Introduction to Maritime Studies PDF

 Table of Content 1. GEOGRAPHY 1 1.1 Overview of the Oceans 1 1.2 Main Maritime Shipping Routes and Chokepoints 3 1.3 Current 4 1.4 Su...

 Table of Content 1. GEOGRAPHY 1 1.1 Overview of the Oceans 1 1.2 Main Maritime Shipping Routes and Chokepoints 3 1.3 Current 4 1.4 Sun and Wind 5 1.5 Gravity and Earth’s Rotation 6 1.6 Swirling Gyres 6 1.7 Deep Currents 6 1.8 Waves 7 1.9 Anatomy of a wave 8 1.10 Tides 9 1.11 What causes tides 9 1.12 Maps and Projections 10 1.13 Benefits of Ocean Economies 11 2. TYPES OF SHIPS 12 2.1 What is a Ship 12 2.2 Types of Ships 12 2.2.1 Bulk Carrier Ships 14 2.2.2 Container Ships 15 2.2.3 Dredgers 16 2.2.4 Fishing Vessels 17 2.2.5 Gas Carriers 18 2.2.6 High-speed Craft 19 2.2.7 Naval Ships 20 2.2.8 Offshore Ships 21 2.2.9 Passengers Ships 22 2.2.10 Roll-on Roll-off Ships 23 2.2.11 Livestock Carriers 24 2.2.12 Heavy life Ships 25 2.2.13 Tanker Ships 26 2.2.14 Tugs 27 2.2.15 Canoe 28 2.2.16 Yacht 29 2.2.17 Hovercraft 30 2.2.18 Submarine 31 2.2.19 Sailboat 32 2.2.20 Barge 33 2.2.21 Corvette Ship 34 2.2.22 Reefer 35 2.2.23 Frigate 36 2.2.24 Panamax Ship 37 3. SHIP’S TERMINOLOGY 38 4. PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF A SHIP 42 5. IMO – INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION 44 5.1 SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea 44 5.2 MARPOL – Marine Pollution 45 5.3 STCW – Standard of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping 47 5.4 MLC – Maritime Labour Convention 48 6. STCW CERTIFICATES 49 6.1 Certificate paths 50 6.1.1 The traditional method 50 6.1.2 The alternative method 50 6.1.3 General requirements for Officers 51 6.1.4 Revalidation requirements for Officers 51 6.1.5 Officers serving on Ships registered under a foreign flag 52 6.1.6 Going for the next higher Certificate 52 6.1.7 Officers’ duties on joining any Ship 52 6.1.8 Basic safety training for Officers 52 6.1.9 New requirements of the amended 2010 STCW 52 7. CERTIFICATES & REQUIREMENTS BY RANK FOR ENGINEERS 53 7.1 Chief Engineer 53 7.2 Second Engineer 54 7.3 Officer in Charge of an engineering watch 55 7.4 Electro-technical Officer 56 8. CERTIFICATES & REQUIREMENTS BY RANK FOR DECK OFFICERS 57 8.1 Master 57 8.2 Chief Mate 58 8.3 Officer in Charge of a Navigational watch 59 9. SHIP’S CERTIFICATION 62 9.1 Regulations 62 9.2 Documents 62 9.3 Laws 62 9.4 Classification Societies 63 10. MARITME ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS & GOV. AGENCIES 68 11. NAVIGATION AND ENGINEERING EQUIPMENTS 71 11.1 Bridge Equipments 71 11.2 Engine Room Equipments 72 11.3 Basic Crane Hand Signals 73 12. UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF SHIPS IN GLOBAL TRADE 73 12.1 Containerized trade networks 73 12.2 Maritime Services in Container Shipping 74 12.3 Maritime Services in the General Cargo Market 76 12.4 Maritime Services in the Roll-on/ roll-off market 76 13. SHIPBOARD AND THE ISM CODE 77 13.1 A look at the Annex to IMO Assembly Resolution A.741(18) – 1993 78 14. SAFETY OF WATER-TIGHT DOORS AND HATCHES 84 14.1 Watertight Doors 84 14.2 Hatches 85 RERERENCES 87 ENDORSEMENTS  This new book “Introduction to Maritime Studies” for ECP students covers the basic needs for aspiring Marine Engineers and Navigation students alike. I have had the pleasure of working with Dr. Kabeya during my days lecturing the S3 and S4s at CPUT from 2020 to 2023 and his knowledge and vast experience gives a complementary view of the needs for all ECP students. Chief Engineer, Henny Boel – Transnet, CPUT  The new Book “Introduction to Maritime Studies” by Dr. Kabeya, is simply Excellent, well-structured and impressive Chief Engineer, Xolani Khosa – SAMSA, Maersk, AMSOL  Copyright & Disclaimer Book title: Introduction to Maritime for Engineering and Navigation Cadets – The Basics Author: Dr. Alain Kabeya @ 2024 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Any unauthorized reprint or use of this material is prohibited. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system without express written permission from the author / publisher. Whilst all information contained in this book is believed to be correct at the time of going to press, the author cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions. The primary objective of this book is purely for learning purposes and to cover the basics of the maritime industry for students aspiring to steer towards either Marine Engineering or Nautical Science on the Extended Curriculum Programme (ECP) at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT). Most of the information contained in this book have been gathered from various media sources, library as well as from the list of references at the end of this book.  1. GEOGRAPHY Geographers have divided the ocean into five major basins: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern. Smaller