Functional Anatomy Lecture Notes PDF

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY L6: BIOMECHANICS OF TENDONS & LIGAMENTS TENDONS 3 structures surround and connect the skeletal system: 1. Tendons 2. Ligaments 3. Joint Capsules = These structures → mechanically passive, but play an important role in joint motion and stability TENDONS → Connect...

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY L6: BIOMECHANICS OF TENDONS & LIGAMENTS TENDONS 3 structures surround and connect the skeletal system: 1. Tendons 2. Ligaments 3. Joint Capsules = These structures → mechanically passive, but play an important role in joint motion and stability TENDONS → Connect muscle to bone, transmit tensile load and stabilise joints - Minimal blood vessels Components: Tenocytes; (~20%) - Specialised Fibroblast (tendon cells) - ROLE: control tendon metabolism and respond to mechanical stimuli - Serve as signal in collagen production Extracellular Matrix; (~80%) - Maintains structure - Facilitates biomechanical response ** Extracellular matrix = 2% Elastin/ 33-50% Collagen/ 2% Proteoglycan/ 55-75% Water Collagen; - Collagen is synthesised by tenocytes and functions to sustain large tensile loads - Specifically, tenocytes produce procollagen that is secreted into the extracellular matrix as collagen - Collagen aligns itself head to tail in a parallel arrangement - Collagen molecules band together in a parallel arrangement to form many tendinous lavers  Paratendon; - Tendons are surrounded by loose areolar connective tissues called paratenon - The paratenon forms a sheath that enhances gliding Crimp; = Important for biomechanical loading as it allows for the straightening during tensile loading - Not straight parallel Elastin: - Tendons and extremity ligaments only contain a small amount of elastin (~2%) - Compared to some ligament which have 2:1 ration of elastin to collagen (ligamentum flavum) Though to help protect spinal nerve roots, control spine motion and increase spin stability Grounds Substance; - The solid components contains mainly proteoglycans - ROLE; binds water, creating a gel-like substance - Helps with lubrication and creates a cement like substance Stabilises the collagen and contributes to the overall strength Tendon Loading = High tensile load only in ONE direction (parallel arrangement) LIGAMENTS Same general compositions as tendons → BUT ligamentous fibroblasts Compared to Tendons: - Collagen fibres = NOT parallel - Outer connective tissue layer → Epiligament - Multidirectional tensile forces → Ligaments follow the line of movement and sustain tensile loads in a predominant direction - Depending on the function of each ligament the orientation of the fibres can vary BIOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES Tendons and Ligaments = viscoelastic structures, strong in tensile loading - Tendons are strong yet flexible enough to angulate around bone surfaces to change final direction of muscle pull - Ligaments are strong but pliant (easily influenced/ directed), flexible and inextensible Tensile capacity can be seen in a load-elongation curve Crimp Toe Region - Elongate with very little load - Across X axis, very little up Y Axis Elastic Stiffness/ Ultimate load / Yield Point / Energy absorbed Region = Collagen fibres resist tensile loading Plastic Failure Point/ Ultimate Elongation (very small plastic region) Region = Very little you can stretch past, until it breaks Ligamentum Flavum - Greater portion of elastic fibres allows for 50% elongation of the ligament before stiness increases - The greater elastic capacity (region) results in a larger capacity to elongate before failure Viscoelasticity Test - Tendons and ligaments exhibit viscoelastic behaviour - Two standard tests illustrate these behaviours - Stretched to a constant length - Constant load applied for prolonged periods - The amount of force required to hold that of time length diminishes - Deformation increases quickly at forest and these progresses more slowly for months Clinical Application; Scoliosis - Useful treatment in a variety of deformities - Constant low load (applied through braces) to soft tissue FACTORS AFFECTING BIOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES Maturation & Age - As ageing progresses,collagen reaches a plateau after which tensile strength and stiffness begin to decline Pregnancy - there is an increased in laxity of tendons and ligaments in the pubic area due to an increase in the hormone Relaxin Mobilisation - Like bone, ligaments and tendons appear to remodel in response to mechanical demands Immobilisation - Decreases collagen production and this causes a decrease tensile capacity of ligaments and tendons Conditions; Comorbidities - Negatively affects the biomechanical properties of ligaments and tendons - Mostly due to inefficiencies/ destruction of collagen fibres E.G = Diabetes Mellitus/ Connective Tissue Disorders/ Renal Disease Pharmacologic Agents’ - Intake of medications = negatively impact ligaments and tendons - Mostly due to inhibition of collagen synthesis E.G = Steroids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs SPRAINS & STRAINS Sprain = Ligament Injury Strain = Tendon injury Tendon Healing Variation Achilles Tendon → May heal itself with immobilisation Flexor Digitorum Tendon → Will not heal without surgical Intervention Ligament Healing Variation Medial Collateral Ligament → Fully heal after complete rupture without surgical intervention Anterior Cruciate Ligament → Requires grafting or reattachment after complete rupture *Achilles Paratendinopathy = Common injury to the achilles tendon involving inflammation of the paratenon surrounding the achilles - Caused by direct trauma or training error L7: BIOMECHANICS OF THE LOWER LIMB BIOMECHANICS OF THE HIP = Hip joints support weight of upper body → Ball and socket joint (femoral head and acetabulum) Stability and mobility influenced by; - Shapes of articulating surfaces - Ligaments - Muscles - Acetabular labrum* (fibrocartilage - create collar = retaining a layer of pressurised intra-articular fluid for joint lubrication and load support/distribution) - Ligamentum teres Composed of two bands that originate from the acetabular transverse ligament and the pubic and ischial margins of the acetabular notch Stabilises hip → especially in abduction and rotation Kinematics Range of Motion necessary in daily activity Range of motion ↓ with age due to; - Hip Flexion → at least 120° - Changes in motor control - Abduction → at least 20° - Loss of motor unit - ↓ in fast twitch muscle fibres - Internal/ external rotation → at least 20° - Forces on hip = -3 times body weight during single leg stance - 6≥ times body weight during stance phase of gait cycle - 8 times greater than body weight during running/ skiing Forces on hip are influenced by; - Position of the upper body relatively to the lower body - Ration of abductor muscle force lever arm to gravitational force lever arm - Anatomic configuration of the femoral neck and head in relation to the acetabulum  Coverage Of Acetabulum Alignment of Femur Kinetics = Contact and force transmissions can be Kinematics radically different from one individual to another Gender differences - Moments = ↑ in women (greater Q angle) Can also be influenced by; - Greater joints forces in both stance and gait - Changes due to activity - Various arthritis diseases - Pathology Interventions = Joint reaction forces can be reduced by; - Altering the centre of motion in the prosthetic design - Slightly changing abductor muscles lever arm through surgery - Cane for altering hip forces BIOMECHANICS OF THE KNEE = The knee is largest and most complex joint Two Joint structure; - Tibiofemoral - Patellofemoral Kinematics; Patellofemoral; - Surface motion = mainly sagittal plane Tibiofemoral joint; Medial side → contact point on tibia is close to - Surface motion in 3 planes constat, indicating sliding motion Largest motion = sagittal plane Lateral side → contact point displaced posteriorly with flexion, indicating a combination of rolling/ sliding Screw-home mechanism; - Tibia externally rotates as knee extends (vice versa) - Add stability to knee joint in full extension Kinetics Additionally load-bearing structures; - Mainly tibial plateaus - Articular cartilage, muscles, ligaments - Meniscus and distributing stresses, reducing pressures on tibial plateau Knee compressive force ranges between 2 and 4 body weight - Muscles have greatest influence - Higher flexion activities = highest forces - Medial side carries higher forces than lateral Function of the patella Aids knee extension; - By strengthening lever arm of quadriceps muscles - This allows wider distribution of compressive stress on femur L8: GAIT COMPONENTS OF GAIT - Relative symmetric motion involving moving the bodies overall centre of mass in direction of locomotion - Gait is a functional task requiring complex interaction and coordination of most joints in the body - All moving simultaneously on all 3 planes of motion GAIT CYCLE = Full gait cycle is defined by the occurrence of a sequential stance phase and swing phase Stance Phase - The stance phase makes up approx. 65% of gait cycle - Taken from heel strike to toe off Essentially this is when foot is on the ground Swing Phase - The swing phase makes up approx. 