IPIR Summary : Politics and Globalization PDF

Lecture 1 Politics Power → to decide who gets what when and how = rational - Hard power - Soft power Multiplex order: Decentered, diverse, complex, pluralistic Main theoretical approaches 1. Liberal internationalism 2. Realism 3. Constructivism 4. Marxism 5. Poststructuralis...

Lecture 1 Politics Power → to decide who gets what when and how = rational - Hard power - Soft power Multiplex order: Decentered, diverse, complex, pluralistic Main theoretical approaches 1. Liberal internationalism 2. Realism 3. Constructivism 4. Marxism 5. Poststructuralism 6. Post/de-colonialism 7. Feminism See the readings 1 Chapter 1: International relations in a global era Power → To decide who gets what when and how = Rational Hard vs Soft power: Hard power - Brute force Soft power- legislation International vs Global - Traditionally: State to state relations: international - But does not take into account: Transnational groups, cooperations, NGOs, terrorist groups etc. - Units are not always very ‘unitary’, so what does international mean? International relations as a field - Interdisciplinary - Highly theoretical and necessarily so - Western-biased (used to support the global hegemonic liberal order) 7 Main theoretical approaches 1. Liberal internationalism Promotes democracy, human rights and free trade through global cooperation. Aim: Create a peaceful, booking harmony by encouraging international relations within international organization (interdependence of states) 2. Realism Prioritize national interest and power, viewing international relations as a struggle for survival. Countries must rely on their own capabilities. Mainly focused on the most powerful states, as they form a framework of inter-state relations. Aim: To secure their interests, often leading to competition and conflict rather than cooperation 3. Constructivism Approach highlighting that we make and remake the social world so there is much more of a role for human agency than in realism and liberalism. Aim: To understand and explain how the identities, interests, and behaviors of states and other global actors are shaped by shared ideas, beliefs, and social norms 4. Marxism The most important feature of world politics is that it takes place in a highly unequal capitalist world economy. Important actors are not states but classes. Multicooperation and international organizations represent the dominant class interest in the world economic system. Aim: To expose and challenge capitalist inequalities, advocating for a classless society where resources are shared equitably 2  5. Poststructuralism Concerned with distrustic and exposing any account of humans claimed to have direct access to ‘the truth’. All power requires knowledge and all knowledge relies on and reinforces existing power relations. Thus there is no such thing as 'truth' existing outside of power. Aim: To challenge and deconstruct established ideas, beliefs, and power structures by questioning how knowledge and truth are constructed. 6. Post/de-colonist Eurocentric theories can really purport to explain world politics. Us of Eurocentric theories to justify the military and economic subordination of the global south by powerful western interests → Neocolonialism Aim: To examine and challenge the lasting impacts of colonialism on societies, cultures, and identities + To empower marginalized voices and critique the ongoing power dynamics and inequalities rooted in colonial histories. 7. Feminism Focus on the construction of differences between women and men in the context of hierarchy and power and the highly contingent understandings of masculinity and feminist that these power relations produce Aim: Analyze how gender both affects world politics and is an effect of world politics. How different concepts are gendered and how its gendering of concepts can have different consequences for 'men' and 'women'. Theories and Globalization with these approaches 1. Liberals Globalization is the end product of a longrunning, progressive transformation of world politics. Interconnectedness in all forms is a positive thing. It is the most significant feature of world politics. 2. Realists Even though interconnectedness among economies and societies makes them more dependent the same cannot be said about the system. Powerful states retain sovereignty and stay the most powerful as compared to less politically empowered states. It also undermines the importance of the threat to use force to balance power. 3. Constructivist Globalization tends to be presented as an external force acting on states. This undermines the ability of changing social norms and the identity of actors to challenge and shape globalization, and instead allows leaders to duck responsibility. Globalization should be guided 4. Marxism Globalization is nothing new and is just the latest stage in the development of international capitalism. It is a western led capitalist phenomenon. 3  5. Poststructuralism Globalization does not exist and is not 'the truth'. It only makes sense in the context of a specific discourse that itself is a product of power. 6. Post/de-colonialism Highlights the importance of continuity and persistence of colonial forms of power in a globalized world. 7. Feminism All branches address and debate the effects globalization has on gendered forms of power. Is Globalization a new phenomenon in global politics: In favor: - The pace of economic transformation is so great, it has created a new world politics - States have < control over their own economies under global capitalism (interdependence) - Communications have revolutionized - Alters the notions of the social groups we live in - Risk culture is emerging - Individual states are unable to deal with global risks - Time-space compression - Global culture - Urban world shares a common culture - Global polity is emerging - Transnational social and political movements - The beginning of a transfer of allegiance from the state to sub-state, transnational and international bodies - Cosmopolitan culture is developing - "Think globally and act locally" Against: - Globalization is just a buzzword to describe neoliberalism - Neoliberalism → The latest state of global capitalism - It makes it appear as if national governments are powerless around global trends and thus stop controlling and regulating - It is uneven in its effects - Might be the latest stage of western imperialism - What about non western values? - Not all globalized forces are good - International drug trade, terrorism, international cyber crime etc. - Global governance lacks responsibility - Who holds companies like Shell accountable? - Most of the emerging powerful actors are not accountable to democratic publics 4 Chapter 2: Globalization and global politics Globalization → The widening, deeping and acceleration of worldwide interconnectedness 2.2 Analyzing globalization: Globalization is a process characterized by: 1. The stretching Of the social, political, cultural and economic activities across national frontiers to impact directly and indirectly 2. The intensification Of interconnectedness in every sphere of modern life 3. The accelerating pace Of global flows and processes 4. The deepening enmeshment of local and global war 5. A developing awareness among people and organizations Embedded in a global system or community Deterritorialization → As social, political, or economic activities are organized at the global or transnational levels, they are effectively detached from their place or local. e.g. Companies having their headquarters in different countries. Debating Globalization Skeptical VS Globalist - Skeptists: Globalization is epiphenomenal → a derivative of more primary forces, either geopolitics or capitalism (or both) - Globalists: Globalization is a spicess associated with significant disruptive change in the world. Key points: - Globalization refers to the widening, deepening and acceleration of worldwide interconnectedness - It is experienced and interpreted in radically different ways through competing narratives or global imaginaries - It is associated with a dramatic growth in transnational and global forms of governance, rule making, and policy coordination through which it is also promoted and regulated - Contemporary globalization is a highly uneven process unifying and dividing communities with major distributional consequences in terms of winners and losers - It is associated with a princess of time-space compression and linked to the relative deterritorialization of power - Skeptics vs Globalists 2.3 The crisis of globalization and the liberal world order Starting to see a move away/erosion from globalization. Even treating it as a national security issue. Through: - Populism (nationalist populism or radical right populism) - Securitizing global connectivity 3 factors contributing to this: 5  1. Geo-economic competition Economic powers seek to protect their industrial and technological bases by strategic decoupling from global networks and restricting foreign ownership and investment in strategic sectors. 2. Covid pandemic 3. Fallout from unprecedented western economic sanctions imposed on Russia after the invasion of Ukraine Highlights how interconnectedness can be weaponized by states. Reducing potential vulnerabilities through strategic autonomy strategies. - Realists: Fear the consequences of the demise of the liberal world order, for others will not be mourned - Marxists: Consider that the liberal world order simply conceal the harsh reality of US hegemony and imperialism - Globalist: - Liberal accounts: Emphasize that it prefigures a return to a dystopian world absent a rules-based order, in which might is right. The only effective response is to strengthen and defend the existing order through more assertive US and Western leadership → A coalition of democracies - Transformalist accounts: The crisis of globalization and the liberal world have been exaggerated - The liberal world order has never been entirely liberal, universal or orderly. There has always been contested - Global trends are more indicative of reglobalization than deglobalization. There will be a global shift and the emerge of a post-western global order associated with a more multicentric form of globalization Reglobalization is shaped by three developments 1. Digital technologies and digital capitalism → Across every sector (economic, cultural, defense, politics, environmental) 2. China as a principal force for globalization → The world's largest exporter, the dominant source of global economic growth, major financial power, largest provider of bilateral development assistance in the Global South. 