IR Final Exam PDF

IR final exam 1. Basic IR Concepts Actors What kind of actors are there? o States o IO’s (international organizations) o NGO’s (non govermental organizations) o Individuals Which are important on the world stage? o States are foundational t...

IR final exam 1. Basic IR Concepts Actors What kind of actors are there? o States o IO’s (international organizations) o NGO’s (non govermental organizations) o Individuals Which are important on the world stage? o States are foundational to international relations because they control power, resources, and diplomacy. Their decisions directly shape the world order. o International Organizations (IOs) are crucial for cooperation and addressing global issues that no single state can tackle alone (like climate change or pandemics). They also help regulate state behavior and provide platforms for diplomacy. o NGOs are increasingly important because they represent civil society’s voice and tackle issues related to human rights, environment, and humanitarian aid, often pushing states and IOs to act. o Individuals can be significant at key moments, especially when their actions inspire global movements or change policies, but their impact is generally more situational compared to the institutional power of states and IOs. In summary, states and IOs remain the dominant actors, but NGOs and influential individuals are also indispensable in shaping specific aspects of global politics and development. State How can we define a state? State is a political entity that possesses several key characteristics. What is the evolution of the modern state? The modern state evolved from early tribal, feudal, and imperial structures into the centralized, sovereign nation-states we see today. Key milestones in this evolution include the consolidation of monarchies, the Treaty of Westphalia, the rise of nationalism, the industrial revolution, the impact of world wars, and the challenges of globalization. Today, states remain the dominant actors in international relations, but their sovereignty and authority are increasingly influenced by global institutions and networks. What are the 4 characteristics of an ideal state? o Sovereignty o Territory/land o Population o Government Globalization What is globalization? Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, economies, cultures, and people, driven by the exchange of goods, services, information, technology, and ideas across borders. It involves the integration of markets, global communication networks, and the movement of people, leading to greater global cooperation, but also challenges such as economic inequality and cultural homogenization. How did globalization start? Globalization has evolved over centuries, starting with ancient trade routes, expanding through European exploration and colonialism, and accelerating in the modern era with the rise of technology and global institutions. Explain the history of globalization- how did it happen? o Ancient Trade Networks: Early forms of globalization began with trade routes like the Silk Road and Indian Ocean Trade, which connected distant civilizations, facilitating the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas across Asia, Africa, and Europe. o Age of Exploration (15th-17th centuries): European explorers discovered new trade routes, leading to the Columbian Exchange between the Old and New Worlds. This spread goods, people (including slaves), and diseases globally and marked the beginning of European colonialism. o Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries): Advances in technology, transportation (steamships, railroads), and communication (telegraph) accelerated global trade and migration. European imperialism expanded, integrating more regions into the global economy. o 20th Century and Beyond: After World War II, institutions like the United Nations and World Trade Organization (WTO) promoted global cooperation. Technological advancements (internet, air travel) in the late 20th and early 21st centuries intensified global connectivity, accelerating trade, communication, and cultural exchange. Security What is security?(Human and state) o State security focuses on protecting the state from military, political, and economic threats. (keep sovereignity) o Human security centers on safeguarding individuals from threats to their survival, dignity, and livelihood. Hegemony One or more states dominate over the others. o Unipolar (single dominant state) #USA after Cold War 1991-2000yy o Bipolar (two dominant states) #USA and USSR 1945-1991 o Multipolar (tree or more states dominate) #UK, France, Russia, Austria, Prussia 1815- 1918 (Germany after 1871) Less powerful states may align with great powers. States maintain independence in their domestic affairs. 2. International History Ancient History Imperial system Separate sociel units with regular interactions, but one unit asserts political supremacy over the others, which accept that claim. All domestic affairs managed by dominant power. Ex. Mongol, Roman, Greak Feudal system Power is claimed by a diverse group of governmental units like kings, barons, popes. (9th – 14th centuries) Common way to govern large areas. Decentralized. Landlord at his land can make law, but in capital you are not important. State system Independent State System – political entities that each claim to be sovereign with the right to make both foreign policy and domestic decisions. Consists of sovereign entities with no superior power States will tend to balance a rising power in the system by forming an alliance against it to maintain the balance of power Sovereignty of the state became widely accepted:  Internal sovereignty – the state possesses exclusive authority within its borders  External sovereignty – the state is independent in its foreign relations, though this did little to curtail military competition between states Nationalism also became important in the context of the independent state system Mercantilism suggested that the state should play an important role in the economy with a view to maximizing its position relative to other states Reformation What effect did the religious reformation have on the European political system? The Religious Reformation (16th century) significantly impacted the European political system by weakening the authority of the Catholic Church and increasing the power of secular rulers. Key effects include: o Rise of Nation-States: The Reformation encouraged the growth of sovereign states, as rulers broke from the Catholic Church's influence, asserting greater control over their territories, including religious affairs. o Religious Conflicts: It led to a series of religious wars (e.g., the Thirty Years’ War), which destabilized Europe and intensified political divisions between Catholic and Protestant