Cardiovascular System Lecture PDF

Blood Blood The only fluid tissue in the body Specialized connective tissue in which living blood cells, called the formed elements, are suspended in a nonliving fluid matrix called plasma Total blood volume in an average adult is about 4-5 liters in females and 5-6 liters in males....

Blood Blood The only fluid tissue in the body Specialized connective tissue in which living blood cells, called the formed elements, are suspended in a nonliving fluid matrix called plasma Total blood volume in an average adult is about 4-5 liters in females and 5-6 liters in males. Makes up 8% of the total weight of the body.  Blood Components VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Blood – Physical Characteristics Sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic taste Color varies from scarlet to dark red. Blood is denser than water and about five times more viscous, largely because of the formed elements. Slightly alkaline (pH – 7.35-7.45)  Protection Distribution Functions of the Blood Regulation Plasma A pale - yellow fluid that consists of about: 91% water 7% proteins 2% other solutes Plasma proteins include the following: Albumin Globulin Fibrinogen  Plasma Contributes to osmotic Proteins (7%) Albumin (58%) pressure Water PLASMA (91%) Composed of gamma, (55%) Globulin (38%) alpha and beta Fibrinogen (4%) Contributes to blood clot Other Solutes (2%) VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Formed Elements The process of blood cell production is called “hematopoiesis.” All the formed elements of the blood are derived from a single population of cells called “stem cells.” Composed of the following: 95% of red blood cells (erythrocytes) 5% of white blood cells (leukocytes) and blood platelets (thrombocytes) Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Biconcave disk, no nucleus, contains hemoglobin which colors the cell red. 6.5-8.5 micrometer in diameter. A microliter of blood contains 5 million of red blood cells. Function: Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide  Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Spherical cells with a nucleus A microliter of blood contains 5000-10,000 white blood cells. Body’s defense against pathogens Composed of five types: Neutrophil Basophil Eosinophil Lymphocyte Monocyte  White Blood Cells Phagocytosis Inflammatory Inflammation Direct cell attack Phagocytosis Response and Clot (destroys Formation microorganism) Platelets (Thrombocytes) Minute fragments of cells, each consisting of small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by cell membrane. A microliter of blood contains 150,000- 400,000 platelets. Function: Preventing Blood loss Diagnostic Blood Tests A laboratory examination of blood yields information that can be used to evaluate a person’s health. This involves CBC, Differential white blood cell count, platelet count, prothrombin time, etc. Complete Blood Count (CBC) Analysis of blood that provides much useful information on the following: Blood Test Normal Values Red Blood Count Male: 4.6-6.2 million per microliter of blood Female: 4.2-5.4 million per microliter of blood Hemoglobin Measurement Male: 14-18 grams per 100mL of blood Female: 12-16 grams per 100mL of blood Hematocrit Measurement Male: 40-52% of the blood Female: 38-48% of the blood White Blood Count 5000-9000 per microliter of Blood Differential White Blood Cell Determines the percentage of each of the five kinds of white blood cells. Normally, each kind account for: 60-70% - neutrophils 20-25%. – lymphocytes 3-8% - monocytes 2-4% - eosinophils 0.5-1% - basophils of the entire white blood cell Clotting The blood’s ability to clot can be assess through: Platelet Count – Normal value: 150, 000 – 400, 000 platelets per microliter of blood. Prothrombin Time Measurement – calculates how long it takes for the blood to start clotting. Normally – 9-12 seconds. Blood Chemistry The composition of materials dissolved or suspended in the plasma can be used to assess the functioning of many of the body’s systems Glucose, electrolytes, sodium, potassium, chlorides, lipid, etc. Hemostasis: Blood Loss Prevention Vascular Blood Spasm/Vasoconstriction Clotting/Coagulation Platelet Plug Formation VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Hemostasis Process of blood loss prevention It involves many clotting factors normally present in plasma as well as several substances that are released by platelets and injured tissue cells. 