3. "Snowbalization" Key points: a. A prevalent discourse in the West concerns the crisis of globalization and the liberal world order b. Three developments are central to this discourse: The rise of nationalist populism, the revival of great power rivalry, and the securitization of global connectivity c. Skeptical accounts consider the crisis to be symptomatic of declining western hegemony and the restructuring of western capitalism in the wake of the GFC d. Globalists accounts are of 2 kinds i. Liberal: Stress the existential threats to the liberal world order and globalization, and the profound consequences for global security and prosperity of their inevitable breakdown 6  ii. Transformatists: Contend that the intersecting crises of the liberal world order and globalization are associated with the emergence of a post-western global order alongside a reconfiguration of globalization or reglobalization. 2.4 Globalization and the transformation of world politics Key points a. Globalization scholarship presents significant challenges to traditional approaches to the study of world politics b. Globalization is associated with structural transformations in world politics, from governance to power and world order c. Globalization requires a conceptual shift in thinking about world politics, from a principally state-centric and Western-centric perspective to the perspective of global politics—the politics of planetary relations. d. Globalization is a significant source of conflict, as well as cooperation, systemic risks, and power shifts. e. Globalization is not leading to the demise of the sovereign state, but is transforming the practice of sovereign statehood. Lecture 2 History classes 1. History is written in the present - History used to be written by the victors - Now: Revisionist historians and much more debate, but all based on present-day emancipatory movements - Feminist histories etc. 2. History repeats itself - We all drag history with us to try and imitate great leaders of the past - Generals are always fighting the last battle - But circumstances have changed! 3 Uses of History 1. Shows where certain present-day behavior comes from a. Individual leaders: i. Overcompensating, emulating heroes of the past, reviving old proud empires b. If you understand where people/countries/organizations are coming from, you also understand where they want to go c. But also broader i. China vs Europe Europe VS Europe 1. China - Chinese empire fell - Shaped a culture: - Hierarchical, aimed at stability, long term planning - Now: return rather than rise of China 7  2. Europe - Small countries, lost of conflicts - Desire for overseas expansion to get more resources/get rid of excess population - Christianity: linear concept of time - Idea of progress 2. History show contingency - Should give u hope - Individuals can make a difference - Makes you pay attention to small details that might be very important 3. History shows complexity - Theoretical explanations are never watertight - There’s always exceptions to any rule - People who know more about a specific history will always know better than you Important Historical Events for IR 1648 a. Birth of the modern international order consisting of sovereign state: independent & equal i. Before: local lords and empires 1815 a. Congress of Vienna → First system of regular meetings between major European powers b. Establishment of first international organization: i. The Central Commission for the Navigation on the Rhine 1919 a. Treaty of Versailles: League of Nations b. War as a central problem i. Between sovereign states, not one sided wars ii. Colonial wars, exploitation, economic exchange and globalization c. Academics as ‘public intellectuals’ 1945 a. Cold war i. Core concern for Western practitioners and academics → How to deal with the USSR b. Decolonisation (mostly ignored) c. Need for/belief in ‘scientificness’ → Academics become ‘number crunchers’ 1989 a. End of the cold war, decade of optimism b. EU as a model, globalization as an opportunity, rise of middle class in Asia c. Need for new ‘problems’ to study after the ‘end of history’ 8 2001 a. Non state actors drive major world events i. Al Qaeda, banks, migrants etc. b. Rise of emancipation movements leading to feminist and post-colonial IR i. New questions: Where are the Women?, Where are the non-Western voice in IR? Now a. Russian invasion of Ukraine b. Series of coups in Africa, inflation, South America shifts to the left c. Brexit, Trump, Covid-19 d. etc. 9 Chapter 3: The rise of modern international order 3.1 Introduction International orders → Regularized practices of exchange between political units. 1. Sparse (limited to diplomatic protocols) 2. Intensive (high levels of trade, codes, security etc.) 3. Hierarchical (empires) 4. Purportedly equal (contemporary states system) 5. Formal (institutional) 6. Informal Allows western states to project their power around the world - The rise of the West has occurred only recently (over the past two or three centuries) - Many aspects of its rise can be traced to international processes Such as imperialism and the global expansion of capitalism. 3.2 Historical international orders - International orders are regularized practices of exchange between political units. They may be sparse or intensive, hierarchical or egalitarian, formal or informal. - It is possible to speak of multiple international orders in world history, perhaps even as far back as ancient Sumer. - In International Relations, the 1648 Peace of Westphalia is often considered to be the foundational date from which 'modern' international order emerged. - More recently, scholars have viewed the emergence of modern international order as the product of the last two centuries, as this is when various regional orders were forged into a deeply interdependent, global international order. How did modern international order emerge? After 1800, there was a great divergence between some western imperial non states and much of the rest of the world. 3 main sources of this 'great divergence': - Industrialization 2 main waves: 1. First wave (British) - 19th century Centered around cotton, iron and coal Capture of energy e.g. steam power → engineering 2. Second wave (German + American) - end 19th century Centered around advances in chemicals, pharmaceuticals and electronics Taking off of oil industry Both waves helped to produce a dramatic expansion of the world market - Rational states Market got extended due to changes in how states were organized. - Rise of institutions (VOC, treaties etc.) - Imperialism 10 These combined reinforced foundations of modern international order. They are deeply intertwined with international processes, most notably industrialization with deindustrialization, and rational states with imperialism. The consequences of the global transformation 3 main consequences: 1. Shrinking the planet The changes in infrastructure allowed global transformation in communication. Steamships, railways and telegraph - efficiency savings Steamships: Efficiency and ship use increased Railways: prompted the merge of timetables and pressed states to regularize time Telegraph: Rapid speed of communication They provided the core infrastructure of the modern international order, adding interdependence and prompting far deeper patterns of exchange. + Helped to construct a global economy and single space of political military interactions 2. Intergovernmental organizations and international non-governmental organizations IGO: Permanent features of international order INGO: Put pressure on states to enact faster, deeper processes if democratization 3. Inequality a. Racism Scientific racism → Based on a radically unequal view of world politics. To establish political hierarchy based on biological markers. Allowing Europeans to radically demarcate zones with imperial territories, as well as to homogenize diverse indigenous people → Resulting in a formation of international order based on a global color line. b. Economic exploration The profits from capitalist expansion helped to forge an unequal global economy. 11 Chapter 4: International history of the 20th century 4.1 Introduction Total war → A war that mobilizes entire populations and economies as well as their armies, and they endured immense casualties Since 1900, world politics has been transformed in multiple ways: 1. The transition from crises in European power politics to total war 2. The end of empire and withdrawal of European states from their imperial acquisitions 3. The cold war: the political, military, and nuclear confrontation between East and West 4.2 Modern total war - The cold war in Europe marked the collapse of the wartime alliance between the UK, USSR and the US - Defensive military technologies, symbolized by the machine gun and trench warfare, triumphed over the tactics and strategy of attribution - The Treaty of Versailles (1919) → New framework for European security and a new international order (not achieved) - Great Depression - Weakened liberal democracy in many countries and strengthened the appeal of communist, fascist, and Nazi parties - All European states suffered mass unemployment, Germany experienced hyperinflation - Economic and political instability provided support for the Nazis - Hitler brought speedy victories against Poland and in Western Europe. Also drawn into the Balkans and North Africa with support of Italy. - Invasion of USSR (1941) - Holocaust The rise and fall of Japan a. 1868, Japan emerged from centuries of isolationism to pursue industrial and military modernization and imperial expansion. b. American sanctions on Japan → Attack on Pearl harbor c. