Laboratory Management Midterms PDF

MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING CHANGE: A NATURAL PROCESS Decision - A conscious choice made after evaluating the available Change: To become different, usually in response to a alterna...

MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING CHANGE: A NATURAL PROCESS Decision - A conscious choice made after evaluating the available Change: To become different, usually in response to a alternatives for the purpose of achieving a specific result stimulus requiring an action or adjustment Resistance - a part of the natural flow of the change CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION process A well-made decision should have the following features, it should: Reasons for resistance (insecurity) Based on a complete investigation o loss of personal control o root causes o fear of the unknown o potential problems o apprehension about the “real” objectives of o obvious symptoms management Identify and evaluate alternative solutions Antidotes for resistance (communication) Involve the selection of the best solution by in-depth o Openness analysis of the available information o Inclusion Encompass an effective strategy for implementing the o Participation solution MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITY FOR CHANGE THE HUMAN ELEMENT Change Agent - The person initiating the change effort ✓ can quickly cloud the decision-making process Client System - The target of the change agent’s ✓ These things can exert tremendous influence on the intervention effort; the entity that may need or desire a choices made: change o Emotions THE NATURE OF CHANGE o Prejudices SOURCES OF CHANGE - Change is generated through o peer pressure movement, growth, and advancement. o personal interest These factors can never be completely eliminated, but they These stimuli may arise from changes in the following areas: o The knowledge base must be controlled o The scope of management STEPS IN MAKING A SOUND DECISION o The issues and problems 1. Recognition of the problem or need for intervention o The environment 2. Investigation and analysis of the cause or problem o The increasing rate of change 3. Definition of the nature and boundaries of the problem SOURCE OF CONFLICTS AND RESISTANCE TO ✓ Deviation - A one-time, random human error CHANGE ✓ Effectual Problem - The symptom or surface o The manager’s duty to make decisions about the sign that may hide the real cause of the problem allocation of scarce resources ✓ Causal Problem - The root cause of the problem ▪ Money 4. Identification of alternative solutions ▪ Schedules 5. Evaluation of each option within the context of the ▪ Time management plan and objectives for the laboratory ▪ work priorities 6. Selection of the best alternative o Insecurity 7. Implementation of the solution o Self-interest 8. Follow-up on the success and progress of the decision and o Assessment differences institution of needed modifications o A perceived loss of control (low tolerance for change) DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES Qualitative Tools MANAGEMENT OF THE CHANGE PROCESS o Personal Judgment Diagnosing and Analyzing Change o Systematic Option Review Change Strategies ▪ T Chart - A technique for evaluating o Participation and involvement strategy alternative solutions by writing down o Informed Strategy the advantages and disadvantages of Job Implementation each option o Job functions o Solicitation of Advice o Organizational structure ▪ Brainstorming - spontaneous o People changes contribution of creative ideas and Follow-up Cycle: Continuous Change Management solutions Three possible responses of staff to change ▪ Synectic - Group members are ✓ They can accept and provide active support for brought together as a problem-solving the program team ✓ They can passively comply with the new ▪ Nominal Grouping - A highly requirements structured meeting, individuals write ✓ They can resist the new plan with varying their original ideas in private, and the degrees of aggression alternative solutions anonymously, 1|Page LABORATORY MANAGEMENT (MIDTERMS)  group for discussion and then voted CONTENT MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES on and tallied in secret Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ▪ Delphi method - a modification of nominal grouping, inputs and opinions of experts are solicited on questionnaires before the meeting The results are then discussed and voted on anonymously. Forecasting events and trends Quantitative Tools Operations Research - A branch of management science that specializes in quantitative tools Probability Analysis - A procedure for measuring risk by assigning a value, expressed as a percentage to the likelihood of a specific event occurring o Priori probability - obtained by deductions based on assumed conditions. (Probability calculated