1. Vascular Spasm – smooth muscle contracts causing vasoconstriction 2. Platelet plug formation – injury lining of vessel exposes to collagen fibers. Platelets also adhere and release chemicals that cause formation of a plug. 3. Coagulation – fibrin forms a mesh that traps RBC and platelets forming a clot. Blood Grouping Terms: Transfusion – transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another Infusion – introduction of a fluid other than blood, such as saline or glucose solution, into the blood. Antigen – protein that a surface of each red blood cell carries. Antibodies – the blood plasma carries antibodies against the antigens of the other blood types. Transfusion reaction – clumping or rupture of blood cells and clotting within blood vessels. Caused by interactions by antigens and antibodies that can result into: Agglutination – clumping of blood cells Hemolysis – rupture of the blood cells VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. ABO Blood Group System used to categorize human blood. Donor – the person who gives blood Recipient – the person who receives blood Rh Blood Group Responsible for hemolytic disease of the newborn, which can occur when the fetus is Rh-positive and the mother is Rh-negative Rh-positive blood has Rh antigen Rh-negative blood does not (lacks specific antigen) Heart Size, Form and Location of the Heart The adult heart is shaped like a blunt cone and approximately the size of a closed fist and has a mass of 250-350g. Located in the thoracic cavity between two pleural cavities that surround the lungs. Mediastinum – midline partition Pericardial cavity – cavity of the heart Main function: Pump blood throughout the body Beats approx. 100,000 times daily carrying 8000L of blood.  Size, Form and Location of the Heart The adult heart is shaped like a blunt cone and approximately the size of a closed fist. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Covering of the Heart: The Pericardium A sac consisting of fibrous and serous pericardia. Has two layers: Fibrous Pericardium Serous Pericardium Parietal Visceral Histology of the Heart Heart Wall  Heart Wall 1. Epicardium Outermost layer of the heart Composed of simple squamous epithelium and an areolar connective tissue(deep area) 2. Myocardium Middle layer of the heart wall Composed of cardiac muscle tissue. Responsible for the overall contraction of heart necessary to pump blood 3. Endocardium Innermost layer of the heart Composed of simple squamous epithelium and an areolar connective tissue(deep area)  Heart Chambers and Associated Great Vessels The heart has four chambers: Superior Atria (2) – receives the blood from the vein Inferior Ventricles (2) – pump blood away from the heart from the atria Internal Partitions Interatrial Septum – separates the atrial chambers Interventricular Septum- separates the ventricular chambers VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Heart Chambers and Associated Great Vessels Grooves on the heart surface: Coronary Sulcus – separate the atria from the ventricles Anterior Interventricular Sulcus – from coronary sulcus to anterior surface of the heart Posterior Interventricular Sulcus - from coronary sulcus to posterior surface of the heart VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Heart Chambers and Associated Great Vessels Veins that carry blood to the heart: 1. Superior Vena Cava 2. Inferior Vena Cava 3. Coronary Sinus 4. Four Pulmonary Veins VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Heart Chambers and Associated Great Vessels Arteries that carry blood away from the heart: 1. Pulmonary Trunk 2. Aorta 3. Pulmonary Arteries VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Heart Valves Atrioventricular Valves (AV Valves) Located between the right atrium and the right ventricle(tricuspid valve) and between the left atrium and left ventricle (bicuspid/mitral valve). Prevent backflow into the atria Each ventricle contains cone-shaped, muscular pillars called ”papillary muscles” and attached to a connective tissue strings called “chordae tendineae.” VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman. Heart Valves Semilunar Valves The aorta and pulmonary trunk possess aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves. Prevent backflow associated into the ventricles A plate of connective tissue, sometimes called the “cardiac skeleton” surrounds the valves and give them solid support.  Coronary Circulation Two coronary arteries supply blood to the wall of the heart: Left Coronary Artery – originates on the left side of the aorta. It has two major branches: 1. Anterior interventricular artery 2. Circumflex artery Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman.  Coronary Circulation Two coronary arteries supply blood to the wall of the heart: Right Coronary Artery – originates on the left side of the aorta. It has two major branches: 1. Posterior interventricular artery 2. Right marginal artery Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman.  