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought America into the war in Europe, and eventually forced Germany into war on two fronts d. Debate persists about whether the atomic bomb should have been used in 1945 4.3 End of empire - Demise of imperialism → belief that national self-determination should be a guiding principle in international politics represented a transformation of attitudes and values. - Different factors behind decolonization: - The attitude of the colonial power - Ideology and strategy of anti-imperialist forces - The role of external powers 1. Britain British empire in India lead to inter-communal ethnic cleansing Apartheid in African colonies 12  British governments were reluctant to rush decolonization 2. France France had been occupied during WW2 and sought to preserve French international prestige by maintaining its imperial status. They withdrew from their empire while attempting to preserve its influence Independence and national liberation became embroidered in cold war conflicts when the superpowers and/or their aliens became involved. (Vietnam) Whether decolonization was judged successful depends, in part, on whose perspective you adopt - that of the European power, the independence movement, or the people themselves 4.4 Cold war - Disagreements remain about when and why the cold war began, and who was responsible. Distinct phases can be discerned in East–West relations, during which tension and the risk of direct confrontation grew and receded. - Some civil and regional wars were intensified and prolonged by superpower involvement; others may have been prevented or shortened. - Nuclear weapons were an important factor in the cold war. To what extent their development had a momentum of its own is a matter of debate. Agreements on limiting and controlling the growth of nuclear arsenals played an important role in Soviet–American (and East–West) relations - The end of the cold war did not result in the abolition of nuclear weapons - Various international crises occurred in which there was a risk of nuclear war. How close we came to catastrophe at these times remains open to debate. 13 Chapter 5: From the end of the cold war to a new world dis-order 5.1 Introduction: The cold war and after The modern world system is in many ways the result of 2 great 20th century wars: 1. Russian Revolution 2. The break up of empires that dominated Europe Results: a. Japan and Germany under Allied control b. Most of Europe and Asia in tatters c. Former colonies in a state of Political turmoil d. The US and USSR in positions of enormous strength (opposing states) Causes: a. Deep incompatibility between the social and economic systems of the East and West b. Mutual fears of the USSR and the US - regarding other's intentions c. Insecurities generated by an ongoing nuclear arms race 5.2 The United States: Exploiting the unipolar 'moment' Bipolar system → two balancing powers (USSR, USA) Unipolar system (now) → United states shapes international relations almost completely - Under President Clinton there was a greater focus on economic issues as a central part of US foreign policy - Critics attacked him for having no grand strategy - Opponents to the left of Clinton asked whether globalization had gone too far 5.3 After the USSR: Yeltsin to Putin Challenges in new Russia: 1. What to do with the USSR's nuclear arsenal, and how to prevent them from leaving the former USSR (remain in Russian hands) 2. What to do with all the Russians who came to live outside of russia a. Former USSR had to work out how to keep some kind of relationship with former states. 3. Making the transition from a centralized, planned economy, designed to guarantee full employment, to a competitive market economy where many of the old industries that had been the bedrock of the USSR where evidently no longer fit for purpose Yeltsin → Putin Putin (nationalism): Insisted that Russia had to assert itself more forcefully - most obviously against those in the West who thought they could ignore Russia's security concerns by pushing NATO right up to Russia's historic borders Policy makes adopted a realist view; It is important to work closely with Russia for economic reasons: - Russia was major supplier of oil and gas to Europe due to: - Putin was opposed to terrorism as policy makers in the west - Russia was a permanent member of the UN Security Council and remained a nuclear weapons state 5.4 Europe: Rise and decline? Europe (Germany) were the most beneficiaries of the cold war 14  1. A continent and a country that once had been divided is now united 'A new united Europe' 2. The states of Eastern Europe achieved one of the most important of international rights: the right of self-determination 3. The threat of serious war with potentially devastating consequences for Europe as a whole was eliminated 2 sides to the new united Europe 1. Those who sought an ever-deeper union that would fulfill their dream of building a United States of Europe - one that would be able to play a major role alongside China and the US in the international system 2. Those who recognized national difference and did not try to undermine the principle of sovereignty; leading to for example Brexit - Brexit and election of Trump posed a serious challenge to the integrity and future of the EU Pessimists believe that the challenges facing the EU are life-threatening The Eu's many defenders argue it retains the economic capacity and political will to meet these challenges successfully 5.5 China in a new Asian century? - The cold war in Asia was marked by revolutions, wars and insurgencies which led to millions of deaths - Although some scholars have predicted an uncertain and unstable future for Asia, the region overall has experienced relative peace and great prosperity since the end of the cold war - Asia is one of the most dynamic economic regions in the world - The key to Asia's prosperity is due to prosperous Japan and later China - China's rise has transformed the region and led to increased tensions with the US 5.6 A new Global South 1. The 'Third World' was a political project aimed to create 'real' independence from the West by pursuing a different non-western road to economic modernity - The opportunity to rejoin the world economic order → consequences were too problematic to do so 2. Many less developed countries continue to be burdened by: dept, poverty, lack of healthcare services and poor infrastructure - Mass migration → Prosperous North 3. The challenges still facing many countries in the Global South should not obscure what many of them have achieved - Two international orders (North and South) 5.7 The Middle East in turmoil: 9/11, the Arab Spring, and after - The 9/11 attacks transformed US foreign policy - Bin Laden was motivated by: - A desire for social justice - A distance for globalization - More traditional methods of waging war - Containment and deterrence - It is now agreed that the US failed in Iraq and Afghanistan 15  - The Arab Spring led to hope for change followed by deep disappointment - The Syrian crisis was hugely costly and was only brought to a conclusion by the most brutal means - The deeper causes of instability remain highly contested 5.8 From Obama to Trump to Biden 1. Obama elected because: a. The fallout from an increasingly unwinnable and unpopular war in Iraq ("dumb war"- Obama) He had always been opposed to it b. The greatest economic crisis facing the Us since the 1930's Main challenges: a. Economic recovery b. Restore US understanding abroad Shift the focus of American foreign policy away from the politically unsettled Middle East to the economically dynamic region of Asia Policy aimed to restore US soft power standing in the world while drawing US troops home from Iraq and Afghanistan 2. Trump → attacked what had been considered mainstream foreign policy positions e.g. climate change, Nato etc. Made clear that he would not seek to reform/change authoritarian systems so long as the Middle East stayed loyal to the US. Trump had a hard time dealing with the covid pandemic and thus lost a lot of votes - Trump's policies had a deeply divisive impact at home and an equally disturbing impact on world politics 3. Biden - America's reputation is at an all-time low abroad and the country is more polarized than ever. - Biden determined to reunite - Re-engage with America's European allies while making clear his administration's commitment to a wider liberal world order Conclusion: beyond the liberal world order? - New threats such as terrorism replaced old ones - Russia refused to be brought back into a world run by the liberal West - The US got sucked into an unwinnable war with Iraq and a highly costly one in Afghanistan - Major economic crisis (2008) - The rise of new powers - Specifically China → causing questions about the Western success coming an end - Threat of populism has contained - US still retains massive military capabilities 16 Tutorial 2 Key points lecture - The less prospects a country has, the more it clings to its history; history matters, especially to the marginalized - Understanding a country’s history is important for understanding its culture, its aspirations, its worldview - History also shows the contingency and complexity of real world events: theories never offer a 100% explanation - The history of IR is closely related to the history of the world 17  Lecture 3 Philosophical terminology - Ontological issues Questions of ‘being’: “What is the world made of?” - Epistemological issues How do we know/what can we know? - Normative issues Ought rather than is: What should we do? - (Policy) prescriptions Explanatory vs Constitutive theory Explanatory (empirical) - Explain a certain event/behavior or a pattern of events: - Why did Russia invade Ukraine? Why do countries invade other countries? Why is it so difficult for countries to cooperate etc. - Different theories propose different answers, the data show which one is most likely - Offer predictions/expectations: natural science model - Covering laws model (positivism): Laws describing statistical regularities, theories offering explanations for them - What positivist scientists do: gather lots of data, look for statistical patterns and explain those Limits: 1. Reveal patterns: what about contingency and complexity? Is there an underlying order to human affairs? 