteins figure 3.5 is helpful for this Integral/Transmembrane proteins -- span entire plasma membrane\ Peripheral proteins are found only on one side of plasma membrane\ -Define selectively permeable The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable, allowing certain molecules to cross while prohibiting others\ -What is active and passive transport ♣ Passively -- without the need for energy (ATP)\ ♣ Actively -- requires the need for energy (ATP) -What is diffusion, what force drives diffusion Diffusion - movement of solute molecules from high to low concentration; moving down or with its concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached. ATP -What is facilitated diffusion versus simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion involves charged or polar solutes such as ions and glucose; cross phospholipid bilayer with help of a membrane protein (carrier or channel) -What is osmosis, osmotic pressure. Osmosis -- the diffusion of water Osmotic pressure -- driving force exerted by solute molecules; causes water molecules to move until equilibrium (no net movement) is reached -Define hydrostatic pressure [Hydrostatic pressure is defined as "The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at any point of time due to the force of gravity"](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=d012623f0637136bJmltdHM9MTcyNjA5OTIwMCZpZ3VpZD0zY2VlM2VlNS1mNGIzLTY3NWMtMDBmNS0yYTNlZjVlNDY2MGEmaW5zaWQ9NTc0NA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=3&fclid=3cee3ee5-f4b3-675c-00f5-2a3ef5e4660a&psq=Define+hydrostatic+pressure&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9ieWp1cy5jb20vcGh5c2ljcy9oeWRyb3N0YXRpYy1wcmVzc3VyZS8&ntb=1) -What happens to cells in an isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solution. How does this relate to dehydration (page 79) Normally ECF is isotonic to cytosol; both fluids have approximately same concentration of solute; no net movement of water across plasma membrane and no volume changes in either fluid compartment Hypertonic -- solute concentration is higher on that side of the membrane\ ♣ osmotic pressure gradient pulls water out of cell and cell shrinks or crenates\ Hypotonic -- solute concentration is lower ton that side of the membrane\ ♣ osmotic pressure gradient pulls water into cell causing the cell to swell and possibly rupture or lyse -Be able to describe and understand the events of primary active transport (figure 3.10) Primary active transport involves pump in plasma membrane that binds and transports solute against its concentration gradient using energy from hydrolysis of ATP\ Sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+) is most vital for maintenance of Na+ and K+ concentration\ gradient homeostasis -Be able to describe and understand the events of secondary active transport (figure 3.11) Secondary active transport uses ATP indirectly to fuel a transport pump\ ATP is used to create and maintain a concentration gradient of one substance\ Moving this substance across plasma membrane down its concentration gradient provides energy to move another substance against its concentration gradient -What is an electrical potential, membrane potential Electrical potential across plasma membrane is known as membrane potential -What is endocytosis and the two basic types of endocytosis, what happens during the basic types of endocytosis Endocytosis -- bringing substances into a cell Phagocytosis ("cell eating") -- process where cells ingest large particles\ Pinocytosis ("cell drinking") -- process where cells engulf fluid droplets from ECF -What is receptor-mediated endocytosis (this is a special type of pinocytosis) (figure 3.13b) Receptor-mediated endocytosis -- similar to pinocytosis; uses receptors to fill vesicles with a specific molecule -Table 3.1 may be helpful for you when you are studying plasma membrane transport A diagram of a cell Description automatically generated -What is exocytosis, what happens during exocytosis Exocytosis -- large molecules exit cell; known as secretion; vesicles fuse with plasma membrane, opening into ECF\ Vesicles & active transport -What is transcytosis Transcytosis is the** transcellular transport of molecules via vesicles.