Coronary Circulation The cardiac veins drain blood from the cardiac muscle and most of them drain blood into the coronary sinus. This sinus has three (3) attributes: 1. Great Cardiac Vein 2. Middle Cardiac Vein 3. Small Cardiac Vein Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman. Blood Flow through the Heart Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Conduction System of the Heart The conduction system of the heart is made up of specialized cardiac muscle cells. Path of Action potential through the heart: 1. SA node (sinoatrial) 2. AV node (atrioventricular) 3. AV bundle 4. Right and Left Bundle branches 5. Purkinje fibers  Conduction System of the Heart Its cells are elongated and branched that contain one or occasionally two nuclei. Cells are joined by intercalated disks that allow action potentials to be propagated throughout the heart. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Heart Sounds Two main heart sounds: First: lubb (lower pitch) Second: dupp Stethoscope – developed to listen the sounds of the lungs and heart and is now used to listen other sounds of the body as well Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds due to faulty valves Stenosis – narrowing of valve Cardiac Cycle Refers to the pumping process that begins with the onset of the cardiac muscle contraction and ends with the beginning of the next contraction. It involves the following: Atrial systole: contraction of atria Ventricular systole: contraction of ventricles Atrial diastole: relaxation of atria Ventricular diastole: relaxation of ventricles VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Regulation of Heart Function Measurements to assess heart function: Cardiac output (CO) – volume of blood pumped per ventricle per minute Stroke Volume (SV) – volume of blood pumped per ventricle each time the heart contracts. Heart Rate (HR) – number of times the heart contracts each minute. Blood Vessels Three Main Types of Blood Vessels Arteries – carry blood away from the heart. Veins – carry blood toward the heart. Capillaries – site of exchange in blood and tissue fluid. Except for capillaries, blood vessels consists of three layers: 1. Tunica intima 2. Tunica Media 3. Tunica Adventitia  Tunics present in both arteries and veins VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Types of Blood Circulation Systemic Circulation – system of blood vessels that carries blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the tissues of the body back to the right atrium. Pulmonary Circulation – system of blood vessels that carries blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs and back to the left atrium of the heart.  Systemic Circulation Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman.  Major Arteries of the Human Body VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Arteries Three major types: 1. Elastic Arteries- receive blood directly from the heart. (Ex: Aorta and the pulmonary artery) 2. Muscular Arteries – distributes blood towards the regions of the body. (Ex: Femoral and brachial arteries) 3. Arterioles – deliver blood to the capillaries. Aorta All arteries of the systemic circulation branch directly or indirectly from the aorta. The ascending aorta is the part of the aorta pass passes superiorly from the left ventricle. The right and left coronary arteries arise from the base of the ascending aorta and supply blood towards the heart. The aortic arch is wherein three major arteries such as, brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries originate. All these arteries carry blood to the head and upper limbs The longest part of the aorta which is the descending aorta, extends from thoracic to diaphragm (thoracic aorta) and from diaphragm into the common iliac arteries (abdominal aorta).  Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Head and Neck VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Head and Neck ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Brachiocephalic Branches from the aortic arch and supplies the (only at the right side of the head and arm body) Right Subclavian Branches from the right common carotid artery and supplies blood to the right upper limb. Left Subclavian Originates from the left common carotid artery and supplies blood to the right upper limb Right Common Carotid Branches from the brachiocephalic artery and supplies blood to the right side of the head and neck Left Common Carotid Branches directly from the aortic arch and supplies blood to the left side of the head and neck External Carotid Branches from the common carotid arteries and Neck, face, nose and mouth VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Head and Neck *part of the Circle of Willis ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Anterior cerebral artery* Supplies the medial surface of the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral hemisphere on its side Internal Carotid * Branches from the common carotid arteries and supply blood to the anterior brain and meninges