2. Predictions can become self-fulfilling: the social world is not static 3. Contain ontological, epistemology and normative assumptions Constitutive theory Structure what you think is important to study (ontology): put boundaries on research interests - Define ways of studying those affairs (epistemology) - Come with normative commitments - Structures the world we live in e.g. a. Realisits: state power and anarchical international system determine events → classes don't matter b. Marxist: Class struggle determines the courses of the world → States don’t matter c. Poststructuralists: Ideas/discourses → neither states nor classes matter Three uses of (Mid-level) theory 1. Explanation All world views offer explanation for certain events: Mid level (exploratory/empirical) theories - Norm analysis explains how normative concerns influence political action - Elite networks explain global inequality 2. Prescription 18  Theory allows you to navigate a complex world/make decisions under pressure and uncertainty 3. Critique - Especially of other worldviews: realism's hidden conservatism shows only when contrasted to other worldviews 4. Professional skills - Sets aside social scientists from historians and journalists - Theoretical thinking is a great skill - Helps you to see the bigger picture and think strategically The history of IR as a series of grand theory debates 1. Realism vs idealism 2. Traditionalism vs behaviorism (epistemology/methods) 3. Positivists vs reflexivists / post-positivists 4. Theoretical peace/end of grand theory debates Positivists vs post-positivists - Positivism Positivist scholars generally believe that research and researchers can separate themselves from reality and objectively observe the world they inhabit. Science is and should be limited to observable implications and factors. And that the purpose of science is causal inference - Post positivists - Reject positivist claim of objective science based on observable facts - Science is always to some extent subjective - Objective of inquiry is either to understand how certain things came to be, or to lead the way to a better world - Post structuralist, post-/colonialists/feminists/more radical constructivists Drawback: science might be seen as just another opinion, when it is not Integrative pluralism a. Every theory has its merits/ can explain some things: remain on the lookout for evidence/ don't dismiss other perspectives or make it absolute 19 Article 1: Why the Syrian war lasted 12 years? Before: - High unemployment rates, corruption and lack of political freedom March 2011: Pro democracy demonstrations - Government used deadly force to end this - Causing protests demanding resignation president - Violence descended into civil war between for or against Mr Assad (President) - Rise of extremist jihadist organizations such as IS and Al-Qaeda Key supporters 1. Russia Has military bases in Syria supporting the government. Says to only strike terrorists but regularly kill mainstream rebels and civilians 2. Iran Has developed hundreds of troops and money to help Mr Assad 3. Western World (US, UK, France) Armed moderate rebel groups, but have prioritized non-lethal assistance since jihadists became the dominant force in the armed opposition 4. Turkey Major supporter of the opposition, but main focus on rebel factions that dominate the SDF 5. Saudi Arabia Armed and financed the rebels 6. Israël Is concerned for military entrenchment in Syria and shipments of Iranian weapons to Hezbollah and other militias. Conducted air strikes with increasing frequency in and attempt to thwart them. Effects: a. 6 million refugees in Lebanon, Jordan and Turkey b. Extreme humanitarian crisis c. Hundreds of thousands of deaths Who is in control? The government has regained control over biggest cities, but large parts of the country is still controlled by the rebels, jihadists and the Kurdish-led SDF. March 2020, Russia and Turkey brokered a ceasefire to halt a push by the government to retake Iblib, no result. When will it end? The UN Security Council has called for the implementation of the 2012 Geneva Communique, which envisages a transitional governing body "formed on the basis of mutual consent". Failed to make progress, with Mr Assad unwilling to negotiate with political opposing groups. The Rehabilitation of Syria's dictator raises awkward questions for the West Should governments continue to isolate states long after it is clear that sanctions will not reduce political change? 20 The west has grown reluctant to use military force abroad and so have made more use of economic coercion - Syria funds itself by drug-peddling - Downside of lifting sanctions on Mr Assad for the West: - He would feel vindicated and the deterrent effect of sanctions and other regimes, including Russia, might be eroded - If Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the UAE trade with Syria, The USA will face the prospect of having to impose sanctions on its allies to try to keep the embargo on Syria watertight 3 principles should apply in response on flexibility in sanctions 1. Personal sanctions on despots should remain in place 2. Humanitarian carve-outs should permit a broader range of activities e.g. fixing utilities, rebuilding schools (alleviate civilian suffering) 3. Any rollback of sanctions beyond this must be contingent on serious changes in behavior that fall short of regime change 21 Article 2: After 12 years of blood, Assad's Syria rejoins the Arab League - Autocracts and warlords who court Russian support are likely to end up disappointed - Mr Assad needs to Arab world, because Russia cannot rebuild his ruined country - The West has placed his regime under sanctions meant to deter reconstruction - Making everyone scared to invest (fear of afoul measures) - UAE was the first to break its isolation in 2018 - Many followed after the earthquake (2023) - The disaster gave them an excuse to coordinate aid - Why did they seek normalization? - Broader spirit of detente - Many keen to lower tensions due to economic crisis - Russia - Owes his survival to russia sending thousands of troops and dozens of warplanes to his regime - Lately has stopped making even empty promises If Syria is to rebuild it needs support from the Gulf states who will want either political or economic returns Reassessing Obama's biggest mistake How much was his red line in Syria to blame for America's lost credibility - Attack on August 21st 2013 was the deadliest day of the Syrian war - Challenged Obama to act on his warning that "a red line for us is if we start seeing a whole bunch of chemical weapons being moved around or utilized. That would change my calculus." - Did not act immediately → diminished America's credibility Results - Russia also had the plan to dismantle Syria's chemical weapons program if the US would not strike - With Russia's encouragements and internal help, tonnes of chemical weapons were demolished - They did a much better job then the US ever could - US credibility suffrage: - Policy choices have audiences far beyond their narrow target - Afghanistan, Iraq etc. - Leaders acquire a signaling reputation reflecting their record of carrying out threats and honoring premises 22  Lecture 4 Liberalism vs realism Liberalism Realism - We can come to a better world - Power is always relevant order/world peace (human rights, - Easier analysis democracy, cooperation) - State interest: survival - Change is possible - Democracy is not one thing it is just and - Human nature is not necessarily selfish ideal - Cooperation is possible - Human nature is selfish - More attention for differences within - Structure determines everything states - More descriptive - Economic interdependence - Anarchy - Easy answers: Rationality - Broader view (beyond states) - More openly normative - Institutions + ideas matter Democratic peace theory - Democracy or trade: capitalist peace - Level of development/richness? - Alignment of interests? - 'The people' don't want war? Classical vs neo-realism 1. Agency vs Structure 2. Historical analysis vs Positivism (rational choice and game theory) 1. Classical a. Core question: how do states act? b. Aim: Maximize their power (survival) c. Why: If they don't, other states that do act this way become more powerful and crush them d. Agency: States are power-seeking agents trying to survive in an anarchical environment and we can find out how they do so by carefully studying past exam 2. Neorealism a. It's not individual states, but the structure of the international system that forces states to act a certain way b. Underlying assumption: you can't change the structure of the international system, so adapt c. Two options: defensive (balancing) or offensive (power maximizing) d. Game theoretic approaches, covering laws from statistical analysis 23 Chapter 7: Liberal Internationalism 7.1 Introduction Liberal democracies dominate, however liberal values and institutions have made viewer inroads into global governance → The essence of Liberalism is self-restraint, moderation, compromise and peace, whereas the essence of international politics is exactly the opposite: troubled peace or the state of war. - Realists argue: there is no progress, no law and no justice where there is no common power. - WW1 triggered the teaching of international politics, but the concern to prevent future destruction on a global scale was a priority for a large coalition of committed internationalists that sought to build a new international and empirical order. Despite the increased visibility of and coordination among the rising powers (e.g. BRIC's), there is no evidence that they believe themselves to have a special responsibility for managing world order in a manner paralleling the role played by the US after 1945. Liberal internationalism is inadequate in many respects, yet at the same time internationalists thinking remains indispensable as a way of mediating between different values and forms of life 7.2 Founding ideas of the 19th century liberal internationalism - Early liberal internationalist thought on international relations took the view that the natural order had been corrupted by secret treaties and outdated policies such as the balance of power - Enlightenment liberals believed that the problem of war could be solved through the development of a body of international rules and laws constraining the self-interest of states. - They believed that trade and other cross-border flows would further facilitate