INTERNET RESEARCH.pdf

What is a Network? Wednesday, March 24, 2021 6:17 PM A network consists of two or more Workstations are called such because they computers that are linked in order to share typically do have a human user which SUMMARY resources (such as printers...

What is a Network? Wednesday, March 24, 2021 6:17 PM A network consists of two or more Workstations are called such because they computers that are linked in order to share typically do have a human user which SUMMARY resources (such as printers and CDs), interacts with the network through them. exchange files, or allow electronic Workstations were traditionally communications. The computers on a considered a desktop, consisting of a A network consists of linked computers to share resources, exchange files, and facilitate communication, using cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light. network may be linked through cables, computer, keyboard, display, and mouse, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or or a laptop, with with integrated keyboard, Workstations: Typically used by humans, they include desktops, laptops, and increasingly infrared light beams. display, and touchpad. With the advent of tablets. They interact with network services and may require specialized displays. the tablet computer, and the touch screen Two very common types of devices such as iPad and iPhone, our Servers: More powerful than workstations, they provide services like printing, software networks include: definition of workstation is quickly hosting, and data storage. They usually operate without direct human interaction and are Local Area Network (LAN) evolving to include those devices, because often located in secure areas. Wide Area Network (WAN) of their ability to interact with the network and utilize network services. Network Types: Local Area Network (LAN): Limited to a small area (e.g., a building). You may also see references to a Servers tend to be more powerful than Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers larger geographic areas. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN), a workstations, although configurations are Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Intermediate size. Wireless LAN (WLAN), or a Wireless guided by needs. For example, a group of Wireless LAN (WLAN) and Wireless WAN (WWAN): Use wireless connections. WAN (WWAN). servers might be located in a secure area, away from humans, and only accessed Connection Methods: LANs connect computers and servers via cables or wireless access Local Area Network through the network. In such cases, it points (WAPs). Servers are typically wired for speed, while workstations may be either wired or wireless, depending on the setup. A Local Area Network (LAN) is a would be common for the servers to network that is confined to a relatively operate without a dedicated display or small area. It is generally limited to a keyboard. However, the size and speed of geographic area such as a writing lab, the server's processor(s), hard drive, and school, or building. main memory might add dramatically to the cost of the system. On the other hand, Computers connected to a network are a workstation might not need as much broadly categorized as servers or storage or working memory, but might workstations. Servers are generally not require an expensive display to used by humans directly, but rather run accommodate the needs of its user. Every continuously to provide "services" to the computer on a network should be other computers (and their human users) appropriately configured for its use. on the network. Services provided can include printing and faxing, software On a single LAN, computers and hosting, file storage and sharing, servers may be connected by cables or messaging, data storage and retrieval, wirelessly. Wireless access to a wired complete access control (security) for network is made possible by wireless the network's resources, and many access points (WAPs). These WAP others. devices provide a bridge between computers and networks. A typical WAP might have the theoretical capacity to connect hundreds or even thousands of wireless users to a network, although practical capacity might be far less. Nearly always servers will be connected by cables to the network, because the Information storing and sharing. cable connections remain the fastest. Computers allow users to create and manipulate information. WANs (Wide Area Networks) connect local and metropolitan networks to global networks like the Workstations which are stationary Internet using multiplexers, bridges, and routers. Despite their complexity, they often function similarly Information takes on a life of its own (desktops) are also usually connected by a to LANs (Local Area Networks) for users. on a network. The network provides cable to the network, although the cost of wireless adapters has dropped to the point both a place to store the information Advantages of Installing a School Network and mechanisms to share that 1. User Access Control: Centralized management of user credentials (e.g., usernames and that, when installing workstations in an information with other network passwords) enhances security by restricting sensitive information to authorized users. existing facility with inadequate wiring, it users. 2. Information Storing and Sharing: Networks facilitate the storage and sharing of information can be easier and less expensive to use Connections. among users, making it easier to collaborate and access data. wireless for a desktop. Administrators, instructors, and 3. Connections: Administrators, instructors, students, and guests can connect through the campus even students and guests can be network, fostering communication and collaboration. See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware connected using the campus 4. Services: Schools can provide essential services like registration, directories, course schedules, sections of this tutorial for more network. research access, and email accounts through network servers. information on the configuration of a Services. 