by logically examining existing information) ▪ The number of desired outcomes is 3 (rolling a 2, 4, or 6), and there are 6 outcomes in total. The a priori probability for this example is calculated as follows: A priori probability = 3 / 6 = 50%. Alderfer’s ERG needs theory Therefore, the a priori probability o Existence (E) needs - physiological, safety, and of rolling a 2, 4, or 6 is 50% other elements necessary to support existence o Empirical probability - determined by (Maslow’s physiological and safety needs) recording actual events over a specific o Relatedness (R) needs - interpersonal period of time and calculating the number relationships, acceptance, and belonging of times each event occurs (Maslow’s social and part of esteem needs) ▪ An example would be I rolled the o Growth (G) needs - creativity, challenge, and dice three times and got 12 three personal growth on the job (Maslow’s self- times, for a statistical probability esteem and self-actualization) of 12/12 or 100%. This calculation demonstrates the flaw of empirical probability Queuing Theory - Recommends the number of servers needed to handle an unpredictable workload Linear Programming - A tool for allocating limited resources among competing needs by applying mathematical values to each solution variable Simulation - The use of computer-designed models Herzberg’s two-factor theory to imitate real-life conditions and test different o Hygiene Factors - factors that prevent job intervention strategies dissatisfaction MOTIVATION TO WORK o Motivation Factors - factors that stimulate the DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION employee to strive for superior performance Motivation - The reason people do the things they do Motive - A desire or need that acts as a stimulus for action Attitude - People’s outward disposition toward their job tasks and coworkers MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Content Motivational Theories - theories that examine the internal forces that drive the individual toward specific actions Process Motivational Theories - motivational models that attempt to analyze how the person reacts to external stimuli Other Motivational Theories 2|Page LABORATORY MANAGEMENT (MIDTERMS)  McClelland’s achievement motivation This theory holds that individuals have 3 work-related needs: ✓ The need for achievement (job and career success) ✓ The need for power (control and influence) ✓ The need for affiliation (warm, friendly relationships) Achievement equation - Aroused motivation = strength of the motive X perceived possibility of achieving the objective X expected value of the objective PROCESS MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES Vroom’s expectancy theory ✓ Explains behavior as a process of making choices in direct response to the expected potential for reward ✓ This concept developed from the opinion that humans are rational and thinking beings who act in anticipation of their own best interest OTHER MOTIVATIONAL THEORY X and Y Theory by Douglas McGregor ✓ Worker performance arises from the way managers view their subordinates, not from within the employees themselves Adam’s equity theory ✓ holds that employees are motivated by the degree of equity that they perceive in their work situation, especially compared with people in similar positions Z Theory by William Ouchi ✓ Increases the loyalty of the employees by providing work for life & focuses on the well- being Skinner’s reinforcement theory ✓ in principle it states that we repeat performances for which we are positively rewarded, or we avoid actions that bring about undesirable consequences 3|Page LABORATORY MANAGEMENT (MIDTERMS) JOB MATURITY MATRIX o Benevolent and authoritative - In this 20 to 30 years of age paternalistic approach, managers feel they ✓ A time of searching and exploring work and life know what is best for their employees and need alternatives only inform and direct their actions, without 30 to 40 years of age seeking feedback ✓ High commitment to career advancement goals o Consultative - The manager feels the opinion 40 to 45 years of age and advice of the staff are useful, but all ✓ A period of questioning career and life choices decisions remain the exclusive purview of the ✓ Frequently evolves into a midlife crisis manager 45 to 65 years of age o Participative - Input and decision making and ✓ A time of increasing stability, acceptance and performance are placed directly on the staff, or commitment to job, family and retirement as close to the production process as possible, APPLICATION OF MOTIVATION THEORIES TO THE with only general guidance and oversight from WORKPLACE management Leadership, Work, and Job Satisfaction LEADERSHIP MODELS ✓ In essence, leadership is the application of 1. Personal Traits of Leaders motivational principles to the workplace ✓ Charisma ✓ Job Satisfaction: The degree to