states. Overall, the Reformation shifted the balance of power from religious to secular authorities, reshaping the European political landscape. Treaty of Westphalia What year was it signed? Was signed in 1648. What significance does it have? The beginning of the modern state system and the principle of sovereign territoriality. What effect did it have on the European state system and current international relations? Why? This treaty ended the religious wars and established the principle of state sovereignty in Europe, laying the foundation for the modern international system where states could choose their own religion without external interference. The Peace of Westphalia reshaped European politics, promoting state-centric governance and ending the era of religious conflicts that had destabilized the continent. Enlightenment and the French Revolution What was the Enlightenment? The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights as the primary sources of authority and legitimacy. It sought to challenge traditional structures of power, particularly those based on monarchy, religion, and aristocracy, advocating for knowledge, progress, and human equality. How did the Enlightenment result in the French Revolution? The Enlightenment contributed to the French Revolution by promoting ideas of reason, equality, and individual rights, which challenged the absolute monarchy, the privileges of the aristocracy, and the power of the Church. Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu advocated for democratic governance, the social contract, and the separation of powers, inspiring revolutionary calls for liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Enlightenment's emphasis on questioning authority and seeking social reform fueled discontent among the French people, leading to the revolution against the old regime in 1789. What effect did the French Revolution have on international relations? The French Revolution changed international relations by spreading ideas of democracy and nationalism, leading to conflicts and the restructuring of European political order. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies and reshaped the principles of sovereignty and governance in international politics. Concert of Europe What was the Concert of Europe? The Concert of Europe was a diplomatic and political system established in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars (1815), aimed at maintaining the balance of power in Europe and preventing the resurgence of widespread conflict. It involved cooperation between the major European powers—Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and later France—to manage international relations and preserve peace. How did it work? The Concert functioned through regular meetings, known as congresses, where the major powers discussed and resolved disputes through diplomacy, avoiding conflict. If a state attempted to upset the balance of power (through expansion or revolution), the other powers would intervene collectively to restore stability, sometimes through military action. Why and how did it collapse? The Concert of Europe began to weaken in the mid-19th century due to rising nationalism and conflicts between the great powers, such as the Crimean War (1853–1856). By the time of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), the system had largely dissolved. The Concert of Europe collapsed because it could no longer manage the forces of nationalism, conflicting great-power interests, and social upheaval that transformed Europe in the 19th century. The rise of Germany and the decline of unified diplomatic cooperation among the powers led to a more fragmented and competitive international system, ultimately paving the way for World War I. World War I and the League of Nations Describe the situation after WWI The situation after World War I (1914–1918) was characterized by significant political, social, and economic changes across Europe and beyond. The war ended with the signing of several treaties, most notably the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which reshaped national borders, established new countries, and imposed heavy reparations on the Central Powers, particularly Germany. The aftermath of World War I was marked by significant political, social, and economic upheaval. The collapse of empires, the rise of new nations and ideologies, economic hardship, and social changes shaped the landscape of Europe and the world in the years following the war. The unresolved tensions and grievances from this period set the stage for future conflicts, particularly World War II. What was the treaty of Versailles? The Treaty of Versailles was one of the most important peace agreements that formally ended World War I on June 28, 1919. Negotiated during the Paris Peace Conference (1919), it primarily dealt with the terms for Germany, which was one of the Central Powers. What kinds of problems did it have? o Economic Hardship: The reparations and territorial losses contributed to economic instability, hyperinflation, and social unrest in Germany during the 1920s. o Political Extremism: The resentment and humiliation felt by many Germans fueled the rise of extremist political movements, including the Nazi Party, which capitalized on nationalist sentiments and opposition to the treaty. o Long-term Tensions: The treaty's punitive measures created deep-seated grievances that contributed to the political and social unrest in Germany and ultimately played a role in the outbreak of World War II. How did the League of Nations start? The League of Nations was established after World War I as part of the peace settlement to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. Wilson’s Fourteen Points: The idea for the League emerged from U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points speech in January 1918, which outlined his vision for a just and lasting peace following the war. One of the key points was the establishment of a general association of nations to ensure mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity. The League of Nations was formally established during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, where representatives from the victorious Allied Powers convened to negotiate peace treaties, including the Treaty of Versailles. The League was intended to be an integral part of the peace settlement. How did the League of Nations fail? o The League was weakened by the absence of major powers, most notably the United States, which never joined despite President Woodrow Wilson being a primary architect of the League. Additionally, the Soviet Union was excluded initially, and Germany was not allowed to join until 1926, limiting the League's influence and effectiveness. o The League lacked its own military forces