5. Internet Access: Networks enable students and staff to access the Internet via a designated LAN. The school can provide services, gateway. such as registration, school 6. Computing Resources: Schools can offer access to specialized computing devices (e.g., high- Wide Area Network directories, course schedules, quality printers) that individual users may not have. access to research, and email 7. Flexible Access: Students can work on assignments from different locations within the school, Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect accounts, and many others. saving their work on the network for later access. networks in larger geographic areas, such as (Remember, network services are 8. Workgroup Computing: Collaborative software allows multiple users to work on projects Florida, the United States, or the world. generally provided by servers). simultaneously, enhancing group efforts across different locations. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite Internet. The school can provide network Disadvantages of Installing a School Network uplinks may be used to connect this type of 1. Expensive Installation: Setting up a network can be costly due to expenses for cabling, equipment, users with access to the internet, via global network. and installation services. However, simpler networks can be set up quickly and affordably. an internet gateway. Using a WAN, schools in Florida can Computing resources. 2. Requires Administrative Time: Maintaining a network demands significant time and expertise, communicate with places like Tokyo in a The school can provide access to often exceeding initial budget allocations for administrative support. matter of seconds, without paying enormous special purpose computing devices 3. Server Failures: If a network server fails, it can halt operations for all users. Redundancy in which individual users would not network design is advisable to mitigate this risk. phone bills. Two users a half-world apart with normally own. For example, a 4. Cable Breaks: Depending on the cable topology, a single broken cable can disrupt the entire workstations equipped with microphones and a network. Proper design can minimize such issues. school network might have high- webcams might teleconference in real time. A speed high quality printers 5. Security and Compliance: Network security is critical, especially for schools that handle sensitive WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers, strategically located around a personal information. Compliance with security requirements can be complex and costly. bridges, and routers to connect local and campus for instructor or student metropolitan networks to global use. communications networks like the Internet. To Flexible Access. ADVANTAGES DISADVANATGES users, however, a WAN will not appear to be School networks allow students to access their UAS EI information from connected devices throughout ISS RAT much different than a LAN. C SF the school. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access S CB Advantages of Installing a School area of the network, then go to the media center I SC Network after school to finish their work. Students can CR FA also work cooperatively through the network. User access control. WC Workgroup Computing. Modern networks almost always have one or Collaborative software allows many more servers which allows centralized users to work on a document or management for users and for network project concurrently. For example, resources to which they have access. User educators located at various credentials on a privately-owned and operated schools within a county could network may be as simple as a user name and simultaneously contribute their password, but with ever-increasing attention to ideas about new curriculum computing security issues, these servers are standards to the same document, critical to ensuring that sensitive information is spreadsheets, or website. only available to authorized users. Disadvantages of Installing a School Network Expensive to Install. Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags. Cabling, network cards, routers, bridges, firewalls, wireless access points, and software can get expensive, and the installation would certainly require the services of technicians. But, with the ease of setup of home networks, a simple network with internet access can be setup for a small campus in an afternoon. Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support. Servers Fail. Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the files server "goes down" the entire network may come to a halt. Good network design practices say that critical network services (provided by servers) should be redundant on the network whenever possible. Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the entire network. Security and compliance. Network security is expensive. It is also very important. A school network would possibly be subject to more stringent security requirements than a similarly-sized corporate network, because of its likelihood of storing personal and confidential information of network users, the danger of which can be compounded if any network users are minors. A great deal of attention must be paid to network services to ensure all network content is appropriate for the network community it serves.  