more peaceful international relations - Kant argued that a 'perpetual peace' could be achieved through the transformation of consciousness, republican constitutionalism, and a federal contract among states to abolish war 7.3 Internationalism and institutionalism: peace through law 7.4 The challenges confronting liberal internationalism - Some observers argue that the internationalist principles that have been a feature of the liberal order since 1945 are in crisis - Arguments in support: 1. The relative power of the US is diminishing and hence its capacity to deal with global risks is also reducing 2. Rising powers want a greater share of authority 3. The hope that the EU can emerge as a second superpower a. Could strengthen international rules and values (proven wrong) i. Brexit 24  - Alongside those who lament the inability of the state and global institutions to deliver a liberal peace are more critical voices who point out how structural patterns of hierarchy persists - These patterns are actively reproduced by security and development doctrines and policies - Result: liberal international order remains conveniently favorable to the most powerful states in the system 7.5 Conclusion: Incomplete, but indispensable, internationalism - The pattern of conflict and insecurity present at the beginning of the 21st century suggests that liberal internationalism remains at best an incomplete project - At worst, internationalism continues to be imbued with an imperial impulse in which new schemes for governing the world reproduce patterns of dominance and dependence established during the era of empires - Internationalists should demand that international institutions be more effective and insist that: a. Decisions are better when they are being made democratically b. Good governance requires transparency and fairness c. Rights are irrelevant unless responsibilities are take seriously d. Economic and social justice is critical to peaceful change on a global scale 25 Chapter 9: Realism 9.1 Introduction - Realist focus on power-seeking behavior and the constant uncertainty of foreign politics - A rational theory of foreign policy which aims to explain the world as it is not as they wish it to be - Relies on national interests rather than ideology, sought peace through strength, and accepted pluralism in the international domain - Embraced statism → highlighting the role of states over other actors in international relations, such as international organizations, individuals or corporations - Alternative view which places power at the core of international politics (E.H Carr and H. Morgenthau) 9.2 Fundamental ideas Realists argue that human nature and the lack of international government impose constraints on international relations resulting in a primary emphasis on power and self interest 1. Human nature → Human nature as essentially selfish, thus politics are conditioned by the egoistic passions of human nature - Does not reject morality or the duty to act morally, however in international politics, political leader need a different type of morality → Reason of state: judged by its consequences for the state's survival, rather than ethical consideration - Acknowledge competing conceptions of morality and conclude that human egoism and the lack of international sovereign imply that the international real is dominated by concerns of power and interest 2. Statism States are the main actors in international relations with its fundamental trait: Sovereignty → the state has supreme authority to make and enforce laws within its territorial space. - Sovereign states can guarantee domestic order by setting up a system of law and enforcement, but argues that there is no sovereign authority to establish such system in the international domain - State's primary aim is guarantee survival and security - When states resort to power accumulation for defensive aims, they may inadvertently appear as a threat to other states - These unintended dynamics can lead to a decrease in international security and war 3. Power → fundamental characteristic of the international system, international conflict is always possible. It is exercised in interaction with other entities and measured in comparison with them. Strength of states is measure according to: - Size of population and territory - Resource endowment - Economic capability - Military strength - Political stability and competence 26  4. Anarchy Claim that international affairs take place in a state of anarchy → the absence of political authority above states in the international system. The interaction of states in world politics, each striving to accumulate power to guarantee its survival. Under international anarchy, states compete for power, economic profit, security and influence - one states gain is another's loss - Main instrument for states to guarantee power + security: The principle of the balance of power 5. Survival States adopt revisionist goals that seek to transform the balance of power through aggressive expansion - States act to maximize power beyond what is necessary for their survival 6. Self-help The belief that each state is responsible for its own security and survival, as other states cannot be trusted, and international organizations are too weak 9.3 Realism in historical perspective Realist approaches to international politics have a long history, with scholars in diverse intellectual traditions advancing a view of politics as motivated by power and self-interest. - Many ancient and early modern thinkers held a pessimistic view of human nature, where self-interest, fear, and ambition inevitably lead to conflict. - Realism as an approach in academic IR emerged in Britain and the United States in response to the atrocities of the world wars, and many of its leading proponents claimed to be part of a longer tradition that included these earlier thinkers. - Classical realists typically perceive power struggle between states as an important factor in shaping international relations. 9.4 Geopolitics → The study of physical space and its relationship to international relations, was a central part of realist thought in the twentieth century. - American geopolitical scholars drew on German thinkers to conceptualize foreign policy in terms of the relations between political power and geographical conditions. - Geopolitical thinkers advanced racist arguments as part of their geographical studies, aiming to sustain British, German, and American policies of imperial conquest. - While some geopolitical thinkers saw geographic conditions as permanent and stable, emphasized the dynamic and radical potential of geopolitical analysis. - Some showed the gendered aspects of geopolitics, offering a feminist alternative. 9.5 Multiple realisms? Realism can be seen as a family of views, sharing key ideas but differing in the emphasis on, and interpretation of, these ideas. - Unlike classical realists who focused on human nature as the cause of international conflict, neorealists point to the anarchical structure of the international system as the major determinant of great power war - - Defensive neorealists argue that international anarchy pushes states to secure a balance of power, which sometimes demands internal state reforms. 27  - Others argue that states’ self-interest drives them to maximize their power and seek hegemony as the only means to security. 9.6 Conclusion 1. Emphasis on the inevitably of conflict and the eternal pursuit of power 2. Despite its relativity, realist thinkers have claimed a longer legacy for this approach that places state power, anarchy and self interest at the heart of political behavior 3. Pessimistic view on human nature, conflict, power, statism, survival and self help 28  Lecture 5 What happened after the end of history? - 9/11: People who genuinely didn’t want American liberalism - Response: - Liberating Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) → endless wars - Draining American resolve, funds & legitimacy - Other great powers (Russia, China) fighting their own ‘terrorists’ while the US was occupied - Trump: return of nationalism & realism - Russia sensed loss of America → invasion of Ukraine - China used fatigue of liberal crusading to build alternative world order - Europe: internal problem - US lost its shine with 2020 election - Democracy globally under threat Solution: return to realist policies The Necessary defeat of Liberalism - Liberalism inherently hegemonic - Universal principles/human rights - Genuine concern for other people’s wellbeing 1. Democratic peace theory: spread democracy 2. Interdependence theory: spread globalization 3. Institutionalism: spread (liberal) institutions - Because it is hegemonic, other states will balance against the liberal hegemon - Non liberal regimes want to survive too - Hegemonic power spend on the wrong targets: - Liberalizing irrelevant autocracies - Balancing powers harness their power where it matters/ build coalitions - Result: super-power war 29 Chapter 12: Poststructuralism 12.1 Introduction Postructuralism brings critical perspective to the study of world politics in 2 respects: 1. Are critical of the way that most states conduct their foreign policies 2. How most IR theories tell us to study what states do - Disagree with realism - the state is a particular way of understanding political community. There is no objective yardstick that we can use to define threats, danger, enemies and underdevelopment. We need to investigate how constructions of the world and the people and places in it, make policies seem natural and therefore legitimate. 12.2 Studying the social world - Realists: the self-help state is the essential unit in international relations and that its drive for power/security makes it impossible to move beyond the risk of war - Liberalists: states can build a more cooperative and peaceful international system - Poststructuralists: strive to find the causal relations that 'rule' the world politics (rather than the state - realists and liberalists), working with dependent and independent variable - The social world is so far removed from the hard sciences where causal epistemologies originate that we cannot understand WP through cause- effect relationships. - What counts as facts depends on the ontological (what is the world) and epistemological (how can we know what is in the world) assumptions a theory makes. 