35% of the gait cycle - Take from toe off to heel strike Essentially this is when foot is in the air Walking Gait Cycle Walking Stance Phase consists of: - 2 periods of double limb support (initial and terminal)] - 1 period of single limb support Stride Length Step Length Step Wide The length between an event on The length between an event on The distance covered one side until the same event on one side until the same event on perpendicular to the direction of the same side the opposite side locomotion → Heel all the way to the next - Typically measured at heel heels - Width of gait Time and Distance Variables: Angular Kinematics → Knee Angular Kinematics → Ankle Sagittal - Coronal - Transverse Sagittal - Initial contact = almost fully extended, flexes - Initial contact = slightly plantar flexion slightly in midstance before extending again - During midstance = dorsiflexes as the lower - >60 degree flexion during swing phase leg rotates medially over it - Little flexion when on ground, lots of flexion in - Following midstance = Plantarflexion air - Immediately following toe off ankle rapidly - Very little abduction/ adduction due to bone dorsiflexes (clearance) and ligament restraints - Maintains a state of external rotation Angular Kinematics → Hip Sagittal - Coronal - Transverse - Initial contact = flexed 30 degrees and (Hyper) extends throughout the stance 10 degrees - Small degrees of adduction/ abduction - Remains slightly externally rotated, begins to internally rotate and then back into external rotation Subtalar Joint - The subtalar joint = complex joint that is positioned below the ankle joint - The subtalar joint is between calcaneus and the talus - Majority of eversion and inversion takes place here - Rotates both stance and swing phase and permits the foot to adapt to uneven terrain (shock absorption) Coronal - Initial contact = inverted but begins to evert - Everison peaks in midstance - The begins to invert - Inverted during the swing phase RUNNING & GAIT ABNORMALITIES Running Gait Cycle - In the running cycle, stand phases decrease, swing phase increases, double leg support disappears and float phase develops. - Stance = feet on the ground < then in walking - NO double stance Gait Abnormalities Rocking Horse gait - Muscular weakness/ paralysis in the gluteus maximus Trendelenburg sign - Weak gluteus maximus, leg length discrepancy - Dipping down like one leg shorter than other Knee Fusion - Joint muscle ROM limitation - Leads to circumduction gait - Bring leg around to allow toe clearance Hemiplegic gait - Most commonly seen in stroke patients - Neurological involvement - Hip → extension + adduction + medial rot - Knee → Extension - Ankle → Plantarflexion → Inversion ANKLE & FOOT 1. Talocrural; Plantarflexion/ Dorsiflexion 2. Subtalar; Inversion/ Eversion. Abduction/ Adduction 3. Midtarsal; Inversion/ Eversion, Abduction/ Adduction The projection of the foot anteriorly from the coronal plane means that terminology describing motion of the foot differs compared to the other areas of the body - Movement at the ankle/ foot are often considered to be triplanar → involves movement on all 3 planes - The most notable are those of pronation and supination Pronation = Dorsiflexion + Abduction + Eversion Supination = Plantar Flexion + Adduction + Inversion Orthotics = Articual devices such as Orthotics, splints and braces are commonly used for biomechanical correction FORCES OF THE ANKLE & FOOT Truss Model Kinetic of the Foot Peak forced placed on the foot can reach; - 120% of body weight during walking - 275% of body weight during running The majority of force travels down the line of the medial longitudinal arch - Pedobarography is the study of pressure fields acting between the plantar surface of the foot and a supporting surface - Distribution of loads under the foot during stance have revealed; Heel = 60% Midfoot = 8% Forefoot = 28% Toes = 4% - During barefoot walking the centre of pressure is located in the heel and accelerated across the midfoot to reach the forefoot - Forefoot peak pressures occurs under the 2nd metatarsals head Muscle control of Foot & Ankle - Tibialis Anterior, Extensor Digitorum Longus and Extensor Digitorum brevis = eccentric from heel strike to flat foot - Heel off → Toe off = concentric Comparison of Varying Gait Patterns Heel Striking Vs Forefoot Striking Comparison of Running Shoes - The heal-to-toe drop in footwear = can influence the strike pattern during running - Conflicting evidence = best footwear option - Narrow shoes and high heels can adversely affect foot mechanics, leading to forefoot deformities, heel pain and achilles issues 88% of women with foot pain were wearing shoes that were 1.2 cm too narrow L9: THE SPINE SPINAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY The spine is a complex structure whose functions are to; - Protect the spinal cord - Movement; allow, direct and control - Load Transfer; from head and trunk to the pelvic Spinal Regions The anterior region of a vertebrae; The posterior region of a vertebrae; - Intervertebral discs - Facets - Longitudinal ligaments - Spinous process - Forms of weight bearing zone - Various additional ligaments - Provides guiding and stabilising elements Intervertebral discs - Absorbs shock and restrains excessive motion Discs have two section - Nucleus pulposus (inside) A gelatinous mass that acts like a rubber board giving the disc elasticity and compressibility No direct blood supply = relies on diffusion for its a nutrients - Annulus Fibrosus (outside) Tough outer covering composed of fibrocartilage Crisscross collagen fibres provide resistance to bending and torsional load Pressure Distribution - During loading of the spine the nucleus pulposus acts hydrostatically Uniform distribution of pressure Loaded in compression the pressure → Nucleus pulposus; approx 1.5 times the load → Annulus fibrosus; approx 0.5 times the load Disc Degeneration: - Degeneration in the discs reduces hydrophilic capacity The discs become less hydrated, store less energy and reduces ability to distribute load Most Hydrated → Least Facet Orientation Summary Kinematics: - 0 - 10 = not a lot - 10 + = reasonable amount - 20 + = great Ligaments of the Spine - Ligaments contribute to the stability of the spine Play important roles in; Limiting movement Preloading the spine Functional motion of the Spine - Difficult to measure due to complexity of movements within an intersegmental system Differences between sexes; Males = typically have more ROM in flexion/ extension Females = Typically have more ROM in lateral flexion - ROM is largely age dependent Decreasing by approx. 30% with age LOADING OF THE SPINE = The spine can be considered a modified elastic rod due to flexibility and shock absorbing properties Factors that influence this include: IV discs Function of the longitudinal ligaments Elastic properties of the ligamentum flavum Curvatures of the spine Trunk muscles Loading of Spine during standing - Postural muscles = active when standing Minimised when spine is well-aligned - During standing the line of gravity passes anteriorly to the centre of the fourth lumbar vertebrae - The spine is therefore subject to a forward bending moment - The body maintains balance by increase muscle activity The activity increases postural sway Sway = horizontal movement of the centre gravity even when the person is standing still - The pelvis also plays a role in muscle activity and resulting loads on the spine - Sacral angles = 30 → influence activity to postural muscles and affect static loads. Comparing Loads on the Spine Loads on lumbar spine during Sitting Static loads during lifting = Influenced by the size and position of the object Exercises - Arching back in the prone position = activates the erector spinae muscles and produces high loads on the lumbar spine - Aligning the vertebrae with each other is preferable E.G Placing pillow under the stomach improves alignment - Bent and straight leg sit ups activate the abdominal and psoas muscles similar but place high loads on lumbar vertebrae - Isometric reverse circles = effective for training abdominal muscles → minimising psoas activity THE CERVICAL SPINE Kinematics - A vertebrae body can either rotate or translate in 3 different planes - Particularly evident in cervical vertebrae which are subject to large degree of movement - Vertebrae move as a functional unit → Vertebrae 1 + disc + Vertebrae 2 Coupled Motion of the Spine - Rotation between atlas and axis is accompanied by a translation at the facets in the vertical axis - Lateral flexion of the spine is accompanied by rotation Biomechanics of cervical trauma = Motor vehicle accidents remain a leading cause of cervical injury The 2 most common cervical injuries; 1. Airbag injuries - 1987-1990 = driver side airbags were introduced - 1993 = passenger side airbags were introduced Resulting in many infant deaths through cervical trauma/ decapitation Children should be secured in the back seat - Alterations in angle and speed of airbags have led to reductions in head and neck injuries 2. Whiplash Syndrome - A complex set of symptoms that may be present after an acceleration hyperextension injury - Typically occurs when; Car is struck from behind Forcing the torso forward Forcing the neck backwards - Initial neck extension strain and potentially a secondary flexion injury if the vehicle strikes a car in front - Hyperextension of the neck - Forces placed on the mandible cause the jaw to snap open - During a collision the muscle tension may increase faster than the velocity of the muscle stretch - Inappropriate length-tension relationship may rupture muscles of the neck L10: NERVES COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE = The nervous system serves as the body's control centre and communication network - Senses changes in the body and external environment - Interpret these changes - Initiate response through muscle contraction or gland secretion Sensory Input = Afferent Integration Motor Output = Efferent Central nervous system = CNS - Brain and spinal cord - Integrating and command centre Peripheral Nervous system = PNS - Consists of nerves that carry messages to and from spinal cord and brain 