What is the Internet? Wednesday, March 24, 2021 6:17 PM The Internet is a vast network that connects computers all over the world. Through the Who controls the Internet? Internet, people can share information and While the Internet is theoretically communicate from anywhere with an decentralized and thus controlled by no Internet connection. single entity, many argue that tech The Internet is a global network connecting computers, enabling companies such as Amazon, Facebook, and Google represent a small communication and information sharing. Key figures in its development Who Who invented the Internet? concentration of organizations that have include Robert W. Taylor, who contributed to ARPANET, and Vinton Cerf and unprecedented influence over the Robert Kahn, who developed TCP/IP protocols. The Internet consists of technologies information and money on the Internet. In developed by different individuals and some countries, certain parts of the organizations. Important figures include Internet are blocked via censorship. Robert W. Taylor, who led the The Internet functions through a series of interconnected networks accessed development of the ARPANET (an early via Internet service providers, with mobile broadband and Wi-Fi enabling prototype of the Internet), and Vinton Cerf Origin and development wireless connectivity. However, it also presents risks, including spam, malware, and Robert Kahn, who developed the Early networks cyberbullying, and privacy violations. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) technologies. The first computer networks were dedicated special-purpose systems such as SABRE (an The Dark Web is a hidden segment of the Internet that requires specific tools airline reservation system) and AUTODIN I (a to access, often used for illegal activities, political dissent, and whistleblowing. How does the Internet work? defense command-and-control system), both designed and implemented in the late 1950s The Internet works through a series of and early 1960s. networks that connect devices around the While the Internet is decentralized, major tech companies like Amazon, world through telephone lines. Users are By the early 1960s computer manufacturers provided access to the Internet by Internet Facebook, and Google hold significant influence over information and had begun to use semiconductor technology in commerce online, with some regions implementing censorship. service providers. The widespread use of commercial products, and both conventional mobile broadband and Wi-Fi in the 21st batch-processing and time-sharing systems century has allowed this connection to be were in place in many large, technologically wireless. advanced companies. Its origins date back to the late 1950s, with early networks like SABRE and is the Internet dangerous? AUTODIN I. The introduction of time-sharing systems allowed multiple users to Time-sharing systems allowed a access computing resources, paving the way for networked interactions The advent of the Internet has brought into computer’s resources to be shared in existence new forms of exploitation, such rapid succession with multiple users, as spam e-mail and malware, and harmful cycling through the queue of users so social behaviour, such as cyberbullying and quickly that the computer appeared doxxing. Many companies collect extensive dedicated to each user’s tasks despite information from users, which some deem a the existence of many others accessing violation of privacy. the system “simultaneously.” Th is led to the notion of sharing computer Dark Web resources (called host computers or The Dark Web refers to a series of Web sites simply hosts) over an entire network. that require special decryption and configuration Host-to-host interactions were tools to access. It is most commonly used for envisioned, along with access to purposes that require strict anonymity, including specialized resources (such as illegal sales (e.g., of weapons and drugs), supercomputers and mass storage political dissent in countries with heavy systems) and interactive access by censorship, and whistleblowing. remote users to the computational powers of time-sharing systems located elsewhere. These ideas were first realized in ARPANET, which established the first host-to-host network connection on October 29, 1969. It was created by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPANET, established on October 29, 1969, by the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), was the first host-to-host network ARPANET was one of the first general-purpose computer networks. It connected time- connection and one of the earliest general-purpose computer networks. It connected sharing computers at government-supported research sites, principally universities in the United States, and it soon became a critical piece of infrastructure for the time-sharing computers at government-supported research sites, mainly universities, computer science research community in the United States. becoming essential for the computer science research community in the U.S. Tools and applications—such as the simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP, commonly referred to as e-mail), for sending short messages, and the file transfer protocol (FTP), for longer transmissions—quickly emerged. In order to achieve cost-effective To facilitate effective communication, tools like Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for interactive communications between computers, which typically communicate in short email and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for larger files were developed. ARPANET utilized bursts of data, ARPANET employed the new technology of packet switching. packet switching technology, which divides large messages into smaller packets that travel independently over available