which employees feel 2. Leadership Behavior their jobs meet their needs and wants 1. EMPLOYEE-ORIENTED VERSUS Goal Setting PRODUCTION-ORIENTED LEADERSHIP STYLES Pay ▪ Employee-oriented supervisors spend o Material Pay – the tangible or monetary part of more time in actual supervision rather the paycheck than in production work, supervise o Material Pay – the tangible or monetary part of less closely while allowing workers the paycheck Psychic Pay – the intrinsic more latitude in performing their rewards the give us a good feeling about duties, and demonstrate concern for ourselves and our work their people both on and off the job o Total Pay = Material Pay + Psychic Pay = ▪ Production-oriented supervisors tend Attractiveness of Profession to emphasize high productivity at the PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP expense of all other factors. They view MOTIVATION VS LEADERSHIP their workers as only tools for use by Motivation - deals with the reason people act the way they do the company in the manufacturing Leadership - attempts to use motivational principles to achieve process and spend majority of their goals time on production-related problems 2. STRUCTURE VERSUS CONSIDERATION LEADERSHIP STYLES ▪ Structure ­ supervisors actively direct staff toward getting the work done ­ paying attention to assigning particular tasks ­ specifying and clarifying what is expected of subordinates ­ uniformity of the procedures to be followed ­ personally, decides what ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE and how work will be done LEADERSHIP SUCCESS ▪ Consideration Corporate Culture – The way things are done in an ­ make efforts to explain their organization: the habits, traditions, customs, processes, action and social mores of the institution ­ treat workers as equals Management Style – The general behavior and ­ listen to subordinates’ philosophy of a manager or an organization toward the concerns employees, particularly the degree of participation ­ look out for their personal allowed in the decision-making process welfare o Exploitative and authoritative - Managers ­ give advance notice of view workers only as tools and means of changes production and feel no further obligation to ­ generally friendly and them approachable 4|Page LABORATORY MANAGEMENT (MIDTERMS)  3. THE MANAGERIAL GRID® BY ROBERT concern for people. They desire tight control in order to R. BLAKE AND JANE S. MOUTON get tasks done efficiently. They consider creativity and ▪ A graphic depiction of leadership human relations to be unnecessary styles in relation to concerns for 5,5 Organization man management - Often termed people (consideration orientation) and middle-of-the-road leadership. Leaders in this position production (structure orientation) have medium concern for people and production. They Influenced by 5 factors: attempt to balance their concern for both people and ✓ The attitudes and assumptions of production but are not committed to either the manager 9+9 – Paternalistic, “father knows best” management - ✓ The policies and procedures of In this style, reward is promised for compliance and the organization punishment threatened for noncompliance ✓ The day-to-day operational Opp – Opportunistic, “what’s in it for me?” management situation - This style depends on which style the leader feels will ✓ The social and personal values of bring the greatest self – benefit the manager 9,9 – Team management - This style of leadership is ✓ Chance considered to be ideal. Such managers have great concern To use this model, to improve and for both people and production. They work to motivate strengthen leadership ability, leader employees to reach their highest levels of should follow through these steps: accomplishment. They are flexible and responsive to ✓ Identify their current style change, and they understand the need to change ✓ Decide for themselves the best style for a given situation 4. THEORY X AND THEORY Y BY ✓ Determine what attitudes and DOUGLAS M. MCGREGOR behavior changes are required to ▪ Worker performance arises from the reach their goal way managers view their ✓ Encourage the management to subordinates, not from within the develop the organizational employees themselves culture necessary for the ▪ Pygmalion effect - a theory that holds preferred style to flourish that people (students, employees) tend to act in the way they are expected to act by their leaders (parents, teachers, supervisors, and so on) Theory X managers believe that people: ✓ Are inherently lazy and dislike work ✓ Must be coerced into performing their duties by constant supervision ✓ Have no ambition and little interest in improving their efficiency on their own and must be prodded to produce Managers that hold theory X philosophies tend to be autocratic and dictatorial and allow for little input from their staff Theory Y managers believe