ocean regions such as the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and the Bay of Bengal are called seas, gulfs, and bays 1.1 Overview of the Oceans Let’s begin by looking at a few basic facts about the oceans. We often think of Earth in terms of its land area, but in reality 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, while only 29% is land. Oceans cover an area of 139 million miles2 or 361 million km2, and contain a volume of about 1.37 billion km3 of water. All of this water is not distributed equally over the Earth; 61% of the Northern Hemisphere is covered by oceans, while in the Southern Hemisphere the oceans cover 81% of the surface area (Figure 1.1.1). Fig.1 Ocean cover in the Northern (left) and Southern (right) Hemispheres Various sources differ in the number of recognized ocean basins. Historically the major oceans were recognized as the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic Oceans. More recently, the Southern Ocean has been recognized as fifth named ocean, comprising all of the water from the coast of Antarctica to 60o S (Fig 2). In 2000 these boundaries were submitted to the International Hydrographic Organization for official recognition, but several countries do not recognize it as a separate ocean, but rather as the southern extension of the other major oceans. The Southern Ocean has its own unique characteristics, so for the purposes of this book we will include it as a separate ocean. 1|Page Fig.2 Map of the world oceans The oceans account for vast amounts of water, containing 97% of the water on Earth’s surface, with over half of the water in the Pacific alone Table 1 Percentage of Earth’s water in various locations The average depth of the world ocean is about 3800m (12,500 ft), which is about four times deeper than the average land elevation is high (840m or 2800 ft). In fact Mt. Everest, the highest point on land, is 8848m (29,028 ft) high, while the deepest part of the ocean, the Challenger Deep of the Marianas Trench is approximately 10,920m (36,200 ft) deep. So you could submerge Mt. Everest in the Marianas Trench and it would still be covered by over 2 km of water! Because there is so much more water on Earth than there is land, if you could smooth out the land elevation the entire Earth would still be covered by water about 2700 m deep. 2|Page Of the major ocean basins, the Pacific is the largest (almost as large as all of the others combined), and is the deepest (Table 2) Table 2 Area and Depths of Major Oceans 1.2 Main Maritime Shipping Routes and Chokepoints Fig. 3: Main Maritime Routes There are potentially an infinite number of maritime shipping routes that can be used for maritime shipping, but the configuration of the global maritime shipping system is relatively simple. The central axis is a circum-equatorial corridor linking North America, Europe, and Pacific Asia through the Suez Canal, the Strait of Malacca, and the Panama Canal. These routes support the bulk of the traffic, but numerous other routes exist (namely for coastal shipping), depending on the origin and destination of the maritime shipment. Transatlantic and transpacific traffic concerns a wide variety of ports, so there are numerous routes, most of them having a path along the great circle. Trans-Indian ocean traffic is predominantly intermediary between Pacific Asia and Europe, implying 3|Page  a series of clearly defined routes between the Strait of Malacca and Bab el-Mandeb (often misspelled as Bal al-Mandab). Maritime routes are shaped by obligatory points of passage, which are strategic locations that act as chokepoints. Physical constraints (coasts, winds, marine currents, depth, reefs, ice) and political borders also play an essential role in shaping maritime routes. As a result, maritime routes try to follow the great circle distance. Core routes are those supporting the most important commercial shipping flows servicing major markets, and secondary routes are mostly connectors between smaller markets. Due to geography, geopolitics, and trade flows, specific locations play a strategic role in the global maritime network. They are labeled as chokepoints and can be classified into two main categories:  Primary chokepoints. The most important is that they offer limited cost-effective maritime shipping alternatives, which would seriously impair global trade if disrupted. The first type of chokepoints concerns connectors along major oceans and seas. Among those are the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, and the Strait of Malacca, which are key locations in the global trade of goods and commodities. The closure of these bottlenecks would force the diversion of maritime traffic over long distances with the associated loss of time and capacity. The Suez Canal blockage of 2021 is such an example. The Suez Canal is also highly dependent on the access granted to the Red Sea by the Strait of Bab el- Manded. A second type of chokepoint concerns those connecting to maritime deadends with substantial resource and commercial potential, such as the Strait of Hormuz, which grants access to the Persian Gulf, and the Strait of Bosporus, which grants access to the Black Sea. The Strait of Oresund is also particularly important as it is the only access to the Baltic and Russia’s main ports. The closure of these bottlenecks would force the use of alternative overland routes that are unlikely to have the capacity to handle the volumes.  