circuits. This method allows for more efficient use of Packet switching takes large messages (or chunks of computer data) and breaks network resources compared to traditional voice communication, which requires them into smaller, manageable pieces (known as packets) that can travel dedicated circuits between users. Once the packets reach their destination, they are independently over any available circuit to the target destination, where the pieces are reassembled. Thus, unlike traditional voice communications, packet switching does reassembled into the original message. not require a single dedicated circuit between each pair of users. References: Internet | Description, History, Uses, & Facts | Britannica  E_commerce Wednesday, March 24, 2021 6:17 PM E-commerce, short for electronic Inventory Management: Effective inventory commerce, refers to the buying and selling management and order fulfillment are crucial E-commerce, or electronic commerce, involves buying and selling goods and services online and is of goods and services over the internet. It in e-commerce. Many businesses use a rapidly growing sector of the global economy. Key components include: has become a significant and rapidly software and logistics systems to streamline growing sector of the global economy. E- these processes. 1. Online Retail: Businesses can set up online stores to sell directly to consumers, with commerce encompasses a wide range of platforms like Amazon and eBay simplifying the shopping experience. online activities, from online shopping and 2. Business-to-Business (B2B): E-commerce also facilitates transactions between businesses, digital payments to online auctions and Customer Reviews and Ratings: Online covering wholesale purchasing and supply chain management. internet banking. shoppers often rely on product reviews and 3. Digital Payments: Secure payment methods, such as credit cards and digital wallets (e.g., Here are some key aspects and components of e- ratings provided by other customers to make PayPal, Stripe), are essential for transactions. commerce: informed purchase decisions. 4. Marketplaces: Platforms like eBay and Alibaba connect multiple sellers with buyers, offering a wide variety of products. 5. Mobile Commerce (M-commerce): With the rise of smartphones, many transactions now Online Retail: E-commerce allows businesses to set Security and Trust: Security is a major occur through mobile apps and optimized websites. up online stores where they can sell products directly concern in e-commerce, with businesses 6. Digital Marketing: E-commerce businesses use strategies like SEO, pay-per-click advertising, to consumers. Major e-commerce platforms include implementing encryption and other security measures to protect customer information and and social media marketing to attract customers. Amazon, eBay, and Shopify. Online retail has made it 7. Inventory Management: Effective management and fulfillment systems are crucial for easy for consumers to shop for a wide variety of transactions. Building trust is essential for e- commerce success. maintaining stock and processing orders. products from the comfort of their homes. 8. Customer Reviews and Ratings: Shoppers often rely on feedback from other customers to inform their purchase decisions. Business-to-Business (B2B): In addition to serving Global Reach: E-commerce has made it 9. Security and Trust: Protecting customer data through encryption and security measures is consumers, e-commerce also facilitates transactions possible for businesses to reach customers vital for building trust. between businesses. This includes wholesale around the world. Cross-border e-commerce 10. Global Reach: E-commerce allows businesses to access international markets and expand purchasing, supply chain management, and allows for international trade and expansion their customer base. procurement processes conducted online. opportunities. 11. Customer Support: Online businesses provide support through various channels to assist with inquiries and issues. Customer Support: Online businesses often 12. Analytics and Data: Collecting and analyzing customer data helps optimize operations and Digital Payments: E-commerce relies on secure understand consumer behavior. payment methods. This includes credit card provide customer support through various payments, digital wallets, and various online payment channels, such as chatbots, email, and phone E-commerce has transformed shopping and business practices, offering convenience and a wide gateways like PayPal and Stripe. support, to assist with inquiries, issues, and range of options while also presenting challenges like security and competition. As technology returns. evolves, e-commerce is expected to remain integral to the global economy. Marketplaces: Online marketplaces connect multiple sellers with a wide range of buyers, providing a Analytics and Data: E-commerce businesses platform for a variety of products and services. Some collect and analyze data to understand well-known marketplaces include eBay, Amazon customer behavior and optimize their Marketplace, and Alibaba. operations. Mobile Commerce (M-commerce): With the E-commerce has revolutionized the way proliferation of smartphones, a significant portion of e- people shop and do business, offering commerce now takes place through mobile apps and convenience, accessibility, and a wide range mobile-optimized websites. of options. It has also brought about new challenges, such as addressing security concerns and competition in the online Digital Marketing: E-commerce businesses often marketplace. As technology continues to rely on digital marketing strategies to attract and evolve, e-commerce is expected to remain a retain customers. This includes