and relied on member states to enforce its resolutions and decisions. This made it difficult to respond effectively to aggression. When member states chose not to act, the League's authority was undermined. o The interwar period saw the rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan, which openly defied the League and sought expansionist policies. These regimes were not committed to the principles of the League and actively worked against its authority. o The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II due to its inability to enforce decisions, the absence of key powers, internal divisions, and the changing political landscape of the 1930s. The lessons learned from its shortcomings influenced the establishment of the United Nations after World War II, which aimed to create a more effective framework for international cooperation and peacekeeping. World War II and the United Nations What was the Yalta Conference? The Yalta Conference was a meeting held from February 4 to 11, 1945, during World War II, where leaders from the three major Allied powers—the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union—discussed the post-war reorganization of Europe and addressed critical issues related to the ongoing war against Nazi Germany and the future of Eastern Europe. The conference was attended by:  Franklin D. Roosevelt (President of the United States)  Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom)  Joseph Stalin (Premier of the Soviet Union) UN history. When was it founded? The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945, following the end of World War II, to promote peace, security, and cooperation among countries. What was different from the League of Nations? While both the League of Nations and the United Nations aimed to promote peace and cooperation among nations, the UN was designed to be a more robust, flexible, and comprehensive organization. It learned from the failures of the League, adopting a structure and approach that aimed to better address the complex realities of international relations and global governance in the post-World War II era. United Nations: o Founded with a broader mandate that included not only maintaining peace and security but also promoting human rights, social progress, and economic development. o The UN has a more comprehensive structure, including various specialized agencies (like WHO, UNESCO, and UNICEF) that address global issues beyond just security. What is the United Nations Security Council? The UN Security Council (UNSC) is a key UN body responsible for maintaining global peace and security. It has 15 members (5 permanent with veto power: China, France, Russia, UK, USA, and 10 rotating members). It can impose sanctions, authorize military action, establish peacekeeping missions, and make binding decisions for member states. Post WWII What was the Cold War? The Cold War was a prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies that lasted from the end of World War II in 1947 until the early 1990s. It was characterized by ideological, political, military, and economic rivalry but did not escalate into direct military conflict between the superpowers.  During WWII, the Soviet Union had been an ally of the West against the Axis powers  Following the end of the war, relations between the US and the Soviet Union deteriorated  The Soviet Union sought to expand its sphere of influence into eastern Europe  The US response was a policy of containment of the USSR and communism more broadly  Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the US and Soviet Union engaged in a global competition, most notably in Cuba where the Soviet placement of missiles nearly led to nuclear war What was the world order like between 1950 and 1990? Between 1950 and 1990, the world order was dominated by the Cold War, a geopolitical struggle between two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. This period was marked by ideological, military, and economic competition, including proxy wars (e.g., in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan), arms races (especially nuclear weapons), and space exploration. International relations were shaped by alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, leading to a unipolar world dominated by the U.S. Think about why the USSR dissolved in 1991? The USSR dissolved in 1991 due to economic stagnation, failed reforms, rising nationalism in republics, loss of central control, Cold War pressures, and a failed coup. The Belavezha Accords formalized its breakup, creating independent states. 3. Theory Theory Overview What is theory? Why do we use theory? A theory is a structured set of ideas used to explain, predict, and understand phenomena. It organizes concepts and relationships to offer explanations for how things work. Why we use theory: -Explanation (It helps explain why things happen.) -Prediction (It allows us to predict future events or outcomes.) -Research Guidance (It frames and guides research and data interpretation.) -Understanding (It organizes complex information into a coherent framework.) -Problem-Solving (It provides solutions to practical problems.) -Knowledge Development (It drives new questions and advances knowledge.) Key components of research: o Dependent Variable (The outcome or effect that is being explained.) o Independent Variable (The factor that is used to explain or influence the dependent variable.) o Intervening Variable (A factor that mediates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, coming between cause and effect.) Types of theory: normative/empirical Normative Theory: o Focuses on how things should be. o Often involves values, ethics, and ideals. o Common in fields like philosophy, political theory, and ethics. #Theories on justice or fairness that suggest the best way for society to operate. Empirical Theory: o Focuses on how things actually are, based on observation and evidence. o It seeks to explain and predict real-world phenomena using data. o Common in the natural and social sciences. #Theories about economic behavior based on observed data. Great Debates 1st Great Debate: Realist vs. Idealist (Liberal) It was centered on how to prevent war and promote peace following the devastation of World War I. o Realists: Emphasized power, security, and the anarchic nature of international politics. They believed peace comes from military strength and balance of power. o Idealists (Liberals): Focused on cooperation, international law, and institutions like the League of Nations, believing war could be prevented through democracy and collective security. After the failure to prevent WWII, Realism became the dominant theory, though Liberalism evolved to focus on cooperation. 