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches, responsible for: - Olfactory - Optic - Oculomotor - Trochlear - Trigeminal - Abducens - Facial - Vestibulocochlear - Glossopharyngeal - Vagus - Accessory - Hypoglossal 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches (called peripheral nerves) - Cervical = C1 → C8 - Thoracic = T1 → T12 - Lumbar = L1 → L5 - Sacral = S1 → S5 - Coccygeal = Co1  Posterior roots (INPUT) Anterior Roots (OUTPUT) = aka ‘dorsal roots’ = aka ‘ventral roots’ - Contains mainly fibres of sensory neurons - Contains mainly fibres of motor neurons E.G → Skin, muscles, tendons and joints * Where they unit = Spinal Nerve Peripheral nerves fibres Peripheral nerve = complex structures made up of; Nerve fibres Connective tissue Blood vessels - Containing 3 tissue elements = nerves react to trauma in different ways - A nerve fibre = a thread like extension of the nerve cell consisting of axon and myelin sheath - The myelin sheath is produced by flattened cells called Schwann cells → increases the speed of conduction, insulates and maintains the axon The conduction velocity of the fibre is directly related to the diameter of the fibre - skeletal muscles and sensory nerve fibres are large → Pressures, temperature, kinesthetic sense, skeletal muscle tension, joint position - Sensory fibres that control dull diffuse pain are small Intraneural connective tissue Successive layers of connective tissue surround the nerve fibres called; 1. Epineurium = loose connective tissue protects fascicles from external trauma and maintains oxygen supply 2. Perineurium = sheath surrounds each fascicle. Has great mechanical strength and a specific biomechanical barrier 3. Endoneurium = holds and protects individual nerve fibres which are packed in fascicles. Composed of fibroblasts and collagen. Peripheral Nerve Vascularisation The peripheral nerve is a well vascularized structure containing vascular networks in all three connective tissue layers Impulse propagation and axonal transport depend on local oxygen supply Vessels run along a unique oblique course through the perineurium - Easily close off ike valves in the event of increasing pressure (reducing blood flow to the area) - This will cause sensations of tingling or numbness Spinal Nerve roots - Early embryonic development Spinal cord = approx same length as the vertebral column - Fully grown adults Spinal cord ends around the first lumbar vertebrae = L1 Below L1 = nervous content is made up of lumbo-sacral nerve roots → aka ‘Cauda Equina’ = Horses tail Membranous coverings Spinal nerve roots are covered in a root sheath - Protect and insulate the spinal cord and brain - Similar to spinal meninges Spinal meninges = connective tissue membranes that line vertebral canal, and enclose/ protect the spinal cord Made up of 3 layers called; Pia Mater, Arachnoid Mater and Dura mater GRADED MUSCLE RESPONSE Electromyography (EMG) = Measures nerve activity in targeted muscle - Increase in weight = increase in muscle fibres Phases Down phase Up phase Contraction No Contraction - Can create electrical stimulus to create movement e.g in quadriplegic/ stroke patients BIOMECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR & NERVE INJURY = External trauma and nerve entrapment may cause deformation and deterioration of nerve function Nerves → Tensile strength - Peripheral nerves = strong in tensile strength Tensile injuries are associated to nerves are usually associated with severe accidents - As the structure of the nerve is stretched, the perineurium tightens Nerves → Tensile injury Nerves → Compression Injury L: 11 SOMATOTYPING & TALENT IDENTIFICATION SOMATOTYPING = A somatotyping is a category to which people are assigned according to the extent to which their bodily physique conforms to a basic type - Endomorph → softer bodies with curves. They have a wide waist and hips and large bones, though they may or may not be overweight - Mesomorph → body types with a naturally high muscle-to-fat ratio. People with this body type typically respond well to weight training, finding it easier than other people to build and maintain muscle. - Ectomorph → a person with a thin body build Factors affecting body composition: - Genetics - Environmental factors - Age - Gender - Race and ethnicity Assessing body composition Field Methods - Anthropometry is the scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body - Typical anthropometric measures; Skinfold measurements Girths Height Weight  Limb Lengths Bone Breadths Somatotype - Somatotype = 3 figure reference → characteristics physique and body shape - Somatotype valve are plotted on a tri-polar somatochart Anthropometric Assessment Most commonly measured using the heath-carter measurement system - Derived on 10 measurements - Descriptor of shape - Independent of size - Assumes proportionally of size, development and symmetry