** -What makes up the cytoskeleton and what are their functions Cytoskeleton -- made of several types of protein filaments; dynamic structure able to change function based on needs of cell; plays a variety of critical roles:\ Gives the cell its characteristic shape and size by creating an internal framework\ Provides strength, structural integrity, and anchoring sites' support plasma and nuclear membranes as well as organelles\ Allows for cellular movement where protein filaments are associated with motor proteins\ Performing specialized functions in different cell types; for example, phagocytosis by macrophages, or contraction by muscle cells -What are the functions of microvilli, cilia and flagella Microvilli ♣ Finger-like extensions of plasma membrane with actin filament core to help maintain shape\ ♣ Increase surface area of cells in organs specialized for absorption Cilia\ ♣ Hairlike projections composed of microtubules and motor proteins\ ♣ Move in unison to propel substances past the cells\ ♣ Found in great numbers on each cell Flagella\ ♣ Solitary; longer than cilia\ ♣ Found only on sperm cells\ ♣ Beat in a whiplike fashion propelling entire cell (unlike cilia -- propel materials past the plasma membrane)\ Flagella and cilia both are structurally like centrioles except contain two central microtubules not found in centrioles -What are the three main structures of the nucleus and what do they do Nuclear envelope -- double membrane that surrounds nucleoplasm\ ♣ Nuclear pores -- where outer and inner envelope membranes come in contact; connect nucleoplasm with cytoplasm allowing substances to move between two locations\ DNA and associated proteins are found in nucleoplasm as a loose structural arrangement known as chromatin\ One or more nucleus are found suspended in nucleoplasm; manufacture ribosomes -Know the process of protein synthesis (see pg 110, figure 3.32 for help) DNA→Transcription→mRNA→Translation→Protein -Know the basics of the cell cycle (this is mostly from lab) Almost all cells go through the cell cycle; process defined as ordered series of events from formation of cell to its reproduction by cell division Interphase, G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, telophase -How does cell cycle control relate to cancer? Cells that cannot pass through checkpoints and cannot be repaired undergo a process of programmed cell death called apoptosis\ This "cellular suicide" will also occur for variety of other reasons; for example, during fetal development hands and feet are initially webbed; cells in "webs" die to separate fingers and toes\ When changes in DNA of a cell cause loss of cell cycle control, uncontrolled cell division results and cells may form a growth or mass known as a tumor -What is the function of the nucleus Nucleus -- governing body that directs activities of the other cellular components; largely determines type of proteins and rate at which cell makes them -What is the basic difference between chromatin and chromosomes (see pg 102 if you have difficulty) chromatin is a lower order of DNA organization, whereas chromosomes are a higher order of DNA organization. -How does DNA code for specific amino acids 1. A triplet of DNA bases (called a codon) codes for one amino acid. 2. Each sequence of three bases specifies an amino acid. 3. The genetic code is read in triplet sets of nucleotide bases (codons) to produce proteins. -What is transcription, know the process Transcription - process of making mRNA copy of DNA (called transcript)\ ♣ Transcript is built with help of the enzyme RNA polymerase; binds to a gene; brings in complementary nucleotides, linking them together to form mRNA\ ♣ Transcription proceeds in 3 general stages:\ o Initiation\ o Elongation\ o Termination\ \ -What is translation, know the process Translation: occurs at ribosome where nucleotide sequence of mRNA is translated into amino acid sequence with help of transfer RNA (tRNA) -What is rRNA, mRNA, tRNA what is their role in protein synthesis - **mRNA** carries the coding sequences for protein synthesis and is called transcripts. - **tRNA** carries amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis. - **rRNA** forms the core of a cell\'s ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place. - **mRNA** transcribes the genetic code from DNA into a form that can be read and used to make proteins. - **rRNA** directs the translation of mRNA into proteins. - **tRNA** gives up its amino acid while bound to mRNA, and with the help of rRNA, bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to the ribosome, creating a polypeptide chain.. -What role do ribosomes play in protein synthesis Ribosomes - tiny granular nonmembrane-bound organelles where protein synthesis takes place And they make proteins\ -What happens during interphase Interphase -- period of growth and preparation for cell division -What happens during mitosis, be able to describe the process Mitosis occurs when newly replicated genetic material is divided between two daughter cells What is Amphiliid Amphiliid- forming water-resistant barrier What is Tonicity Tonicity- way to compare osmotic pressure gradient between two solutions- cytosol and ECF Rough endoplasmic reticulum- ribosomes bound to the membrane Most proteins that enter the RER are for transport out of a cell via transport vesicles made of a phospholipid bilayer