12.3 Poststructuralism as a political philosophy 4 concepts: 1. Discourse → Linguistic system that orders statements and concepts Language is social, because we cannot make our thoughts understandable to other without a set of shared codes 2. Deconstruction → Language is made up of dichotomies. Each term is superior to another To see language as a set of codes means that words make sense only in correlation to other words. 3. Genealogy → a history of the present Aim: to draw attention to politics that are involved in making history look a certain way. Asks which political practices have formed the present and which alternative understandings and discourses have been marginalized and forgotten - Intertextuality → holds that we can see world politics as made up of texts, and that all texts refer to other texts yet each is unique 30 12.4 Deconstructing state sovereignty - State sovereignty is a practice that constitutes identity and authority in a particular manner - Postconstructuralists deconstruct the distinction between the national and the international by showing that the two can stabilize each other and depend on a long series of other dichotomies - The global is not a political category like the state, and therefore cannot replace it - Postconstructuralists warn against the danger of universalist discourse because it is always defined from a particular position of power 12.5 Identity and foreign policy - In keeping with poststructuralism’s non-foundationalist ontology, there are no natural or objective identities, only those that are produced in discourse - The terms ‘subjectivities’ or ‘subject positions’ underscore the fact that identity is not something that someone objectively has, but rather a position that one is constructed as having - The relationship between identity and foreign policy is performative and mutually constitutive. - Poststructuralism asks ‘who are the subjects and how can they speak?’ and ‘what subjects are prevented from speaking?’ 12.6 Conclusion - Strength: drawing your attention to the fact that actors, entities and things that we assume are given actually depend on how we construct them 31 Chapter 13: Social Constructivism 13.1 Introduction Realists + liberalist → states have enduring interests such as power and wealth and are constrained in their ability to further those interests because of material forces Constructivists → norms and rules also influence states' identities and interests - Direct focus on how identity, norms and culture shape patterns of war and peace - Emphasizing structure and others agency, some stability and others transformation 3 features of global change: 1. The convergence by states towards similar ways of organizing domestic and international life a. How norms become internationalized and institutionalized 2. Influencing what states and non state actors do and their conceptualizations of legitimate behavior 3. Whether these underlying norms and changes maintain relations of inequality or reflect new possibilities of progress 13.2 The rise of constructivism Constructivism → an approach to IP that focuses on the centrality of ideas and human consciousness. It stresses holistic and idealist views of structures, and considers how structures construct actors' identities and interests, how their interaction is organized and constrained by structions and how this interaction serves to either reproduce/transform those structures. Neorealism: - States are the primary actors in the world - they exist in a condition of anarchy - States must be consumed by security, power and survival - There is and should not be patience for ethics or norms - The balance of power tells us just about everything we need to know about patterns in WP - States cooperate extensively in order to further their interests, which extend beyond security - Primary obstacle of cooperation is the absence of trust Individualism: → The view that actors have fixed interests and that the structure constraints their behavior Neorealists vs neoliberalists Realists: Security is the primary goal Neoliberalists: Envision other goals such as wealth Both: state interests are hard wired and hard to change The end of the cold war caused states to debate what the national interest is and how it relates to national identity. - Importance of security raised - National, human rights, transnationalism Unable to be explained by neorealists and neoliberal institutionalists and so a new branch was formed → constructivism: - Identity and norms shape state interests - Legitimacy and world order - Importance of transnationalism 32 13.3 Constructivism Constructivism is a social theory - Social theory - How to conceptualize the relationship between agents and structures. Offers specific claims and hypotheses about patterns in the world Constructivism is best compared with rational choice - Rational choice - understanding how actors attempt to maximize fixed preferences under a set of constraints Constructivism us about human consciousness and its role in international life - Commitment to idealism and holism 1. Idealism - demands we take the roles of ideas in world politics seriously. The world is defined by material and ideational forces 2. Holism - The world is irreducibly social and cannot be decomposed into the properties of already existing actors Social construction of reality 1. Emphasis on the socially constructed nature of actors and their identities and interest a. Actors are produced and created by their cultural environment; nurture not nature 2. Knowledge shapes how individuals construct and interpret their worlds a. Reality is not out there waiting to be discovered b. Historically produced and culturally bound knowledge enables individuals to construct and give meaning to reality c. Human agreement is necessary to create social facts Rules and norms Rules 1. Regulative rules → Regulate already existing activities 2. Consecutive rules → Create the very possibility for these activities The rules of sovereignty not only regulate state practices but also make the very idea of a sovereign state possible Norms 1. Constitutive norms → Shape states as actors, the identity of states and what counts as legitimate behavior 2. Normative norms → Imprint how state and non-state actors understand themselves and the world Their beliefs, their practices, sense of right and wrong and their notions of legitimacy Social construction denaturalizes and excavates what is taken for granted, and considers the alternative pathways that might have prodyces/can produce, alternative worlds. Power is not only the ability of one actor to get another actor to do what they would not do otherwise, but also the production of identities, interests, and meanings that shape the ability of actors or control their fate. 13.4 Constructivism and global change Main idea: Global transformation Delves into the origins of sovereignty, non-interference and the responsibility to protect. 33 The internationalization and institutionalization of norms is associated with reduced diversity and greater homogeneity. - The recognition that the world is socially constructed means that constructivists can investigate global change and transformation Diffusion is a key issue in any study of global change, captured by the concerns with institutional isomorphism and the life cycle of norms 1. Institutional isomorphism → observes that organizations that share the same environment will, over time, resemble each other II and the internationalization of norms raise issues of growing homogeneity in world politics. However homogeneity does not mean calm or a world without conflict 2. Life cycle of norms 3 stages 1. Norm emerge/norm entrepreneur Interested in introducing/calling attention to change, many norm entrepreneurs work from NGOs and IOs 2. Norm cascade The norm spreads through the rest of the population Combination of pressure for conformity, desire to enhance international legitimation and the desire of state leaders to enhance their self-esteem 3. Norm internalization When norms acquire a taken-for-granted quality and are no longer a matter of debate. Thus automatically honored Keep in mind the following: 1. There is no inevitably either to the life cycle or diffusion 2. The same norms can become transmuted and take on different meanings as they are adopted in different contexts 3. Just because states look alike does not mean that they act alike 4. Even the norms that seem quire established can become contested, resisted and replaced 5. Power is always present in any normative order Although diffusion sometimes occurs because of the view that a given model is superior, frequently actors adopt a model either because of external pressures of because its symbolic legitimacy Power is always embedded in norms and is always present in normative orders 13.5 Conclusion - Constructivists have tended to be interested in the relationship between the underlying normative structure and patterns of international order - An emphasis on order as produced not through domination but rather through consensus around fundamental values and norms - Neglects the idea that power ripples throughout the normative order, and how states and non state actors will compete (sometimes violently) to redefine international society's fundamental norms and the boundaries of communities 34 Wendt 1992 - Core argument: Both realism and liberalism are two sides of the same coin (rationalist), taking identities and interest of states as given in IR - But identities and interests are formed through interaction - Neorealism is dead wrong in its core assumption: Anarchy not ultimate cause of action, but what states make of it - Realism is only true because we make it true Self help anarchy Anarchy → There is no overall power, chaos 1. Nature of anarchy Anarchy is what states make of it 2. Identity and interest Rational and construction of state identity and interests. 