2nd Great Debate: Realists vs. Behaviourists (Scientists/Positivists) The Second Great Debate in international relations, between Realists and Behaviorists (Positivists), focused on how to study international politics. o Realists: Favored historical and philosophical analysis, emphasizing power and conflict. o Behaviorists (Positivists): Advocated for scientific methods, using empirical data and quantitative analysis to study political behavior. The debate led to a stronger focus on scientific approaches in the field, while Realist ideas about power remained influential. 3rd Great Debate: Institutional Neoliberalism vs. Structural Neorealism The Third Great Debate in international relations was between Institutional Neoliberalism and Structural Neorealism in the 1980s. o Institutional Neoliberalism: Argued that states can cooperate through international institutions, benefiting from interdependence. o Structural Neorealism (Neorealism): Claimed that the anarchic system forces states to focus on power and survival, making cooperation difficult. This debate shaped IR theory, balancing ideas of cooperation (Neoliberalism) and power politics (Neorealism). 4th Great Debate: Positivism vs. Post-positivism (ie.Constructivism) The Fourth Great Debate in international relations focused on Positivism vs. Post-positivism (especially Constructivism) in the late 20th century. o Positivism: Advocates for scientific methods and empirical data, seeking objective truths and causality in international relations. o Post-positivism (Constructivism): Argues that knowledge is socially constructed, emphasizing the role of ideas, norms, and identity in shaping state behavior. This debate broadened the methodological approaches in IR, highlighting both empirical rigor and the importance of social context. Realism Classic Realism “Realism is a paradigm and based on the premise that world politics is essentially unchangeably a struggle among self-interested states position under for power and anarchy , with each competing state pursuing its own national interests.” Definition: Classic Realism is a theory in international relations that focuses on the role of power and human nature, asserting that states operate in an anarchic system where conflict is inevitable. Assumptions: o Anarchy: The international system lacks a central authority. o Power Politics: States are driven by the pursuit of power and national interest. o Human Nature: Conflict and self-interest are inherent in human behavior. o Inevitability of Conflict: War is a natural aspect of international relations. o State-Centric: The state is the primary actor, with survival as its main goal. Hans Morgenthau: o A key figure in Classic Realism, known for "Politics Among Nations" (1948). o Argued that power is central to international relations and that moral norms should be subordinate to national interest. o Emphasized the importance of understanding human nature in international politics. Classic Realism highlights the enduring significance of power and conflict in global affairs. Structural Neorealism Definition: Structural Neorealism, developed by Kenneth Waltz, focuses on the anarchic structure of the international system and how it shapes state behavior, emphasizing systemic factors over individual state characteristics. Defensive Realism vs. Offensive Realism: o Defensive Realism: States are security-seeking and should avoid excessive expansion to maintain stability and prevent conflict. o Offensive Realism: States are power-seeking and may pursue hegemony, believing that maximizing power can enhance security and deter adversaries. Key Figures: o Kenneth Waltz: Authored "Theory of International Politics" (1979), arguing that the structure of the international system compels states to prioritize survival and security. o John Mearsheimer: A proponent of Offensive Realism, known for "The Tragedy of Great Power Politics" (2001), which posits that great powers are inherently aggressive due to anarchy, driving them to seek regional hegemony. Structural Neorealism explains international relations through systemic pressures and strategic choices made by states in an anarchic world. Neoclassical Realism Definition: Neoclassical Realism is a theory that explains foreign policy by integrating international factors (anarchy and power dynamics) with domestic factors (state leadership, national interests, and internal politics). Key Aspects: Theory for Analyzing Foreign Policy: It argues that foreign policy decisions are shaped by both the international system and domestic influences, allowing for a nuanced understanding of state behavior. Domestic Politics vs. International Politics: o Domestic Politics: Internal factors like political institutions and public opinion affect leaders' perceptions and policy choices. o International Politics: External factors such as the anarchic structure and power distribution influence foreign policy formulation. Neoclassical Realism bridges domestic and international influences, offering a comprehensive framework for analyzing foreign policy. Liberalism Liberalism Definition: Liberalism is a theory in international relations that emphasizes cooperation, democracy, and the role of international institutions in promoting peace and stability. Key Concepts: o Cooperation: States can achieve mutual benefits through collaboration. o Democracy: Democratic states are less likely to go to war with one another. o International Institutions: Organizations like the United Nations facilitate cooperation and manage conflicts. o Human Rights: Emphasis on individual rights and norms shaping international behavior. Historical Progression: o League of Nations: Created after World War I to promote peace through collective security. Although it failed to prevent World War II, it set the stage for future international organizations. o Wilson’s Idealism: U.S. President Woodrow Wilson promoted liberal ideals after World War I, advocating for self-determination, democracy, and the League of Nations, aiming for a cooperative world order. Democratic Peace Theory: Definition: This theory suggests that democracies are less likely to engage in war with each other due to shared norms and accountability to citizens. Key Points: o Transparent decision-making reduces misunderstandings. o Shared democratic values promote peaceful conflict resolution. o Citizens in democracies typically oppose costly wars, leading to more cautious foreign policies. o Liberalism underscores the potential for peaceful coexistence through cooperation, democratic governance, and effective international institutions. Institutional Liberalism (Neoliberalism) Definition: Institutional Liberalism, or Neoliberalism, is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of international institutions in facilitating cooperation among states. How Institutional Liberalism Works: o Cooperation through Institutions: International organizations (like the UN and WTO) provide frameworks for states to interact, promoting transparency and trust. o Interdependence: Economic and political ties make cooperation beneficial and conflict less appealing. o Problem-Solving: Institutions help address global issues (e.g., trade, environment) through collaboration. Key Characteristics/Concepts: o Complex Interdependence: States are connected through multiple channels, reducing conflict likelihood. o Regimes and Norms: Rules governing state behavior foster cooperation. o Mutual Gains: States achieve better outcomes through collaboration than competition. o Long-Term Relationships: Institutions promote stability and predictability in state interactions. Key Figures: Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye: They highlighted the importance of international institutions in their work "Power and Interdependence" (1977), arguing that interdependence encourages states to cooperate on shared challenges. In summary, Institutional Liberalism focuses on how international institutions promote cooperation and address global challenges in an anarchic world. Constructivism Constructivism Definition: Constructivism is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the role of social constructs, identities, and values in shaping state behavior. Key Concepts: o "Anarchy is What States Make of It": Alexander Wendt's idea that the anarchic international system's impact depends on how states interpret and interact with it. o Anarchy Does Not Necessarily Lead to Self-Help: States can choose cooperation and alliances instead of only acting in self-interest, as suggested by Realism. o State Actions Determined by Identities and Values: States' behaviors are influenced by their identities (how they see themselves) and values (what they prioritize), showing that social factors shape international relations. In summary, Constructivism highlights how social contexts, identities, and shared values influence state behavior in an anarchic world. 4. Nationalism and Geography Geography Types of geography o Physical geography (Terrain such as continents, mountains, rivers, lakes, and oceans) o Human geography (Human activities over physical terrain maps, which include cultural, religious, and other factors related to the world’s peoples) o Political Geography (Boundaries and subdivisions of political units (states, provinces, regions)) How does geography affect international relations? o Strategic Location: Countries near key trade routes or military hotspots hold more influence, like those near vital waterways. o Natural Resources: Access to resources can lead to conflicts or alliances. Resource-rich nations often have more power in negotiations. o Borders and Territorial Disputes: Physical borders can create tensions and conflicts, especially in areas with historical disputes. o Climate and Environment: Geographic factors influence climate, affecting food security and migration, leading countries to seek cooperation or aid. o Demographics: Population distribution impacts economic power and domestic policies, with urbanization concentrating influence in cities. o Cultural Influence: Geographic proximity fosters cultural exchange but can also lead to tensions due to differences. o Military Strategy: Geography shapes military planning, influencing alliances and defense strategies. How does geography affect a state's power? o Resource Availability: Resource-rich states have more economic influence and attract foreign investment. o Economic Connectivity: States near trade partners benefit economically, increasing their power. o Defense and Security: Geographic features provide natural defenses, impacting military strategy. o Access to Trade Routes: States with coastlines or strategic land routes enhance their economic power. o Influence over Neighbors: Geography determines a state's ability to project power regionally, influencing alliances. Religion Major Religions Around the World o Christianity: The largest religion, based on the teachings of Jesus, with various denominations (Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy). o Islam: The second-largest religion, following the Prophet Muhammad’s teachings, with Sunni and Shia branches. o Hinduism: A major religion in India and Nepal, characterized by diverse beliefs and practices. o Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), focusing on the path to enlightenment. o Judaism: One of the oldest monotheistic religions, centered on the belief in one God. o Sikhism: A monotheistic religion from India, emphasizing equality and devotion to God. Islamic World Definition: Regions where Islam is the dominant religion, including the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia. Significance: Plays a crucial role in global politics, especially in energy and security. Religion and World Politics Influence: Religion impacts political ideologies, conflicts, and alliances, shaping national policies and international relations. Samuel Huntington’s “Clash of Civilizations” Thesis: Future conflicts will arise from cultural and religious identities rather than ideological or economic differences. Civilizations: Huntington identified major civilizations (e.g., Western, Islamic) and suggested that cultural clashes would influence global relations. Nationalism What is a Nation? What is an Ethnicity? Nation: A group sharing common cultural traits (language, history, traditions) and a sense of identity. Ethnicity: A social group with a shared culture, language, or heritage, often linked to a specific region. What is a Nation-State? A political entity where the nation's boundaries coincide with the state's, having defined territory, a permanent population, and a sovereign government. Multinational or Bi-National States o Multinational States: Countries with multiple distinct nations or ethnic groups (e.g., Canada, India). o Bi-National States: Primarily composed of two main ethnic groups (e.g., Belgium). Stateless Nations Ethnic groups without their own sovereign state seeking autonomy or independence (e.g., Kurds, Palestinians). Solutions to Bi-National or Multinational States o Partition: Dividing a state based on ethnic lines (e.g., India and Pakistan). o Assimilation: Integrating minority groups into the dominant culture. o Consociationalism: Power-sharing arrangements to maintain peace among groups (e.g., Lebanon). o Federation: A union of self-governing regions under a central government (e.g., the U.S., Germany). National Self-Determination The right of a nation or ethnic group to determine its own political status and governance, advocating for independence or autonomy. Summary In summary, nationalism includes the concepts of nations, nation-states, and ethnic rights. Solutions to managing diversity in states