Secondary chokepoints. Support maritime routes that have alternatives but would still involve a notable detour. These include the Magellan Passage, the Dover Strait, the Sunda Strait, and the Taiwan Strait. Not depicted are the chokepoints granting access to major river systems having commercial navigation with a single point of access to the ocean. The most salient chokepoints are the Yangtse, the Rhine, the Mississippi, the Danube, and the St. Lawrence. 1.3 Current A large movement of water in one general direction is a current. Currents can be temporary or long-lasting. They can be near the surface or in the deep ocean. The strongest currents shape Earth’s global climate patterns (and even local weather conditions) by moving heat around the world. 4|Page Fig 4: Surface Current At the surface, currents are mainly driven by four factors—wind, the Sun’s radiation, gravity, and Earth’s rotation. All of these factors are interconnected. The Sun’s radiation creates prevailing wind patterns, which push ocean water to bunch in hills and valleys. Gravity pulls the water away from hills and toward valleys and Earth’s rotation steers the moving water. 1.4 Sun and Wind Wind is a major force in propelling water across the globe in surface currents. When air moves across the ocean’s surface, it pulls the top layers of water with it through friction, the force of resistance between two touching materials moving over one another. Surface ocean currents are driven by consistent wind patterns that persist throughout time over the entire globe, such as the jet stream. These wind patterns (convection cells) are created by radiation from the Sun beating down on Earth and generating heat. The Sun’s radiation is strongest at the equator and dissipates the closer you get to the poles. This uneven distribution of heat causes air to move. The hot air over the equator 5|Page rises and moves away from the equator. Likewise, cold air from the poles sinks and moves towards the equator. The clashing of hot air originating at the equator and cold air originating at the poles creates regions of high atmospheric pressure and low atmospheric pressure along specific latitude lines. It would make intuitive sense that the hot air and cool air would meet in the middle of the equator and the North or South pole, however, in reality it is much more complicated. A combination of Earth’s rotation, the fact that Earth is tilted on an axis, and the placement of most continents in the Northern Hemisphere, create pressure systems that divide each hemisphere into three distinct wind patterns or circulation cells. 1.5 Gravity and Earth's Rotation Wind pushes water into hills of high pressure which leave behind valleys of low pressure. Since water is a liquid that prefers to stay at a level height, this creates an unstable situation. Following the pull of gravity, ocean water moves from the built-up areas of high pressure down to the valleys of low pressure. But as the water moves from hills to valleys, it does so in a curved trajectory, not a straight line. This curving is a result of Earth’s spin on its axis. On Earth, movement in a straight line over long distances is harder than it may seem. That’s because Earth is constantly rotating, meaning every object on its surface is moving at the speed at which the Earth is spinning on its axis. From our perspective, stationary objects are just that, unmoving. In reality, they are whipping around at a speed of roughly 1,000 miles per hour (1600 km/hr) at Earth’s equator. It is that whipping, rotating motion that influences the movement of any object not in direct contact with the planet’s surface, making straight appearing trajectories actually bend. It also influences the movement of ocean currents. Scientists refer to this bending as the Coriolis Effect. 