search engine fundamental part of the global economy. optimization (SEO), pay-per-click advertising, email marketing, and social media marketing. Email services Wednesday, March 24, 2021 6:17 PM Email services, also known as email Spam Filtering: Email services often provide providers or email hosting services, spam filters to automatically detect and move are online platforms that allow users unwanted or suspicious emails to a separate Email services, or email providers, are online platforms that enable users to send, receive, and manage to send, receive, and manage spam folder. electronic messages (emails). They are essential for personal and business communication and come electronic messages, commonly with various features: referred to as emails. These services are essential for both personal and Contacts: Users can create and manage their business communication and have 1. Email Addresses: Users are provided unique email addresses (e.g., [email protected]) for contact lists, making it easier to address evolved over the years to offer various emails to known recipients. sending and receiving emails. features and options. Here are some 2. Inbox: Incoming emails are organized in an inbox, sorted by date, sender, and subject for easy key aspects of email services: management. Search Functionality: Email services typically 3. Compose and Send: Users can create new emails, attach files, and address them to one or more include a search feature, allowing users to find recipients. Email Addresses: Email services specific emails by entering keywords or 4. Folders or Labels: Many services allow users to organize emails into folders or categories for provide users with email addresses, phrases. better organization. which are unique identifiers used for 5. Spam Filtering: Automated spam filters help detect and sort unwanted emails into a separate sending and receiving emails. These folder. addresses typically follow the format Calendar Integration: Some email services, 6. Contacts: Users can manage contact lists for quicker addressing of emails. [email protected], where "user" is such as Gmail, integrate with calendar the recipient's username, and 7. Search Functionality: A search feature enables users to find specific emails using keywords or applications, allowing users to schedule events phrases. "example.com" is the domain and appointments. associated with the email service. 8. Calendar Integration: Some email services integrate with calendars, allowing users to schedule events directly from their inbox. 9. Attachments: Users can send and receive various file types, including documents and images, as Attachments: Users can send and receive Inbox: Users have an inbox where email attachments. attachments with their emails, such as they receive incoming emails. Emails documents, images, and videos. 10. Customization: Users can often customize settings, such as signatures and auto-responders. are sorted by date, sender, and 11. Security: Email services implement security measures, including encryption and two-factor subject, making it easy to manage authentication, to protect user data. and find messages. 12. Storage: Each user is allocated storage space, with options to upgrade if needed. Customization: Users can often customize their email settings, including signatures, 13. Mobile Access: Most services offer mobile apps for accessing emails on smartphones and tablets. vacation auto-responders, and email 14. Syncing: Many services support syncing across devices to keep emails and settings consistent. Compose and Send: Users can forwarding. compose new emails, addressing Popular email services include Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo Mail, and Apple Mail, with business options like them to one or more recipients. They Microsoft Exchange and Google Workspace. The choice of email service depends on individual or can also attach files, such as documents or images, to their business needs, focusing on features, storage, security, and integration with productivity tools. Security: Email services implement security messages. measures to protect user data and prevent unauthorized access. This includes encryption, two-factor authentication (2FA), Folders or Labels: Many email and spam and malware filtering. services offer the ability to organize emails into folders, labels, or categories. This helps users keep their inbox organized and find specific emails more easily. Storage: Email services offer a certain amount of storage space for each user. Users may need to upgrade or pay for additional storage if they exceed their allotted space. Mobile Access: Most email services have mobile apps that allow users to access their email accounts on smartphones and tablets. Syncing: Many email services support syncing across devices, ensuring that emails, folders, and settings are consistent across multiple platforms. Some popular email services as of my last knowledge update in September 2021 include Gmail by Google, Outlook by Microsoft, Yahoo Mail, and Apple Mail. Business users may also use services like Microsoft Exchange, G Suite (now part of Google Workspace), or custom email hosting solutions provided by web hosting companies. The choice of email service depends on individual or business needs, including features, storage capacity, security, and integration with other productivity tools. Research and Development (R&D) Wednesday, March 24, 2021 6:17 PM Research and Development (R&D) is Applied Research: Applied research a critical process within takes the findings from basic organizations, industries, and research and applies them to Research and Development (R&D) is a vital process in organizations, industries, and academic academic institutions that involves practical, real-world problems and institutions focused on systematic investigation and innovation to create or improve the systematic investigation, solutions. This stage is often more products, services, and technologies. Here are the key aspects: experimentation, and innovation industry-specific and goal-oriented. 