Lecture Study Guide Chapter 4\ Honestly, the lab for this chapter will be EXTREMELY helpful\ -What is histology Histology -- study of normal structures of tissues (a group of structurally and functionally related cells and their external environment that together perform common functions)\ -What are the 4 major tissue types, how are they all similar/different Epithelial tissues (epithelia) -- tightly packed sheets of cells with no visible ECM; cover and line all body surfaces and cavities; specialized epithelia form glands that manufacture secretions such as sweat, saliva, or hormones Connective tissues -- connect all other tissues in body to one another; ECM is a prominent feature for most connective tissue types with cells scattered throughout; bind, support, protect, and allow for transportation of substances Muscle tissues, capable of generating force by contracting; little ECM between cells Nervous tissues consist of cells capable of generating, sending, receiving messages, and cells that support this activity all within a unique ECM -What is the extracellular matrix (ECM) and its function, what are the two components of the ECM Extracellular matrix -- composed of substances in a liquid, thick gel, or solid that surround cells of a tissue; consist of two main components, ground substance and protein fibers: ECM performs a variety of functions:  Provides tissue with strength to resist tensile (stretching) and compressive forces  Directs cells to their proper positions within a tissue and holds those cells in place  Regulates development, mitotic activity, and survival of cells in a tissue -What are the three types of cell junctions Tight junctions - hold cells closely together such that space between is impermeable to movement of macromolecules Desmosomes - allow for materials in extracellular fluid to pass through space between cells Gap junctions - small pores formed by protein channels between adjacent cells that allow small substances to flow freely between each cell's cytoplasm -What are the 5 main functions of epithelial tissue - Provides a barrier b/t internal and external environment - Protection -- shield underlying tissues from mechanical and thermal injury - Immune defenses -- form physical barriers; prevent invasion by microorganisms; house cells of immune system enhancing protective function - Secretion -- form glands that produce substances like hormones and oils; secreted into blood or through ducts respectively - Transport into other tissues -- selectively permeable membranes; certain substances are able to cross these barriers by passive or active transport and enter other tissues -If epithelial cells are avascular, how do they get oxygen and nutrients ECM is found beneath cells in a thin basement membrane which has two components that 'glue' epithelial tissue to connective tissue underneath\ ♣ Basal lamina -- ECM synthesized by epithelial cells; consists of collagen fibers and ground substance\ ♣ Reticular lamina -- synthesized by underlying connective tissue; consists of reticular fibers and ground substance -How does the cellular structure of these epithelial tissues contribute to their function? Where could they be found? 1\. Number of cell layers\ ♣ Simple epithelia consist of a single cell layer\ ♣ Stratified epithelia consist of\ more than one cell layer Shape of cells in those layers -- YOU MUST\ THINK THREE-DIMENTIONALLY\ ♣ Squamous cells are flattened\ ♣ Cuboidal cells are short\ ♣ Columnar cells are tall and elongated -simple squamous epithelium Simple squamous epithelium -- adapted for rapid diffusion of substances -simple cuboidal epithelium Simple cuboidal epithelium -- thin enough for rapid substance diffusion; but specialized for secretion of hormones, and other substances\ -simple columnar epithelium Simple columnar epithelium -- adapted for secretion (especially mucus) and propelling substances in ciliated cells and absorption in non-ciliated cells with microvilli\ -pseudostratified columnar epithelium\ Pseudostratified columnar epithelium appears to be layered because nuclei are found at various heights, but only one cell- layer thick with basal plasma membranes firmly in contact with basement membrane; found in segments of respiratory tract and nasal cavity; ciliated\ -stratified squamous epithelium Stratified epithelium -- more than one layer of cells; best suited as protective barriers in locations subjected to high degrees of mechanical stress;\ -stratified cuboidal epithelium Stratified cuboidal epithelium, rare in humans, consists of two cell layers and lines ducts of sweat glands stratified columnar epithelium also rare in humans; consists of only a few layers; apical cell layer is columnar and basal cell layer is cuboidal; found in male urethra, cornea of eye, and in ducts of certain