that: ✓ Work is a natural part of life ✓ People have a high degree of ingenuity and creativity they are eager to apply to the job ✓ Worker potential is only partially tapped by the company 1,1 – Impoverished management - Leaders in this ✓ Workers are self-learners and seek position have little concern for people or productivity, responsibility for their performance avoid taking sides, and stay out of conflicts. They do just ✓ Workers exercise self-control and self- enough to get by. Often referred to as laissez-faire disciple if they are committed to a leadership goal, and the strength of this 1,9 – Country club management - Managers in this commitment depends on the reward position have great concern for people and little concern associated with the achievement for production. They try to avoid conflicts and Theory Y managers are participatory in their concentrate on being well-liked. To them the task is less leadership style, actively seek advice and counsel from important than good interpersonal relations. Their goal is their coworkers, and allow employees to share in the to keep people happy decision-making processes 9,1 – Authority-obedience management - Managers in this position have great concern for production and little 5|Page LABORATORY MANAGEMENT (MIDTERMS)  5. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODELS 2. A-II: Manager seeks necessary information form ▪ Contingency model by Fred E. Fielder subordinates before making a decision ­ Proposes that the success of 3. C-I: Manager shares the problem with selected a manager as a leader is individuals before making a decision contingent on two factors: 4. C-II: Manager shares the problem with all the members o Leadership style of of the group but makes the final decision the manager 5. G: Manager shares the problem with the group and a o Favorableness of decision is reached by consensus the leadership situation The behavior of an individual leader is, in practice a mix between ­ Leadership style can be the two patterns: relationship-oriented or ✓ High Structure and High Consideration – leaders who task-oriented scored high in both dimensions usually demonstrate the ­ Fielder and associates have best overall performance suggested that situations that ✓ High Consideration and Low Structure are either very favorable or ✓ High Structure and Low Consideration very unfavorable are usually ✓ Low Structure and Low Consideration handled best by a task - oriented leader APPLICATION OF LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES ­ Relationship-oriented The Management Process leaders appear to be most o Directing function effective in situations that o Confidence in delegation authority and power are considered moderately in implementing favorable or moderately Path-goal Theory unfavorable Two crucial factors that a leaders must consider in ­ Favorableness is defined by designing a strategy to deal with the work Fielder as the amount of environment: power, control, and 1. The characteristics of the workers influence wielded by a 2. The nature of the tasks to be performed manager in a particular set The leader then addresses two elements: of circumstances 1. The goal component, in which the manager 3 components establish the favorableness dimensions for a enhances the number and types of rewards that situation subordinates can receive for achieving work- 1. Leadership-member relations – level of related goals confidence and trust between leader and staff 2. The path facet, in which the leader clarifies 2. Task structure – formal structure and routes for obtaining these goals and removes unstructured assignment obstacles that may impede employees from 3. Position power – degree of influence the reaching their potential manager exerts on reward and punishment In summary, leadership is dependent not only on the personal talents of system managers but also on the characteristics of their followers and the circumstances of the situation CONTINUUM OF LEADERSHIP Subordinate – centered leadership falls in the 5-7 range: 5. Supervisor gathers the data and defines the problems, then seeks suggestions and recommendations for solutions before making a decision 6. Manager provides information, supervision, and guidance but requests that the staff make the decisions 7. Manager focuses on setting general policies and procedures for the department but allows total freedom and responsibility to the employees to function and make decisions with these broadly defined boundaries NORMATIVE THEORY ✓ Vroom and Yetton suggest a leadership model that also depicts the extent of participation allowed in the decision- making process. This approach is similar to the continuum theory There are five possible behavior styles identified by Vroom and Yetton: 1. A-I: Manager makes decision based on the current information available 6|Page LABORATORY MANAGEMENT (MIDTERMS)