Anterior communicating* Arises from the anterior cerebral artery (same tissue supply) Posterior cerebral* Occipital lobes and the inferior parts of the temporal lobes Posterior communicating* Connects posterior cerebral and middle cerebral arteries anteriorly. Middle cerebral Supply the lateral parts of the temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Cerebral Arterial Circle Also known as the Circle of Willis Formed by the union of the following arteries: 1. Anterior Cerebral Artery 2. Anterior Communicating Artery 3. Internal Carotid Artery 4. Posterior Communicating Artery 5. Posterior Cerebral Artery This structure encircles the pituitary gland and optic chiasma and unites the brain’s anterior and posterior blood supplies.  Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Head and Neck VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Head and Neck ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Vertebral Branch from the subclavian arteries. Supply blood to the spinal cord, vertebrae, muscles and ligaments of the neck Basilar Union of two vertebral arteries. Supplies blood to the pons, cerebellum and midbrain  Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Upper Limbs VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Upper Limbs ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Axillary Originate from the subclavian artery and supply blood to the axilla Brachial Originate from the axillary artery and supply blood to the arm Radial Branch from the brachial artery and supply blood to the lateral forearm and hand Ulnar Branch from the brachial artery and supply blood to the medial forearm and hand  Thorax VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Thorax ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Visceral Arteries Branch from thoracic aorta and supplies blood to the thoracic organs such as esophagus, trachea, parietal pericardium, and parts of the lungs Parietal arteries Branch from thoracic aorta and supplies blood to the thoracic walls. Posterior Intercostal Major parietal arteries which supply blood to the Intercostal muscles, vertebrae, spinal cord, and deep muscles of the back Internal thoracic Branch from the subclavian arteries and supply blood to the anterior thoracic and abdominal walls Anterior intercostal Branch from the internal thoracic artery and supply blood to the anterior thoracic wall  Abdomen VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Abdomen ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Abdominal Aorta (Visceral Branches.- Unpaired) Celiac trunk Supplies blood to the small intestine, cecum, ascending colon, and transverse colon Superior Mesenteric Supplies blood to the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper rectum Inferior Mesenteric Supplies blood to the Lower portion of the colon Abdominal Aorta (Visceral Branches.- Paired) Renal Supply blood to the Kidneys Suprarenal Supply blood to the Adrenal Glands Testicular Supply blood to the Testes (Male) Ovarian And Ovaries (Female) Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Abdomen ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Abdominal Aorta (Parietal Branches) Inferior Phrenic Supply blood to the Diaphragm Lumbar Supply blood to the Lumbar Vertebrae and Back Muscles Median Sacral Supplies blood to the Inferior Vertebrae Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Pelvis ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Abdominal Aorta --- Common Iliac Arteries External Iliac Supplies blood to the Lower Limb Internal Iliac Supplies blood to the Pelvic area and organs such as urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, and vagina.  Lower Limbs VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Arteries of the Body and its Tissue Supply Lower Limbs ARTERIES BRANCHES AND TISSUE SUPPLY Femoral Originate from the external iliac artery and supplies blood towards the thigh. Popliteal Originate from the femoral artery and supplies blood to the knee. Anterior Tibial Branch from the popliteal artery and supplies blood to anterior leg and foot. Posterior Tibial Branch from the popliteal artery and supplies blood to posterior leg and foot. Fibular Originate from the posterior tibial artery and supplies blood to the lateral leg and foot Dorsalis Pedis Originate from the anterior tibial artery and supplies blood to the ankle.  Major Veins of the Human Body VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014.  Veins Three major types: 1. Venules – similar to a structure of capillaries but slightly larger in diameter. It is composed of endothelium resting on a delicate connective tissue layer. Tunica intima is the only present tunic. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014.  