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PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY PHOTOSYNTHESIS Description: how plants make their own food. Description: a series of analytical techniques that can be o Takes place in the chloroplast. used to separate mixtures of comp...

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY PHOTOSYNTHESIS Description: how plants make their own food. Description: a series of analytical techniques that can be o Takes place in the chloroplast. used to separate mixtures of compounds for further use or for analysis. In all forms of chromatography, a mobile phase moves through or across a stationary phase. Stationary phase - phase does not move. Compounds in the mixture are attracted to it (adsorbed) and slowed down. o Either solid or liquid. Mobile phase - this phase moves. The more soluble compounds in the mixture are carried faster as the mobile phase moves. LIGHT REACTIONS o Either a liquid or a gas. Description: light-dependent, photochemical processes. Process: 1. Chlorophyll located in the thylakoid membrane absorbs solar energy and energizes electrons. 2. When these energized electrons move down the electron transport chain system, the energy is captured and later used for ATP production. 3. Energized electrons are also taken up by NADP+ (an electron carrier). ➔ After NAD+ accepts electrons, it becomes NADP+. 4. Solar energy is transferred to chemical energy, in the form of ATP and NADP+. DARK REACTIONS (CALVIN CYCLE) Description: light-independent or carbon fixation processes. o Happens in the stroma. o All about the incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic molecules or compounds. Process: 1. Carbon dioxide is taken up and reduced to a carbohydrate. 2. ATP and NADP+ created in the light reaction carry out the reduction. 3. After a carbohydrate is created, ADP+P and NADP+ return to the light reaction where they become ATP and NADP+ once more. DO | BLOCK 05191D 1  DRINK WATER, STAY HYDRATED [ CHANGE IF WANT ] CHEMISTRY OF AUTUMN LEAF COLORS RESPIRATION Description: breaks down complex carbon compounds into simpler molecules. o Creation of energy (ATP) o Takes place in the mitochondrion (eukaryotes) or cytoplasm (prokaryotes) Cellular respiration - is the step-wise release of energy from carbohydrates and other molecules. o It occurs in all living cells. o The complete process requires oxygen (O2) and gives off carbon dioxide (CO2). Types of respiration: o Aerobic respiration - respiration that requires oxygen as the terminal acceptor. o Anaerobic respiration and fermentation - respiration that occur without the use of oxygen. PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENT AEROBIC RESPIRATION Description: can be found in the thylakoid and intergranal lamella. Description: cells way to utilize sugars and oxygen. o are the substances that absorb visible light (narrow o Creation of energy (ATP) band between 38- and 750 nm). o Takes place in the mitochondrion o Colored biological compound that is present in Three main phases: chloroplasts and photosynthetic bacteria, and which o Glycolysis captures light energy for photosynthesis. o Pyruvate-oxidation/Krebs Cycle Function of this pigment: o Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative o To absorb visible light. Phosphorylation Each wavelength is different colored light. In plants, there are two types of pigments (they are colored because they absorb particular wavelengths of light and reflect others. o Chlorophylls - is the pigment that gives plants their green color by reflecting green light. o Carotenoids - reflect red, orange, or yellow light. CELLULAR RESPIRATION IN PLANTS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CATABOLISM AND ANABOLISM Metabolism - the totality of an organism’s chemical reactions or processes. Catabolism - is the set of metabolic pathways that break down molecules into smaller units that are either oxidized to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions. o E.g. respiration Anabolism - is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. o These reactions require energy, known also as an endergonic process. o E.g. Photosynthesis Substrate-level phosphorylation - how ATP in glycolysis and Krebs cycle are formed. o Process of forming ATP by physical addition of phosphate group to ADP. o Mode of ATP synthesis when an enzyme transfers phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP. Oxidative Phosphorylation - process of forming ATP by the transfer of electrons. o Driven by RedOx reactions of the ETC. Catabolism. Anabolism. o Adding the inorganic phosphate +ADP DO | BLOCK 05191D 2  DRINK WATER, STAY HYDRATED [ CHANGE IF WANT ] GLYCOLYSIS THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE Means: “sugar splitting” Aka: Tricarboxylic acid cycle or the Krebs cycle Description: when glucose (a six-carbon sugar ) is split Functions as a metabolic furnace that further oxidizes into two three-carbon sugars. organic fuel derived from pyruvate. o These smaller sugars are then oxidized and their o Pyruvate is broken down into three CO2 molecules, remaining atoms rearranged to form two molecules including a molecule of CO2 released during the of pyruvate. conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA. Pyruvate - ionized form of pyruvic acid. Generates 1 ATP per turn by substrate-level At the end of glycolysis, ATP is produced with two phosphorylation, but most of the chemical energy is pyruvate molecules. transferred to NAD+ and FAD during the redox reactions. o The reduced coenzymes, NADH and FADH2 shuttle their cargo of high-energy electrons into the electron transport chain. PYRUVATE OXIDATION When O2 is present, the pyruvate in eukaryotic cells enters a mitochondrion, where the oxidation of glucose is completed. In aerobically respiring prokaryotic cells, this process occurs in the cytosol. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN During this electron transport, electrons carriers (NADH, FADH2) alternate between reduced and oxidized states as they accept and then donate electrons. Each component of the chain becomes reduced when it accepts electrons from its “uphill” neighbor, which has a lower affinity for electrons. o It then returns to its oxidized form as it passes electrons to its “downhill” neighbor, which has a higher affinity for electrons. Refers to a set of protein electron acceptor molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfers an electron from the NADH and FADH2 to acceptor molecules of oxygen. Oxygen - ultimate electron acceptor DO | BLOCK 05191D 3  DRINK WATER, STAY HYDRATED [ CHANGE IF WANT ] o Produces water ands 2 hydrogen. FERMENTATION AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION Description: both enable cells to produce ATP without the CHEMIOSMOSIS: THE ENERGY COUPLING use of oxygen. MECHANISM o Are two general mechanisms by which certain cells can oxidize organic fuel and generate ATP without Under the conditions of cellular respiration, rather than the use of O2. hydrolyzing ATP to pump protons against their Difference: concentration gradient, ATP synthase uses the energy of o Electron transport chain is used in anaerobic an existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis. The power source of ATP synthase is a difference in the respiration but not in fermentation. concentration of H+ (a pH difference) on opposite sides of Electron transport chain the inner mitochondrial membrane. o Also called the respiratory chain because of its role This process, in which energy stored in the form of a in both types of cellular respiration. hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is used to drive cellular work such as the synthesis of ATP, is called ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION chemiosmosis. Description: there are certain prokaryotic organisms that live in environments without O2. o These organisms have an electron transport chain but do not use O2 as a final electoral acceptor at the end of the chain. Some “sulfate-reducing” marine bacteria - use the sulfate ion (SO4) at the end of their respiratory chain. o Operation of the chain builds up a proton-motive force used to produce ATP. o H2S (hydrogen sulfide) - made as a by-produce rather than water. Certain cellulose bacteria use CO2 as the electron acceptor and produce methane gas. DO | BLOCK 05191D 4  DRINK WATER, STAY HYDRATED [ CHANGE IF WANT ] FERMENTATION PLANT CELL CYCLE Description: is a way of harvesting chemical energy without using their O2 or any electron transport chain. o Consists of glycolysis plus reactions. Glycolysis plus reactions - regenerate NAD+ by transferring electrons from NADH to pyruvate or derivatives of pyruvate. o The NAD+ can then be reused to oxidize sugar by glycolysis, which nets two molecules of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. Lactic Acid Fermentation o Pyruvate produced by glycolysis is reduced by NADH to form lactate. o Process regenerates 2 molecules of NAD+ with no producing of CO2. Length of the cell cycle varies with the type of organism, o Used by fungi and bacteria. temperature, and other environmental factors. Alcoholic fermentation o Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde, then INTERPHASE acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to form ethanol. o NAD+ produced will result in glycolysis. Description: resting phase, but cells are metabolically o Used by yeast active o 90% of the cycle o Period wherein living cells are not dividing o Chromosomes are not visible CELL CYCLE Description: cellular reproduction o Formation of daughter cells (cell division) o Orderly series of events Function: o For growth and development G1 phase o Repair o “Gap” / “Growth” o Longest part of the cycle CHROMATIN, CHROMOSOME, CHROMATID o Begins immediately after the nucleus has divided o Cell increases in size Chromatin - a genetic material or a macromolecule o Ribosomes, RNA, and the like are produced comprising DNA, RNA, and proteins which result in the o They are recovering from cell division. formation of chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic organisms. Synthesis phase o Aggregate of DNA and histone proteins that make o DNA replication occurs, up an eukaryotic chromosome. o Entire chromosomes are replicated o Thin, long, uncoiled o Chromosome should have two identical chromatids Chromosome - Condensed chromatin fibers at the end. Chromatid - Either of the longitudinal subunits produced G2 phase by the chromosome replication o Cell progresses in this phase o Substances directly involved in mitosis are produced o Coiling and condensation of chromosomes begin o Cell prepares for division M PHASE (CELL DIVISION) Description: Cell divides to form two new cells then two new cells divide and form two new daughter cells. Involves two processes: DO | BLOCK 05191D 5  DRINK WATER, STAY HYDRATED [ CHANGE IF WANT ] o Karyokinesis - division of the nucleus o Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm MITOSIS PHASE Prophase o Chromosomes become shorter and thicker o Nuclear envelope disassociates o Nucleolus disintegrates. o Chromosomes begin to coil repeatedly, becoming shorter and shorter. Metaphase o Chromosomes align at the middle Anaphase o Shortest of the phases o Chromatids of each chromosome separate and move to opposite poles. o Chromatids after separation are called daughter chromosomes. Telophase o Each group of daughter chromosomes are surrounded by a nuclear envelope. o Daughter chromosomes become longer and thinner o Nucleolei reappear o Many of the spindle fibers disintegrate for break down o Cell plate forms o Cytokinesis begins at the end of anaphase and ends at the end of telophase. REFERENCES Notes from the discussion by Sir John Paul Domingo De La Salle University Powerpoint Presentation: DO | BLOCK 05191D 6