1.6 Swirling Gyres Earth’s rotation is also responsible for the circular motion of ocean currents. There are 5 major gyres—expansive currents that span entire oceans—on Earth. There are gyres in the Northern Atlantic, the Southern Atlantic, the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. Similar to surface waters, Northern gyres spin clockwise (to the right) while gyres in the south spin counterclockwise (to the left). The center of the gyres are relatively calm areas of the ocean. The Sargasso Sea, known for its vast expanses of floating Sargassum seaweed, exists in the North Atlantic gyre and is the only sea without land boundaries. Today, gyres are also areas where marine plastic and debris congregate. The most famous one is known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, but all five gyres are centers of plastic accumulation. 1.7 Deep Currents The ocean is connected by a massive circulatory current deep underwater. This planetary current pattern, called the global conveyor belt, slowly moves water around the world—taking 1,000 years to make a complete circuit. It is driven by changes in water 6|Page temperature and salinity, a characteristic that has scientists refer to the current as an example of thermohaline circulation.. Fig 5: Deep current Both heat and salt contribute to the ocean water’s density. Saltier and colder water is heavier and denser than less salty (or fresher), warmer water. Around the globe there are areas where the heat and saltiness of ocean water (and therefore, its density) change. The most important of these areas is in the North Atlantic. 1.8 Waves Sculpting seawater into crested shapes, waves move energy from one area to another. Waves located on the ocean’s surface are commonly caused by wind transferring its energy to the water, and big waves, or swells, can travel over long distances. Fig. 6: Waves 7|Page When waves crash onshore they can make a significant impact to the landscape by shifting entire islands of sand and carving out rocky coastlines. Storm waves can even move boulders the size of cars above the high tide line, leaving a massive boulder hundreds of feet inland. 1.9 Anatomy of a wave Waves on the ocean surface are usually formed by wind. When wind blows, it transfers the energy through friction. The faster the wind, the longer it blows, or the farther it can blow uninterrupted, the bigger the waves. Therefore, a wave's size depends on wind speed, wind duration, and the area over which the wind is blowing (the fetch). This variability leads to waves of all shapes and sizes. The smallest categories of waves are ripples, growing less than one foot (.3 m) high. The largest waves occur where there are big expanses of open water that wind can affect. Places famous for big waves include Waimea Bay in Hawaii, Jaws in Maui, Mavericks in California, Mullaghmore Head in Ireland, and Teahupoo in Tahiti. These large wave sites attract surfers, although occasionally, waves get just too big to surf. Some of the biggest waves are generated by storms like hurricanes. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan created waves that averaged around 60 feet (18 meters) high and the largest were almost 100 feet (30.5 meters) high. In 2019, hurricane Dorian also created a wave over 100 feet high in the northern Atlantic. Fig. 7 Anatomy of a wave 8|Page 1.10 Tides Tides are actually waves, the biggest waves on the planet, and they cause the sea to rise and fall along the shore around the world. Tides exist thanks to the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, but vary depending on where the Moon and Sun are in relation to the ocean as Earth rotates on its axis. The Moon, being so much closer to Earth, has more power to pull the tides than the Sun and therefore is the primary force creating the tides. 1.11 What Causes The Tides? The Moon’s gravitational pull causes water to bulge on both the side of Earth closest to the Moon and on the opposite side of the planet. The Moon’s gravity has a stronger pull on the side of Earth that is closest to it, which makes the ocean bulge on that side, while on the opposite side of the planet the centrifugal force created by the Moon and Earth orbiting around one another pulls the ocean water out. Centrifugal force is the same force that smooshes riders to the outside walls of spinning carnival rides. Fig 8: Tides Meanwhile, Earth continues to spin. As Earth rotates, the water bulges stay in line with the Moon while the planet’s surface moves underneath it. A specific point on the planet will pass through both of the bulges and both of the valleys. When a specific place is in the location of a bulge it experiences a high tide. When a specific place is in the location of a valley it experiences a low tide. During one planetary rotation (or one day) a specific location will pass through both bulges and both valleys, and this is why we have two high tides and two low tides in a day. But, while Earth takes 24 hours to complete one rotation, it must then rotate an additional and 50 minutes to catch up with the orbiting Moon. This is why the time of high tide and the time of low tide change slightly every day. The Sun also has a part to play in causing