35  Lecture 6 Poststructuralism - Theory is constitutive of reality: objects cet their meaning from the way people talk about them - E.g. refugees vs irregular migrants - Asking different questions - Main objective: critique and exposing hidden workings of power Constructivism vs poststructuralism Constructivism Poststructuralism Studies ideas Studies language Still accepts positivism/explanatory theory Rejects positivism Objective: Deeper understanding of what drives Objective: Critique on power and domination state behavior Optimistic about progress More pessimistic 36 Chapter 8: Marxist Theories of International Relations 8.1 Introduction The problems of capitalism have stayed - The deepening crisis that humanity's relationship with the natural world raises fundamental questions about the sustainability of our current patterns of production and consumptions 8.2 The essential elements of Marxist theories of world politics 1. The social world should be analyzed as a totality - None can be understood without the knowledge of the others 2. The materialist conception of history - Processes of historical change are ultimately a reflection of the economic development of society - Tension between the means of production and relations of production - Economics is the base of society - Developments in the economic base act as a catalyst for the broader transformation of society as a whole - Change in economic base ultimately leads to change in the legal and political superstructure 3. Class Harmony of interest between various social groups - Ultimate aim: To assist in a process of human emancipation 8.3 Marx internationalized: From imperialism to world systems theory 3 tier structure has developed: Core Semi-periphery Periphery - Democratic - Authoritarian - Non-democratic government governments governments - High wages - Import: - Import: - Import: - Raw materials - Manufactures - Raw materials - Manufactures - Export: - Export: - Export: - Raw materials - Manufactures - Raw materials - Below subsistence - High investment - Low wage wages - Welfare service - Los welfare service - No welfare services a. Due to the economic reliance of the core on the raw material production of the periphery, the rich get richer and poor stay poor i. They are all linked together in an exploitative relationship in which wealth is drained away from the periphery to the core b. Development of less industrialized countries are directly dependent on the more advanced capitalist societies c. The semi-periphery plays a vital role in stabilizing the political structure of the world system 37 8.4 Gramscianism "Why has it proven to be so difficult to promote revolution in Western Europe?" Marx had predicted a transition from capitalism to socialism. 1. Antonio Gramsci - Importance of hegemony - Concept of hegemony → Leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others - Coercion/fear of coercion kept the exploited and alienated majority in society from rising up and overthrowing the system that was the cause of their suffering - Hegemony: Allows the moral, political and cultural values of the dominant group to become widely dispersed throughout society and to be accepted by subordinate groups and classes as their own → Through the institutions of Civil society: The network of institutions and practices that enjoy some autonomy from the state, and through which groups and individuals organize, represent and express themselves to each other and to the state 2. Robert W Cox - The analysis of world order Critique of prevailing theories of international relations and international political economy, and the development of an alternative framework for the analysis of world politics - "Theory is always for someone and for some purpose" - Knowledge cannot be objective and timeless - Critical theory → aims to challenge the prevailing order by seeking out, analyzing and social processes that can potentially lead to emancipatory change 8.5 Critical Theory Focuses on questions concerning international society, ethics and security Critical theory vs Marxism - Not focussed on further development of analysis of the economic base of society - Instead: culture, bureaucracy, social basis, nature of authoritarianism, structures of family and exploring concepts such as rationality and theories of knowledge - Dubious to potential for emancipatory transformation through the core - Instead: through rise of mass culture - Different meaning of emancipation - Marxism: Process of humanity gaining ever greater mastery over nature through the development of ever more technology and the use for the benefit of all - Critical theory: More concerned about the communication than with our relationship with the natural world - Route to emancipation lies through radical democracy 8.6 New Marxism → Direct re-engagement with and reappropriation of the concepts and categories developed by Marx 38 Chapter 11: Post Colonial and Decolonial Approaches 11.1 Introduction - Postcolonial and decolonial approaches to politics are seen as a form of Critical theory - Special attention paid to history, ideas and practice of decolonization around the world - Decolonization → formal colonial and imperial withdrawal from colonizing countries - Result: increase in number of unrecognized states - Involved: mobilization of many people, development of intellectual critiques of empire and struggles against imperial rule 11.2 What are postcolonial and decolonial approaches? Thinking about the world rather than a single theory as of how the world works 3 Levels of engagement: 1. Epistemology How do we think about the world? - This is established by colonial attitudes and the perspective of the colonially/racially privileged - Epistemological habits, deeply rooted in the racialized and supremacist assumption - Emphasis on knowing the world from different perspectives and worldviews of those who are disempowered/dispossessed by imperial and racial hierarchies Post colonial vs decolonial approaches 2. Ontological What do we study? What is social science and who is being studied - Histories that are used and the cases paid attention to miss the experiences of most of the world's peoples and politics located outside the west - Decolonial approach: Modernity/coloniality - modern world is fundamentally structured by colonial hierarchy - Colonialism and imperialism are crucial ontological foundations to understand world politics 3. Normative What are our ethical/normative responsibilities? - Understand the attitudes, practices, and structures supporting Western supremacy in the world as unequal, racist and dehumanizing - Argue there are strong moral obligations on the West to make reparations for the effects they have had Post colonial vs decolonial approaches - Post colonial: Focus on importance of subaltern perspectives as a site for think through relations of power - Decolonial: Focus on retrieving indigenous epistemologies and cosmologies with which to think about relations among humans, and often non-humans 11.3 Where did postcolonial and decolonial ideas come from? → inspired by the history and practice of decolonization 39 Common roots: - Shared understanding of the history of Western empires - Common patterns of practices a. Politically Forced formal recognition of imperial rule in the area e.g. through declaring loyalty to the monarch b. Economically Forced labor - Imported enslaved people to work for imperial markets c. Culturally Promoted/imposed their own languages, laws, religions d. Socially Racial hierarchies, tribal divisions, gender norms in order to divide and manage them - Resistance to imperialism and colonialism took place at many historical moments, but picked up organizational and political movement in the early 20th century due to improved infrastructures and mobility as well as the growth of anti-colonial ideas 11.4 What are the main ideas undermining postcolonial and decolonial thought? 1. Colonialism as a system of (total) violence - Works on physical, economic and political level - Also expands to psychological, social and cultural destruction through racism and cultural/linguistic imperialism - Fundamental negation of the humanity and rights 2. Neo-colonialism as an economic and political structure → the essence is that the State which is subject to it is in theory independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. - Former french colonies still have french military troops in the country - Neo colonialism = key driver of violence and economic impoverishment in newly independent countries 3. Orientalism and Otherness as models of representation Orientalists → scholars who studied Eastern cultures, religions and languages in Western U universities A way of imagining and representing the world in ways that justified and supported imperialism. - Depicting Europeans as rational, strong, enlightened, and liberal vs non- Europeans as barbaric, effeminate, weak, dangerous and irrational Others. 4. Eurocentrism as an intellectual habit/practice Eurocentrism → Widespread tendency to treat Europe as the primary subject and reference point for world history, civilization, and or humanity - Generally entails the ignoring of histories, cultures and knowledge originating from outside Europe in the discussion of world affairs 5. Subaltern as the social position of the colonized 40  → Reflects how power was exercised not just through violence but also through culture and ideology in society. - Subaltern groups are not well represented 6. Modernity/coloniality as overarching historical/philosophical structure Modernity/coloniality → Hierarchical structure that empowers people and ideas seen as 'modern over those seen as 'nonmodern' - Rooted deeply in the conceptions of man and knowledge that underpin European philosophy - Its own ways of thinking, erasing and exploiting others through forms of modern power 7. "Border thinking"as a way to think decoloniality → Thinking with the perspectives of people who are marginalized, undervalued, or excluded by the ideals of modernity - Resonates strongly with longer established historical practices of resistance to colonial ideas of systems on rule 8. Decolonization as practices to overturn colonialism and coloniality → The processes of gaining political independence in the framework of national self-determination - To the psychological and intellectual struggle against colonialism through the retrieval of indigenous agency, language, and spirituality - Principle meaning in terms of regaining territorial sovereignty is being diluted and therefore its political potential is being neutralized or co-opted 11.5 Postcolonial and decolonial approaches to studying world politics - Du Bois: Main cause for war between European states was competition for control of colonies and imperial possessions, and this was driven by racial discrimination and a sense of white superiority - Identity linked to the emerge of capitalism and democracy 1. International relations theory 2. Alternative takes on mainstream issues Postcolonial and decolonial scholarship has challenged mainstream IR theory in terms of its fundamental categories and assumptions, developed alternative readings of particular issue-areas such as war and security, and paid attention to the political thought of (formerly) colonized people as a basis for analyzing global order. As such, it offers many alternative perspectives from which to view central problems in the field. 