involve partition, assimilation, consociationalism, and federation, while national self-determination emphasizes the autonomy of distinct groups. Immigration Categorizing Immigrants o Economic Migrants: Move for better job opportunities. o Family Reunification: Join family members in the host country. o Asylum Seekers: Flee persecution and seek protection. o Temporary Workers: Come for limited work periods under specific visas. Refugees and Refugee Crisis Refugees: Forced to flee due to persecution, war, or violence. Refugee Crisis: Large-scale displacement leading to challenges for host countries (e.g., Syrian refugee crisis). Reasons for Immigration/Refugees o Persecution: Escaping political or religious persecution. o Conflict and War: Fleeing armed conflicts. o Economic Opportunities: Seeking better living conditions. o Family Connections: Joining settled family members. o Environmental Factors: Leaving due to natural disasters or climate change. Summary In summary, immigration involves various categories of migrants, including refugees, and is driven by reasons such as persecution, conflict, economic opportunities, family ties, and environmental challenges. 5. Conflict and security Types INTERNAL CONFLICT o Revolution: An overthrow of the government and sometimes entire society in favour of a new system/government. o Civil War: War between at least two groups in a country, often involving civilians. o Coup d'état: Top down seizure of power, often by the military or another branch. Often happens very quickly. o Separatism: People from a region/area start to urge for independence or separation from the state. Especially a problem for multi-national states. Often based on nationalism. o Terrorism: No clear definition, but often includes suicide bombing or attacks against civilians. Aims to inspire “fear” or “terror” in the populace. Often religiously motivated (linked to extremism/extreme religious views.) o Proxy wars: conflicts where major powers support opposing sides indirectly, often through funding, training, or supplying arms, rather than fighting directly. o Interstate conflicts are disputes between two or more countries involving political, territorial, or resource issues. Conflicts Myanmar The Myanmar Civil War stems from long-standing ethnic and political tensions since independence from Britain in 1948. Ethnic minority groups have sought autonomy, leading to decades of conflict with the central government. Tensions deepened under military rule (1962–2011) and continued during Myanmar’s democratic transition. The situation worsened after the 2021 military coup, which ousted the elected government and sparked mass protests. Ethnic armed groups and new resistance forces, like the People’s Defense Forces (PDF), united against the military junta, escalating the conflict nationwide. Rwanda The Rwandan Civil War (1990–1994) was fought between the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), led by Tutsi exiles, and the Hutu-dominated Rwandan government. It began in 1990 when the RPF launched an invasion from Uganda, seeking to return refugees and end Hutu oppression. The war exacerbated ethnic tensions, leading to the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, during which extremist Hutu forces killed around 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The RPF ultimately defeated the government forces, ending the genocide and the war in 1994, but the aftermath left deep social and political scars. Arab spring The Arab Spring (2010–2012) was a wave of pro-democracy uprisings across the Arab world, sparked by widespread dissatisfaction with authoritarian regimes, corruption, and economic hardships. It began in Tunisia after the self-immolation of a street vendor, Mohamed Bouazizi, and quickly spread to countries like Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen, and Bahrain. Key Outcomes: Tunisia: Transitioned to democracy. Egypt: Overthrew Hosni Mubarak but faced political turmoil and a return to military rule. Libya: Muammar Gaddafi was overthrown, but the country descended into chaos and civil war. Syria: Sparked a devastating civil war that continues today. Yemen: Led to ongoing conflict and a humanitarian crisis. The Arab Spring's impact varied, with some countries experiencing reforms and others facing prolonged instability. Deterrence and Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) Deterrence: keeping an opponent from doing something by threat or punishment or by possessing capabilities that the adversary knows will block or deny any such attempt. #Dominated relations between the US and Soviet Union during the Cold War D (Deterrence) =C (Perceived Capabilities) x W (Will/Credibility) Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD): Avoiding wars by reciprocal threat of punishment through an unacceptable level of destruction. When both parties in a bilateral deterrence relation have a second-strike, assured-destruction capability against the other. Security Governance R2P (Responsibility to Protect) When do countries intervene? (empirical) o National Interests: Strategic goals, resources, or security threats. o Geopolitics: Balancing power, alliances, or countering adversaries. o Humanitarian Reasons: Responding to atrocities, often influenced by media or public pressure. o International Legitimacy: UN or regional authorization. o Domestic Factors: Public opinion or political diversion. When should countries intervene? (normative) Pillar III: Timely and decisive collective response –If any state is "manifestly failing" in its protection responsibilities, then states should take collective action to protect the population What are some problems with intervention? Intervention often results in prolonged conflict with extensive civilian casualties. Intervention highlights divisions in the UN and broader world order. Often bypassing the security council, raising questions on sovereignty vs. human rights. United Nations Security Council and UN Peacekeeping UNSC: o 5 Permanent Members o WWII Winning Super Powers (China’s Seat: Republic of China ⇒ People’s Republic of China (1971) Soviet Union ⇒ Russian Federation) o 10 Non-Permanent Members Term length 2 years - half rotating each year o Affirmative Vote of 9 Members: o Limits Conflict UN Peacekeeping: o “Blue Helmets” or “Blue Berets” o Peacekeepers provide a buffer between warring parties, and as such they are small, lightly armed forces with defensive capabilities o Peacekeepers don’t intervene in conflicts but monitor the peace o Often after Peace Treaties are signed, or at request of the state. NATO o Founded in Washington DC in April 1949 o Original members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. o Later: Greece and Turkey (1952), West Germany (1955; from 1990 as Germany), Spain (1982), the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland (1999), Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia (2004), Albania and Croatia (2009); Montenegro (2017); North Macedonia (2020), Finland (2023) and Sweden (2024) Collective Security: an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all ; and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. 