Endomorphy - Rounded or fatness - Based on 3 skinfolds independent of size Advantages Disadvantages - Mass for blocking sports - Low power to weight - Hypothermia resistance - High energy cost of locomotion - Impaired heat dissipation - Floatation - Cardiac risk - Low self esteem Mesomorphy - Musculoskeletal robustness - Based on humerus and femur breadths and corrected girths of calf and upper arm Advantages Disadvantages - Absolute strength - Power at expense of endurance - Injury resistance - Poort heat dissipation - Exercise can become obsessive in - Hypothermia resistance bodybuilders - Positive self image Ectomorphy - Relative fragility, based on height and weight Advantages Disadvantages - Cardiac health - Lack upper body strength - Low energy cost of locomotion - Risk of diminished self image - Power to weight ratio - Injury protection via diminished forces Somatotypes in sport = certain somatotypes tend to be found in certain sports - Training enhances these characteristics further - E.G high jumpers becoming more lean for a comp Somatotyping - It is possible to exhibit more than 1 type of somatotype - Dysplasia - possible to exhibit different types between body segments Kayak Athletes = arms/ legs Tennis players = arms Relevance of Somatotype in sport - Each component independently affects performance in most sports Tool for determining training goals and outcomes - Talent identification for sporting potential of individuals Tool for matching individuals with sports which they may have advantages TALENT IDENTIFICATION Olympic Marathon - 1 hour 20 minute change in 208 years 100m sprint Jesse owens - 1936 - Time; 10.2 sec Night of Speed - 20th June 1968 - Jim Hines, Roonie Ray Smith and Charles Green all were the first to break the 10 second barrier in the 100m - Current record; Usain Bolt → Time: 9.58 sec How are records broken Top 3 highest earning Athletes: - Sport promotion and broadcasting 1. Micheal Jordan = 1.8 billion - National and international interest 2. Tiger woods = 1.7 Billion 3. Arnold Palmer = 1.5 Billion - Money and sponsorship - Popularity Technology - Starting blocks, running shoes, track surface, automatic timers, etc - Introduction of gutters in swimming pools reduces the turbulence → Decrease to record of the 100m swim by ~ 2 sec Research Training - Sport scientist - understanding capabilities of the human body based on physique and training to ensure the best performance outcomes Changes in technique - Introduction of flip turns decreased the record of the 100m swim by ~ 1 sec Gene pool selection 1920s → ideal that average body type was the best for all athletic endeavours - Medium weight - Medium height After 1950s → scientist realised the need for specialised bodies that fit certain athletic and performance outcomes - Body to suit/ position Body proportions → Leonardo Da Vinci (1940) Vituvian Man - ‘The man with ideal proportions with arm span = to height’ - NBA = Average Height 6 ft 7’/ Average Arm Span 7 ft - Micheal fred Phelps = All time records for; Most olympic records = 28 Most olympic gold medal = 23 Most world records = 39 Screening for ideal athlete Hereditary factors - Influences of genetics by assessing family history in sport (siblings/ parents) and ethnicity, in association with critical athlete traits such as Aerobic capacity Muscularity Proportionally Time spent in Sport - How much specialised coaching and training has the person received? How did they respond Maturity Relative age effect - Does their biological age match their chronological age? Early matures have an advantage in junior sport, which can force the neglect of their skill development Less physically mature athletes may be forced to developed their skills earlier to perform well or pushed them/ discourages them from the sport all together Gold standard; Hand and wrist X-rays - Degrees of bone ossification Coordination tests Used to combat the effect of maturity bias Coordination is developed at a young age and is relatively stable over time into adulthood Assesses the skill capabilities of the adolescent Tests for gross motor coordination may include Walking backwards on beams of different lengths Moving sideways; moving across the floor in 20s by stepping from one late to the next Jumping sideways; jumping laterally as many times as possible over a wooden slat Physical capacity screening - Some physical activity screening by way of somatotyping Absolute size and proportionality Somatotype Body composition Posture Strength and power Flexibility Speed Health status Talent Transfer - Transfer of skills between sport with similar capacities E.G AIS wanting sprint cyclist (explosive leg power characteristic) Recruited athletes from basketball, rock, climbing, netball, rugby Outcomes - National road race and team - sprint champions - Athens paralympics - gold and bronze medals - Oceania championship - bronze medal