3. Retrieving the (formerly) colonized as subjects of IR 41 11.6 Decolonization: The struggle continues? - Post colonial and decolonial approaches have remained popular despite the achievement of political independence, the fall in popularity and stature of anti-colonial leaders, and the rise of non-western powers such as the BRIC's - Post colonial and decolonial approaches seek to explain many features of the contemporary world order through a consideration of relations of imperialism and colonialism, which they see as persisting in global institutions, international trade, identities in the West, arms control and other issues. - Increasingly, decolonization struggles have turned against non-western governments for their continuation of, or complicity with, forms of colonial development, such as in the struggles over land in Brazil and education in South Africa - There is ongoing political struggles which link their objectives to the overturning of empirical and colonial hierarchies, particularly where these related to the unequal and violent treatment of people who are racialized as non white in both international and domestic contexts 11.7 Conclusion - Post colonial and decolonial research sought to bring a more globally comprehensive perspective of the foundations of world order - Will see how geopolitical shifts in power between the west and east affect the behavior of the states and other international actors 42  QARQ 1 "Frantz Fanon argued that, as a system, colonialism represents a totalizing form of violence." Chapter 11 The quote, "For postcolonial and decolonial approaches, then, colonialism and imperialism are crucial ontological foundations for understanding world politics," summarizes a fundamental principle in postcolonial theory. This perspective argues that the historical legacy of colonialism and imperialism shapes our current global political landscape. Ontological foundations refer to the basic assumptions about the nature of reality that influence our understanding of the world. (Baylis et al., 2023) Postcolonial theorists claim that the power dynamics, economic structures, and cultural hierarchies established during colonial periods continue to impact international relations today. This perspective is essential as it challenges traditional Western-centric interpretations of global politics. It also highlights how colonial pasts continue to impact power disparities, economic inequality, and cross-cultural conflicts around the world today. The essential claim is that a critical analysis of these historical power structures and their continuing presence in international relations is essential to a complete understanding of world politics. Postcolonial theory examines how historical empires influence current global power structures and economic hierarchies. The impacts of colonial exploitation and racism remain deeply embedded within the structures and institutions that govern international relations today. 43  Lecture 7 1. Marxism - Base vs superstructure Changes in reactions of production ( → class struggle) - Landed aristocracy vs capitalist bourgeoisie vs working class - Internationally: Core vs periphery - Imperialism allows bourgeoisie to buy off class conflict in western states a. Hegemony → Leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others Ruling class does not only oppress the proletariat, but also gets their consent as well, by getting them to accept its norms and values b. World system theory (Wallerstein) - Basis in dependency theory: the global South are dependent on the global North for economic growth - South exports raw materials, imports manufactured goods - Declining terms of trade: manufactured goods ever more expensive compared to raw materials c. Neorealism and Marxism Similarities Differences (M vs Nr) - Both structural accounts for IR - 2 level structure vs anarchy - Both stress desires for - Focus on economy vs focus on hegemony security - Both offer 1 single overriding - Global elites (classes) vs states explanation for international - Structure constantly reproduced politics vs structure is given - Both are rationalist approaches 2. Post- and decolonial approaches Post colonialism and decoloniality i. Post colonialism → studies the continued influence of the experience of colonization on decolonialized states and people - Way of thinking about the world, rather than a theory ii. Decoloniality → studies efforts of indigenous populations to take back control of the state from (westernized) elites a. Ontology: - World is fundamentally structured by colonial hierarchy - European ‘sovereign states’ were colonial empires. Westphalian system did not apply outside of europe 44  - Experiences of ‘the majority of the world population’ systematically neglected in IR, as is the issue of race and racism - Eurocentrism as continuous problem b. Epistemology - Non western ways of knowing - Subaltern perspectives offer a radically different view of what is going on in international politics - Knowledge is never neutral; how is western knowledge/terminology used to oppress the Global South? c. Normativity - Against Western supremacy - For reparations - For equal (economic) opportunities for countries in the Global south (system biased against them) - Overall goal: emancipation - Political, economic and cultural/philosophical 45 Chapter 10: Feminism 10.1 Introduction → The only theory that consistently prioritize the study of women and/or engage in significant debates over the meaning of gender 10.2 What is feminism → Fundamentally rooted in an analysis of the global subordination of women - economically, politically, physically and socially - and is dedicated to its elimination - Promotes equality and justice for all women - Analysis of power and its effects - "Feminism is the political theory and practice that struggles to free all women" Women suffer global subordination because we now know that neither states nor households distribute resources and opportunities equally between men and women Without the work of feminism and feminist movements this will stay the same. 10.3 What is feminist international relations today? - Both deconstructive and reconstructive - Before 1980's, IR theories did not consider the role of gender or women - Feminism introduces the study of this and prompted a critical analysis of the existing discipline and its fundamental consents. - e.g. states and power, as defined by realism, liberalism and their derivatives - Gender includes both men and women - Conceptualize the state as a gendered organization of power 10.4 Gender and power Gender becomes the social interpretation of sex differences, and power rests in the practices, identities and institutions that interpret and fix those differences 10.5 Four Feminist International Relations theories 1. Liberal feminism → Advocate that the rights and representation conventionally granted to men be extended to women a. Focus on changing institutions b. Highlight the need to change laws to allow for women's participation - Gender inequality is a major barrier to human development and leads to greater incidences of war and violence 2. Critical feminism → Pay particular attention to the unequal diffusion of global capital accumulation 2 distinct systems: 1. Patriarchy Male domination 2. Mode of production and class relations Identify gender and class oppression as interdependent and intertwined (just as in marxism) - Double burden for women 46  - Gender essentialism → The assumption of the sameness of all women's experiences by virtue of being female 3. Postcolonial feminism → Seeks to situate historical knowledge of colonialism and post colonialism as intersecting with economic, social and political oppression and change. Highlighting the centrality of conceptions of gender and of women to colonial regimes and their continuing effects. 4. Post structural feminism 47 Chapter 17: Gender 17.1 Introduction - Besides feminists, there is also other scholars who adopt a gender focus. - There are norms of gender at everyone's work - Could cause disparities between men and women 17.2 Sex and gender in international perspective Sex: a. Men and women have some different physical characteristics and so it is easy to think of this in any other setting b. Sex is the expression and contestation of our gender that establishes our recognized personhood Gender: a. The social institutionalization of sexual difference b. Understanding gender means analyzing how masculinity and femininity are socially constructed and experienced c. Norms and practices of gender result in reward, priviledge, celebration and comfort, or shame, rejection, exclusion etc. i. Society is organized in relation to and stratified by gender ii. It determines our responsibilities as citizens d. Redressing injustice is needed to think of combined harms and their intersectionality e. Gender matters because the masculine/feminine categorization is key to the operation of political power, but it is at the same time a distinction traversed by other hierarchies 17.3 Global gender relations - Gender studies is not the same as feminism - Are closely related historically and conceptually - Gender is relational - Meanings of masculinity and femininity are not fixed, but established in interaction and contrast with each other - Gender is multiple - Various possible ways of being masculine or feminine - Gender changes over time - Partly due to political struggles over what it means and w