the tides, and its location in relation to the Moon alters the strength of the pull on the ocean. When the Sun and Moon are in line with one another they reinforce each other’s gravitational pulls and create larger-than-normal tides called spring tides. This happens when the Moon is either on the same side of Earth as the Sun or directly on the opposite side of Earth. Smaller-than-usual tidal ranges, called neap tides, occur when the gravitational force of the Sun is at a right angle to the pull 9|Page from the Moon. The two forces of the Sun and Moon cancel each other out and create a neap tide. 1.12 Maps and Projections Map projection is the method of transferring the graticule of latitude and longitude on a plane surface. It can also be defined as the transformation of spherical network of parallels and meridians on a plane surface. As you know that, the earth on which we live in is not flat. It is geoid in shape like a sphere. Fig 9: Nautical Chart A nautical chart is one of the most fundamental tools available to the mariner. It is a map that depicts the configuration of the shoreline and seafloor. It provides water depths, locations of dangers to navigation, locations and characteristics of aids to navigation, anchorages, and other features. Although Earth images and map data that you use are typically rendered onto flat surfaces (such as your computer screen or a sheet of paper), the Earth’s surface obviously is not flat. Because Earth has a curving, not-quite sphericial shape, planar maps of all but the smallest areas contain significant geometric distortions of shapes, areas, distances, or angles. In order to produce two-dimensional maps that preserve geographic relationships and minimize particular types of distortion, several steps are required. We must choose a geometric model (known as a geodetic datum) that closely approximates the shape of the Earth, yet can be described in simple mathematical terms. We must also adopt a coordinate system for referencing geographic locations in the mapping plane. Finally we must choose an appropriate mathematical method of transferring locations from the idealized Earth model to the chosen planar coordinate 10 | P a g e system: a map projection. A coordinate system, datum, and map projection are all components of the coordinate reference system for a spatial object. 1.13 Benefits of Ocean Economies When it comes to Ocean economy it’s important to note that three-quarters of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans and seas which are an engine for global economic growth and a key source of food security. The global ocean economic activity is estimated to be USD 3–5 trillion. Ninety percent of global trade moves by marine transport. Achieving sustainable ocean economies has become a global priority. The ocean is at the centre of the livelihoods of more than 3 billion people worldwide, and it is a key life- support system for all life on this planet. However, pressures on the ocean and the ecosystem services it provides have mounted significantly — from overfishing, pollution, and climate change — and are expected to further grow as the ocean becomes the stage for a range of new ocean-related economic activities. These pressures are pushing the health of the ocean to its limits, leading to habitat degradation, ocean warming and acidification, more frequent extreme weather events, and species extinctions. They undermine the ocean’s ability to support long-term socio-economic benefits and sustainable development. Actions to revert these trends are therefore urgently needed: new and traditional ocean-based economic activities need to use ocean resources sustainably and conserve them. In recognition of this, for the first time the world agreed to focus on the ocean in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, through a dedicated Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14) and ocean action has since become a key priority in international fora, including in recent G7 and G20 agendas. Below is a list of Ocean-related economic activities: Marine fishing/ Marine aquaculture/ Maritime passenger transport/ Maritime freight transport/ Offshore extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas/ Marine mining and dredging/ Offshore industry support activities/ Processing and preserving of marine fish, crustaceans and molluscs/ Maritime ship, boat and floating structure building/ Maritime manufacturing, repair and installation/ Offshore wind and marine renewable energy/ Maritime ports and support activities for maritime transport/ Ocean scientific research and development/ Marine and coastal tourism Note: The list is evolving and may change in accordance with developments in ongoing OECD (The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) work on satellite accounts for the ocean economy. 