Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology Objectives.pdf

Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology Objectives 1. Define the terms anatomy and physiology, and explain how anatomy and physiology are interdependent. Anatomy is the study of body structures and relies on examination of those structures. Physiology is the study of the functions of body parts...

Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology Objectives 1. Define the terms anatomy and physiology, and explain how anatomy and physiology are interdependent. Anatomy is the study of body structures and relies on examination of those structures. Physiology is the study of the functions of body parts, and relies more on experimentation. Anatomy and physiology are interdependent because if we alter any of the levels we interfere with its physiology. The way it is built influences what it can do. Body parts are shaped and arranged (anatomy) in such a way that they are able to perform their functions. The arrangement of bones and muscles in the hand allow grasping. 2. Explain the levels of organization and list them in ascending and descending order. Atoms - Smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that element Molecules - Particle composed of two or more joined atoms Macromolecules - Vary large molecules, such as a protein, starch, or nucleic acid Cell - Structural and functional unit of an organism Tissue - Assembled group of similar cells that performs a specialized function Organ - Structure consisting of two or more tissues with a specialized function Organ system - Group of organs coordinated to carry on a specialized function Organisms - An individual living thing Larger structures are composed of smaller and smaller components. For example, the body consists of sever systems (cardiovascular system). The system consists of organs such as heart and blood vessels. The heart is composed of tissue (muscle tissue), tissue consists of layers of cells (muscle cells). Cells are composed of organelles which consist of molecules and finally atoms. 3. Explain the concept of core themes in anatomy and physiology. The core themes include key concepts common to the body and all the different systems Cell - All living things consist of cells. Anatomy and physiology is understanding what conditions keep cells alive and well. Internal Environment - Environment within the body in which the cells live. Each cell is bounded by the cell membrane with the interior containing the intracellular fluid and the outside is extracellular fluid. The environment outside of the body may vary but human cells can survive only if the internal environment is relatively constant. Even though the extracellular fluid is outside each cell’s membrane, it is called the internal environment because it is inside the body. Homeostasis - Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. The body is a community of cells in which different cells perform different functions, almost all geared toward maintaining homeostasis. Interdependency of cells - Different cells contribute to homeostasis in a different way, so cells depend on one another. If some cells aren’t able to function, other cells and even the entire organism may suffer o The loss of cells from a heart attack places an additional workload on remaining heart cells. Structure and Function - Structure and function are interrelated. An understanding of structure illuminates' function and vice versa Underlying mechanisms and processes foundations of understanding Gradients and Permeability  - Substances move between cells and throughout the body in several ways. Because a cell membrane bounds each cell, membrane permeability (what it allows in and out) is important. Cellular Differentiation - Different cell types, such as muscle cells and nerve cells, access the information encoded in different genes to make specific proteins, the proteins that any cell makes determine that cell’s function. Cell Membrane Mechanisms - Cell membrane determines which substances can enter and which cannot. It allows cells to respond to certain signals, but to ignore other signals Cell-To-Cell Communication - In order for cells to work they need to communicate with each other. This occurs through the cell membrane and specialized molecules on the membrane called membrane receptors Feedback Loops - Cells must signal each other when the internal environment has been compromised so that adjustments can be made in order to maintain homeostasis. When the compromise has been corrected the cells must signal that the adjustments are no longer necessary. Feeback loups can be negative or positive depending on what they control Balance - To maintain internal environment constant the body must replace substances that are lost and remove substances that are in excess. Energy Process - All processes involve some form of energy. 4. Define homeostasis as it relates to humans, including what constitutes the internal environment, and describe how the components of a homeostatic mechanism work together.  Homeostasis is the body’s ability to keep its internal conditions stable, this is important so that our cells can survive. The internal environment is made of interstitial fluid found on the inside and the extracellular fluid found on the outside. Homeostatic Mechanism is made of three components: Receptors, Control Center, Effectors. - Receptors pick up on levels of stimulus and provide information about the stimulus in the internal environment. They communicate with the control center about the stimulus - Control center is the decision-maker and knows what the levels should be at. The control center triggers the effectors to help bring the internal environment back to normal. - Effectors take action and cause appropriate responses, these can be muscles or glands. 5. Describe the general concept of negative feedback and its role in the maintenance of homeostasis. Negative Feedback operates to reverse a trend. It brings the level back to normal. For example, a house has a furnace and air conditioner. If the thermostat is set for the temperature in the room to remain near 68 degrees F it will signal the furnace to start and the air conditioner to stop of the room temperature drops below 68 degrees. If the temperature rises above 68 degrees, the thermostat will stop the furnace and start the air conditioner. 6. Compare and contrast negative feedback mechanisms with positive feedback mechanisms. Positive and negative feedback are different because in positive feedback the change is not reversed but intensified and the effector activity is increased rather than turned off like in negative feedback. Positive feedback enhances the stimulus while negative feedback reverses the original stimulus Positive and negative feedback are similar because they both help maintain homeostasis. Example of positive feedback is childbirth, in childbirth the reflex send signal to uterus, the uterus increases the strength of contractions, contractions push the baby towards the cervix, cervix stretches, stretch receptors sense increased stretch. 7. Describe the location of the following body cavities of the axial portion of the body, and list some representative organs that would be found in each cavity: dorsal cavity, ventral cavity, cranial cavity, vertebral canal, thoracic cavity, and abdominopelvic cavity. (Note: not all references recognize the dorsal cavity, but we will recognize it in this class for organizational purposes. The ventral cavity is an embryonic structure; dorsal cavity is not.) Axial Portion: head and the trunk - Dorsal cavity - Ventral cavity Dorsal Cavity: side with backbone (spinal cord, brain) - Cranial cavity - Vertebral Canal Ventral Cavity: belly side (lungs, stomach, reproductive organs) - Thoracic Cavity - Abdominopelvic cavity Cranial Cavity: space within the skull that houses brain and brainstem Vertebral Cavity: houses the spinal cord Thoracic Cavity: heart, lungs, esophagus Abdominopelvic Cavity: liver, kidneys, stomach 8. Identify the membranes associated with the ventral cavity. Parietal membranes: line body cavities Visceral membranes: cover organs Pleural membranes: thoracic cavity Peritoneal membranes: abdominopelvic cavity 9. Define anatomical position and properly use terms describing relative body positions. Anatomical position - standing erect - facing forward - upper limbs at sides - palms forward Superior: closer to the top of the head Inferior: further from the top of the head Anterior: closer to the front of body (ventral side) Posterior: closer to the back of body (dorsal side) Superficial: closer to surface (when referring to the same layer of tissue) Deep: further from the surface (when referring to the same layer of tissue) Medial: closer to the midline Lateral: further from the midline Distal: further from point of attachment (only for appendages) Proximal: closer to point of attachment (only for appendages) Bilateral: same object on bother sides of body (eyes, lungs) Ipsilateral: same side of body Contralateral: opposite sides of body 10. Describe the planes and sections of the body. Midsagittal: divides body in left and right halves Transverse: divides body into superior and inferior Frontal or Coronal: divides body into anterior and posterior sections Parasagittal: divides body into unequal left and right sections 11. Properly use terms describing how cylindrical parts may be cut. Cross section: cutting across the structure Oblique Section: angular cut Longitudinal Section: lengthwise cut 12. Use proper terminology to identify body regions. (Note: much of the terminology for body regions will be a focus of laboratory but you must be able to use the terminology in both lecture and laboratory.)