6. International Law What is International Law? International law is a set of principles, rules, and agreements that regulate the behavior of states and other international actors. Serves as a “rules of the game” How is it developed? o Romans: Jus Gentium (Law of the Nations) o Greeks: Natural Law o Europe: Law Merchant, Canon Law etc. o Mongol Empire: diplomatic immunity etc. How is it enforced? o Voluntary Compliance: States follow laws for self-interest and reputation. o Diplomatic Pressure: Political or economic influence by other states. o Sanctions: Imposed by groups or the UN. o Courts: ICJ and ICC handle disputes and crimes with limited jurisdiction. o Collective Action: Military or humanitarian interventions. o Domestic Laws: States implement international laws locally. o NGOs: Advocate and monitor compliance. Just war Jus ad Bellum (Right to go to war): o Just Cause o Legitimate authority o Proportionality of war o Chance of success o War as a last resort (after trying peaceful means) Jus in Bello (Right conduct in war): o Military necessity o Spare non-combatants and other defenseless persons (Civilians, Chemical/Biological Weapons banned internationally) o Proportional means o Means not immoral per se War crimes War crimes are serious violations of the laws of war, as defined by international humanitarian law (IHL). These crimes include acts committed during armed conflicts that target civilians, prisoners of war, or other protected groups, violating their rights and dignity. o Targeting Civilians: Deliberate attacks on non-combatants. o Using Prohibited Weapons: Chemical, biological, or other banned weapons.  o Torture and Inhumane Treatment: Of prisoners of war or civilians. o Hostage-Taking: Using civilians as human shields. o Destroying Civilian Property: Without military necessity. o Sexual Violence: Including rape and forced prostitution. o Killing or Wounding Surrendering Combatants. International Court of Justice (ICJ) o Rules on International Law o 15 Judges from different states (9 year term) o Only for states (No jurisdiction over individuals, NGOs, Corporations or other private entities.) o Relies on state consent International Criminal Court (ICC) o Found by the Rome Statute (1998) o Permanent, standing international tribunal o The USA, Israel, Russia, and China aren’t signatories. o Prosecutes individuals, not groups or states Four Crimes: o (I) Genocide o (II) Crimes against humanity o (III) War crimes o (IV) Crime of aggression 7. Diplomacy Diplomacy Ernest Satow: “DIPLOMACY is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the governments of independent states, extending sometimes also to their relations with vassal states.” Britannica: “diplomacy, the established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence. ” Simply put: o protection of interests of the sending State o negotiation o observation Diplomatic Missions The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, inter alia, in:  o (a) Representing the sending State in the receiving State; o (b) Protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; o (c) Negotiating with the Government of the receiving State; o (d) Ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; o (e) Promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations. Embassy (RU: Посольство): o Ambassador (RU: посол): accredited to Heads of State o Chargés d'affaires (RU: Поверенный в делах): accredited to the foreign minister of the country in which they operate; act in the absence of the head of their mission— usually an ambassador. Consulate-General: o Consul-General o Consul o Vice-Consul Diplomatic Immunity: The premises of the mission shall be inviolable. (The agents of the receiving State may not enter them, except with the consent of the head of the mission.) o Person (“The person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. He shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention. The receiving State shall treat him with due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or dignity.”)(Article 29) o Family members etc. o Communications (“The receiving State shall permit and protect free communication on the part of the mission for all official purposes” (Article 27)) o Diplomatic Bag o Diplomatic Courier Diplomatic Documents Third Person Note: o a. Note Verbales (A diplomatic note that is more formal than an aide-aide-mémoire and less formal than a note, is drafted in the third person, and is never signed) o b. Memorandum o c. Aide-memoire( An informal summary of a diplomatic interview or conversation that serves merely as an aid to memory. It does not begin with a formula of courtesy, but it must indicate clearly in the first two lines to which ambassador, minister, or mission it is being addressed.) o d. Collective Notes o e. Circular Diplomatic Note Letters: Letter of credence —A formal paper from the head of one state to the head of another accrediting an ambassador, minister, or other diplomatic agent as one authorized to act for a government or head of state. Letter of recall —Formal paper from the head of one state to the head of another recalling ambassador, minister, or diplomatic agent. Diplomatic Relations Recognizing a state What makes a state legal? Recognition can be: o Implicit (not directly expressed) o Explicit (stated directly/clearly) o Or: o De facto o De jure Problem of precedent: Encouraging separatist movements elsewhere; States may face pressure to recognize others based on the precedent, even if politically unfavorable; Risk of undermining territorial integrity and international norms. #Kosovo Summons Summons occurs when a host country formally calls a foreign diplomat, usually an ambassador, to its foreign ministry. o Express Displeasure: Over actions or statements by the diplomat's country. o Seek Clarifications: On policies or incidents. o Deliver Protests: Officially communicate objections. Breaking Relations If diplomatic relations are broken off between two States, or if a mission is permanently or temporarily recalled: o (a) the receiving State must, even in case of armed conflict, respect and protect the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives; o (b) the sending State may entrust the custody of the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives, to a third State acceptable to the receiving State; o (c) the sending State may entrust the protection of its interests and those of its nationals to a third State acceptable to the receiving State. 