glands like salivary glands -transitional epithelium Transitional epithelium -- only found in urinary system; lines interior of kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra; basal cell layers are cuboidal while apical cell layers are dome- shaped when tissue is relaxed; ability of apical cells to flatten contributes to ability of urinary tissues to stretch -How are endocrine and exocrine glands different Endocrine glands secrete their products, usually hormones, directly into the bloodstream without the use of ducts Exocrine glands release products onto apical surfaces of epithelium located on external surface of body or lining a hollow organ that opens to outside of body\ -What are the four main types of connective tissue?\ 1. Connective tissue proper, 2. Cartilage, 3. Bone, 4. Blood\ Sometimes these are classified into two main types of connective tissue: 1 connective tissue\ proper 2. Specialized connective tissues (specialized ct includes cartilage, bone, and blood) -Know the cells of connective tissue proper resident cells permanently inhabit tissue in which they are found\ ♣ migrant cells migrate into different areas of body depending on situation ♣ Fibroblasts\ ♣ Adipocytes\ ♣ Mast cells\ ♣ Phagocytes\ ♣ Other immune system cells -Know the types of connective tissue proper, where do you find each and what are their functions Loose connective tissue -- areolar tissue\ o Found beneath epithelium of skin, in membranes in body cavities, and within walls of hollow organs\ ♣ Dense connective tissue\ o Dense regular -- found in tendons and ligaments that are subject to tension in one plane of movement\ o Dense Irregular - found in high tension areas subject to tension from multiple planes; like dermis and surrounding organs and joints\ ♣ Reticular tissue\ o Found as support structure in vessels, liver, and bone marrow & in the spleen and lymph nodes they serve immune function\ ♣ Adipose tissue -- found in MANY places -Know the types of specialized connective tissues, where do you find each and what are their functions Specialized connective tissues have more specific functions and include the following three types of tissue:\ Cartilage -- found in joints between bones, in ear, nose, and segments of respiratory tract\ Bone tissue (osseous tissue) -- supports body; protects vital organs; provides attachments for muscles that allow for movement; stores calcium, and houses bone marrow (produces\ blood cells and stores fat)\ Blood -- unique connective tissue with a liquid ECM called plasma; consists of mostly water, dissolved solutes, and proteins\ -What are the three main types of muscle tissue? What are the functions and locations of each ♣ Skeletal muscle -- striated; voluntary contractions\ o Found attached to bone\ ♣ Cardiac muscle -- striated; involuntary contractions\ o Found only in heart\ ♣ Smooth muscle -- smooth; involuntary contractions\ o Found in walls of nearly every hollow organ, blood vessels, eyes, skin, and ducts of certain glands -Where could nervous tissue be found in the body, what are the general functions Nervous tissue makes up majority of brain, spinal cord, and nerves; composed of two main cell types and their surrounding ECM\ -What is the difference between neurons and neuroglial cells ♣ Neurons -- capable of sending and receiving messages\ ♣ Neuroglial cells -- perform various functions that support neuron activities -What is regeneration regeneration -- dead/damaged cells are replaced with cells of same type; when process is finished tissue has returned to a normal functional level -What is fibrosis Other tissues are not capable of full regeneration; fibroblasts fill in gaps left from injury by a process called fibrosis -What tissue types are capable of tissue repair? Which are not? Epithelial tissues typically undergo regeneration:\ ♣ Skin and digestive tract lining are subjected to a great deal of stress; must have a mechanism for replacing dead, damaged or worn out cells; new cells are derived from stem cells\ (immature cells capable of mitosis)\ ♣ Other epithelial tissues (like liver and blood vessels) -- mature cells in vicinity of injuries are capable of replacing dead and damaged cells by dividing Most connective tissues heal by regeneration:\ ♣ Connective tissue proper, bone, and blood regenerate easily through division of resident immature cells\.....Cartilage is exception and heals by fibrosis - Smooth muscle tissue usually regenerates -If someone had an inadequate intake of vitamin c how would this affect tissue repair, why does vitamin c matter? (basics here) If someone didn't get enough Vitamin C you can't produce functional collagen What is a cell junction? Cell junctions -- a way cells bind to one another where neighboring cell's plasma membranes are linked by integral proteins