Veins Three major types: 2. Small and Medium Veins – all the tunics are evident. The tunica media contains circular smooth muscle. The tunica adventitia determines the capability of the vein to distend. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014.  Veins Three major types: 3. Large Veins – all the tunics are evident too. It has a pre-dominant tunica adventitia and its tunica media is thin but has the capability to regulate vessel diameter because venous pressure is low. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Superior and Inferior Venae Cavae The two major large veins that returns blood to the heart from the regions of the body are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Superior vena cava – returns blood from the head, neck, thorax, and upper limbs to the right atrium of the heart. Inferior vena cava – returns blood from the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs to the the right atrium of the heart.  Head and Neck VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Head and Neck VEINS TISSUE DRAINED External Jugular Carry blood from the posterior Head and neck. Empties into the subclavian vein Internal Jugular Carry blood from the brain and Anterior Head, Face and Neck. They join the subclavian veins on each side of the body to form the brachiocephalic veins  Upper Limbs VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Upper Limbs VEINS TISSUE DRAINED Brachial Carry blood from deep structures of the upper limbs. The brachial veins empty into the axillary vein. Cephalic Carry blood from the distal forearm and bend around the radius as it travel superiorly and then continue up the lateral superficial aspect of the arm to the shoulder to join the axillary vein Basilic Carry blood from the distal forearm and extend along the posteromedial aspect of the forearm, crosse the elbow, and then join the brachial vein in the axilla, forming the axillary vein. Axillary The vein wherein brachial, cephalic and basilic veins empty. Median Cubital connect cephalic to basilic vein  Thorax VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Thorax VEINS TISSUE DRAINED Brachiocephalic Carry blood from the anterior thoracic wall from the anterior intercostal veins and drain into brachiocephalic veins Azygos Carries blood from the posterior thoracic wall from the posterior intercostal veins and drain into the azygos vein.  Abdomen Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman.  Abdomen (Hepatic Portal System) Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Abdomen VEINS TISSUE DRAINED Renal Carry blood from the kidneys Suprarenal Carry blood from the Adrenal Glands Testicular Carry blood from the testes (Male) Ovarian and ovaries (Female) Lumbar Carry blood from the back and abdominal wall Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Abdomen VEINS TISSUE DRAINED Hepatic Portal System Superior Mesenteric Drains the entire small intestine, part of the large intestine and stomach Inferior Mesenteric Drains the distal portions of the large intestine and rectum and joins the splenic vein just before that vessel unites with the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein Splenic Vein Carries blood from the spleen, parts of the stomach and pancreas, and then joins the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein. Hepatic Portal Vein Hepatic Veins Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Pelvis VEINS TISSUE DRAINED External Iliac Branch from the femoral vein and carry blood from the lower Limb. Internal Iliac Carry blood from the pelvic area and organs such as urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, and vagina. These veins unite with the external iliac veins to form the common iliac veins which empty into the inferior vena cava.  Lower Limbs VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Major Veins of the Body and its Venous Drainage Lower Limbs VEINS TISSUE DRAINED Femoral Carry blood from deep structures of the thigh. The femoral vein empty into the external iliac vein. Great Saphenous Originate from dorsal and medial side of the foot (longest vein in the body) and ascend along the medial side of the leg and thigh to empty into the femoral vein. Popliteal Carry blood from knee and Leg. As the popliteal vein emerges from the knee, it becomes the femoral vein Small Saphenous Originate from the lateral side of the foot and join the popliteal vein to become the femoral vein. REFERENCES Marieb, E.(2008). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology. Asia: Addison – Wesley Longman. Thompson, G. S. (2013). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company. Shier, D., Butler, J., & Lewis, R. (2018). Hole's essentials of human anatomy & physiology. McGraw-Hill Education. VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J., Russo, A., & Seeley, R. R. (2014). Seeley's anatomy & physiology. New York, New York : McGraw-Hill, c2014. Anatomy TV