8. International Trade and Economy Basic Economics Supply and Demand Demand: The quantity of a good or service people are willing to buy at different prices. o Higher prices → lower demand. o Lower prices → higher demand. Supply: The quantity producers are willing to sell at different prices. o Higher prices → higher supply. o Lower prices → lower supply. Economies of Scale o Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Variable Cost o Average cost per unit = Total Cost / Quantity o Cost per unit may decline as the number of units produced increases o Decreased cost of production may influence firms to export more goods o Innovation and technology has been key to economic development (Japan, South Korea) Exchange Rates o Exchange Rates (An exchange rate is the value of one currency expressed in terms of another; The “price” of currencies fluctuates in much the same manner that commodity prices fluctuate) o Fluctuations (changes) in the value of money influence trade in goods Trade Mercantilism and Balance of Trade Balance of trade (BOT) The difference between the value of a country's imports and exports for a given period and is the largest component of a country's balance of payments (BOP). Exports > Imports = positive (or favorable) trade balance Exports < Imports = negative (or unfavorable) trade balance Balance of trade refers to its exports minus imports. Balance of payments is a record of all international economic transactions made by a country's residents, including trade as well as financial capital and financial transfers (net investment, unilateral transfers, official reserves) Balance (B) of Payments: Current Account (merchandise) + Capital Account (stocks & shares) + Unilateral Transfers + Official Reserves (gold, foreign currency) = 0 Mercantilism: o Dominant from the 16th to 18th century o Global wealth was seen as static - nations needed to accumulate gold/silver and capital  o Nation’s wealth and power best served by increasing exports and reducing imports (trade surplus): Countries adopted tariffs; Used the military to protect national market and supply sources (protectionism) o Replaced by free trade theory in the mid-18th century Free Trade Theory Adam Smith: Wealth of Nations David Ricardo: “On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” (1817): o Comparative Advantage o Countries can attain the maximum benefits through free trade. Free Trade can: o lower consumer costs o increases efficiency o foster economic growth Development of Free Trade: o Great Britain switched to free trade from the 1840s o Generally supported it throughout the 1800s (Rest of Europe switched later) However, it also has disadvantages: o Developing countries may be kept at a relative disadvantage o May promote unfair or poor working conditions o Can lead to resource depletion o Risk of over-specialization Absolute vs. Comparative Advantage Comparative advantage – all things being equal, states will produce the things that they can produce most efficiently Absolute Advantage: A country can produce more of a good using the same resources compared to another country. Example: Country A produces 10 cars/hour, Country B produces 5 cars/hour. Comparative Advantage: A country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another, even if it lacks absolute advantage. Example: Country A sacrifices 2 trucks to make 1 car, while Country B sacrifices 4 trucks for 1 car. Country A has a comparative advantage in cars. Key Difference: Absolute advantage is about overall productivity, while comparative advantage focuses on efficiency relative to opportunity costs. IMF, GATT, and WTO IMF (International Monetary Fund): o The IMF seeks to maintain international liquidity by loans to members so that they can meet their international obligations o Liquidity refers to access to available cash o Often includes conditions for structural reforms designed to promote trade (political effect) o A central function of the IMF is to lend to states with Balance of Payments shortfalls GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs): o Signed in 1947 o Lasted till 1993 - replaced by WTO o Aimed to reduce tariffs and NTB (Non-Tariff Barriers) World Trade Organization (WTO): o WTO manages trade negotiations and mediation o Includes agreements and dispute resolution Development Global Inequality Why is it a problem? Currently: o 75% of global income goes to 20% of the world’s population o 5% goes to the bottom 40% of the population In sub-Saharan Africa, 130 of every 1000 children die before age 5. Compared to just 5 per 1000 in Europe. Social justice demands for better standards of living, human rights and socioeconomics require sustainable development and more equitable economic distribution. o Perpetuates Poverty: Poorer countries lack resources to improve living standards, leading to cycles of deprivation. o Hinders Development: Unequal access to education, healthcare, and technology limits growth and innovation. o Breeds Instability: Inequality fuels social unrest, migration, and conflicts. o Exacerbates Global Issues: Unequal contributions and impacts in areas like climate change worsen global challenges. o Moral and Ethical Concerns: Disparities in opportunities and outcomes challenge fairness and human rights. Global North and Global South “Global South” Political:  o 1955 Bandung Conference and Bandung Spirit o Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) o Third World: Countries that didn’t want to be aligned with West (US/NATO) or East (USSR). o Began to have a meaning of poverty, corruption etc. o In the 1970’s the UN shifted to using North/South o Global South - developing countries, often recently emerging on the global stage. The Global North refers to wealthier, industrialized countries (e.g., North America, Europe, Japan, Australia), while the Global South includes poorer, developing countries (e.g., Africa, Latin America, much of Asia). This divide highlights economic, political, and social disparities, often rooted in colonial history and uneven development. It underscores global inequality in wealth, resources, and opportunities. Economic Structuralism World-System Theory (Immanuel Wallerstein) o Defined in 1974, based on dependency theory o While dependency theorists focused on the developing world, World-System theory seeks to understand the world as a whole o Shares with Marxism an emphasis on the primacy of economics and class struggle The world-system contains a o developed core o a semi-periphery o an underdeveloped periphery Dependency Theory o Capitalist economy is a structure of domination that constrains economic development in the global South o Elites in developing states share a connection with their counterparts in the global North, to the detriment of workers