1. Definition of Objectives: R&D projects start with clear goals, such as developing new aimed at creating new products, products, enhancing existing ones, or solving technical challenges. services, technologies, or improving 2. Basic Research: This fundamental research expands scientific knowledge without Product Development: In many existing ones. R&D plays a central immediate commercial applications, forming the basis for applied research. industries, R&D involves the 3. Applied Research: Builds on basic research to address practical problems, often tailored role in driving innovation, development of new products or the to industry needs. competitiveness, and growth in enhancement of existing ones. This 4. Product Development: Involves creating new products or refining existing ones through various fields, including science, prototyping, testing, and feedback. can involve designing prototypes, technology, business, and 5. Process Improvement: Focuses on enhancing operational efficiency and sustainability, conducting testing, and refining particularly in manufacturing. healthcare. Here are key aspects and products based on feedback and 6. Innovation: A key outcome of R&D, leading to new ideas and technologies that provide components of research and data. competitive advantages and create new markets. development: 7. Technology Transfer: Successful R&D facilitates the transfer of knowledge and technology to practical applications through partnerships, licensing, or startups. Process Improvement: R&D can 8. Funding and Resources: R&D requires financial investment, human capital, and access to Definition of Objectives: R&D specialized facilities. Both public and private sectors contribute to funding. also focus on improving operational projects begin with clear and well- 9. Intellectual Property: Organizations protect their innovations through patents, processes, making them more defined objectives. These objectives copyrights, and trade secrets to maintain exclusivity. efficient, cost-effective, and 10. Regulatory Compliance: R&D in fields like pharmaceuticals and aerospace must adhere to can be related to developing new sustainable. This is particularly strict regulatory standards. products, improving existing ones, 11. Global Collaboration: R&D often involves international partnerships, bringing together important in manufacturing and enhancing processes, solving researchers from various countries. production industries. technical problems, or advancing 12. Measuring Success: Success is assessed through marketable products, revenue growth, scientific knowledge. cost savings, and contributions to scientific knowledge. 13. Risk and Uncertainty: R&D is inherently risky, involving experimentation and the Innovation: Innovation is a key possibility of failure. Effective risk management is essential. Basic Research: Basic research, also outcome of R&D. It involves the R&D drives economic growth and technological advancement, playing a crucial role in sectors known as fundamental research, development of new ideas, like technology, pharmaceuticals, and energy. Organizations invest heavily in R&D to stay focuses on expanding scientific technologies, or approaches that competitive and address global challenges such as climate change and healthcare. understanding and knowledge can lead to competitive without immediate commercial advantages, market leadership, DO applications. It often forms the basis and the creation of entirely new BR for applied research and markets. AR PD development activities. PI I TT FR IP RC GC MS RU Technology Transfer: Successful R&D Global Collaboration: R&D can often leads to the transfer of technology involve collaboration on an and knowledge from the research phase international scale, with to practical applications in the researchers and organizations marketplace. This can involve from different countries working partnerships, licensing, or the creation together to achieve common of new startups. goals. Funding and Resources: R&D activities Measuring Success: Success in require financial investment, human R&D is measured in various ways, resources, and access to specialized including the development of equipment and facilities. Both public marketable products, increased and private sectors fund R&D, and revenue, cost savings, improved universities and research institutions processes, and contributions to often play a significant role. scientific knowledge. Intellectual Property: Organizations R&D is a vital driver of economic often protect their R&D efforts through growth and technological intellectual property rights, such as advancement. It's especially patents, copyrights, and trade secrets. important in industries like These protect the exclusivity of their technology, pharmaceuticals, innovations. energy, and manufacturing, but its principles are applicable to a wide range of fields. Public and Regulatory Compliance: In certain private organizations invest industries, R&D activities must adhere heavily in R&D to remain to strict regulatory standards and competitive and to address guidelines, especially in fields like global challenges such as climate pharmaceuticals, healthcare, and change, healthcare, and aerospace. information technology. Risk and Uncertainty: R&D is inherently risky, as there are no guaranteed outcomes. It often involves experimentation and iteration, and some projects may fail. Risk management is an essential aspect of R&D.