11 | P a g e  2. TYPES OF SHIPS There is nothing quite like the maritime industry, which is fascinating, complex, and ever- changing. Shippers must have an in-depth knowledge of the various vessel types that travel the world’s oceans, as well as their comparative advantages and disadvantages, to stay competitive. Choosing the right type of ship for the cargo is among the most crucial choices a shipper must make. This choice will depend on many aspects, such as the kind and volume of the cargo, the location, and the deadline. Commercial ships come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each carrying various types of cargo across the oceans. This article will look at the various ship classifications and types. So let’s start with what is a ship. 2.1 What is a ship? A ship is a large vessel that travels the world’s oceans and other sufficiently deep waterways, carrying cargo or passengers or supporting specialized missions such as defense, research, and fishing. Ships are generally determined from boats based on size, shape, load capacity, and purpose. Currently, more than 50,000+ ships are in operation worldwide, doing business around the world and carrying 90% of all the goods, commodities, and products that people need. 12 | P a g e Today’s ships are highly sophisticated in the form of navigation-controlled bridges and big engine rooms for the machinery that powers the vessel. Cargo ships have relatively small units, while cruise ships have many units to assist the passengers. Modern maritime commercial vessels come in different shapes and sizes and are designed to carry various cargo. Apart from this, there are other ships about which people are unaware. To understand all this, the main types of ships and their functions are briefly described in this article. Common, let’s begin. 2.2 Types of Ships Following are the main types of ships that are travel worldwide: 1. Bulk carrier ships 9. Passenger ships 17. Hovercraft 2. Container ships 10. Roll-on Roll-Off ships 18. Submarine 3. Dredgers 11. Livestock carriers 19. Sailboat 4. Fishing vessels 12. Heavy life ships 20. Barge 5. Gas carriers 13. Tanker ships 21. Corvette ship 6. High-speed craft 14. Tugs 22. Reefer vessel 7. Naval ships 15. Canoe 23. Frigate 8. Offshore ships 16. Yacht 24. Panamax ship 13 | P a g e 2.2.1 Bulk Carrier Ships Bulk carriers are merchant ships transporting dry cargo, such as grain, coal, ore, steel coils, cement, etc., in bulk quantities. The first special bulk carriers were built in 1852. Bulk carriers are known for their maximum capacity, safety, efficiency, and durability. Despite this, cargo loading operations can vary, and loading and unloading cargo can take several days. Bulk carriers may be gearless, rely on terminal equipment, or sometimes fitted with a crane integral to the ship. Nowadays, bulk carriers make up 21% of the world’s merchant fleet and are available in sizes from single-hold mini-bulk carriers to giant ore ships. Advantages 1. These are intended to transport large amounts of dry bulk cargo such as coal, iron ore, grains, and other commodities. 2. Bulk carriers are available in various sizes and designs, allowing for flexibility in accommodating cargo types and navigating various waterways and port facilities. Disadvantages 1. Shipping in bulk can be more expensive than shipping in containers. 2. Compared to goods stacked on top of one another, overweight or oversized cargo takes up more room on a freighter. 14 | P a g e 2.2.2 Container Ships As the name suggests, these types of ships are specially designed to transport goods in containers. Container ships carry all their loads in truck-sized intermodal containers in a technique called containerization. These are the standard means of commercial cargo transport and now carry most marine non-bulk cargo. Generally, these ships are automated and load and unload with gantry cranes. Currently, 90% of non-bulk goods worldwide are transported by container ships. The rival crude oil tanker is now the most significant commercial type of container ship. Advantages 1. They can move a wide variety of goods. 2. They provide more affordable transportation. Disadvantages 1. They may not be suitable for transporting some types of oversized or unusual cargo because they are made specifically for containerized cargo. 2. Managing empty containers on container ships is a common challenge. 15 | P a g e 2.2.3 Dredgers The primary function of a dredger is to remove deposited sediments such as sand, silt, or gravel from inlet streams, waterways, or the ocean floor. Simply put, these are ships containing excavation equipment that are used to remove sand and other types of deposits from the ocean floor. These ships are used for many purposes, such as navigating shallow coastal areas, deep- sea mining, etc. Common types of dredgers include simple jet-lift and air-lift, auger suction, pneumatic and amphibious dredgers. Advantages 1. Dredgers are essential for maintaining and constructing waterways, including ports, channels, and harbors. 2. These are employed in projects aimed at reclaiming land from the seabed. Disadvantages 1. Dredging operations can disturb or displace marine organisms, altering their behavior, migration patterns, and breeding cycles. 2. In water bodies, dredging can change the equilibrium between erosion and sedimentation. 16 | P a g e 2.2.4 Finishing Vessels As the name implies, a fishing vessel is used for fishing at sea or on a lake or river. A fishing vessel uses a conical net that traps fish by dragging it through or down the water. There are many different types that are used in commercial, artistic, and recreational fishing. The total number of fishing vessels worldwide in 2016 was approximately 4.6 million. It is difficult to estimate as they range in size from small dinghies to large charter cruisers and, unlike commercial fishing vessels, are often not dedicated solely to fishing. Fishing vessels are mainly classified into two types which are trawlers and non-traveling vessels. Advantages 1. These vessels can reach areas with large fish populations, allowing for efficient harvesting of marine resources. 2. Due to their contribution to the global seafood supply, fishing vessels are crucial in ensuring food security. Disadvantages 1. It is common for fishing vessels to catch endangered or protected species unintentionally, known as bycatch. 2. Typically, fossil fuels are used to power fishing vessels, which results in fuel consumption and the emission of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. 17 | P a g e 2.2.5 Gas Carriers A gas carrier, also known as an LPG, or LNG carrier, is a vessel designed to transport LPG, LNG, CNG, or liquefied chemical gases in bulk. They are built to move liquefied gases at low-temperature pressure between terminals equipped with fully refrigerated storage tanks. Their great feature is the presence of round tanks above the main deck. LNG gas carriers differ markedly in that they have large circular tanks on their deck. They are available in 4 different types of tanks: independent tank, membrane tank, integral tank, and semi-membrane tank. On the other hand, chemical cargo ships have multiple tanks to protect them from mixing the different substances they carry. Advantages 1. Liquid gases can be efficiently transported over long distances thanks to gas carriers. 2. LNG has lower carbon emissions than conventional fossil fuels like coal or oil, so gas carriers support the transportation of these cleaner energy sources. Disadvantages 1. Gas carriers move highly flammable and potentially dangerous gases like liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). 18 | P a g e  2. For loading and unloading operations, gas carriers require specialized infrastructure and facilities. 2.2.6 High-Speed Craft High-speed craft uses air pressure to move at high speed over water and has engines and turbine propellers to move them. These ships were trendy when they were launched and still maintain their popularity. These types of ships are advanced, high-performance (usually high-speed) marine vessels designed for civilian use, also known as fast yachts. Most of these technologies are not used in commercial ships. Mainly high-speed crafts serve as passenger ferries. Advantages 1. The efficiency of transporting people and goods can be increased by using high- speed craft, which can reach speeds that are significantly faster than those of conventional vessels. 2. Even at high speeds, high-speed craft are built to provide a smooth and comfortable ride. Disadvantages 1. Compared to conventional vessels, high-speed craft are typically more expensive to construct, maintain, and operate. 2. Compared to slower ships, the high-speed craft uses more fuel per unit of distance travel. 19 | P a g e 2.2.7 Naval Ships It is a military ship used by the Navy. Naval ships are large, heavily armed surface ships primarily designed to engage enemy forces on the high seas, including battleships, destroyers, and corvettes. These are differentiated from civilian ships by construction and purpose. These ships are damage resistant and equipped with weapon systems, although the armament on military transport is light or non-existent. They were designed primarily for naval warfare and are called warships. Advantages 1. Naval vessels protect a country’s maritime assets by offering security and protection from potential dangers. 2. Naval ships are frequently used for humanitarian assistance and disaster relief. Disadvantages 1. Naval ships, which tend to be extremely advanced warships, can be costly to construct, run, and maintain. 2. These are exposed to modern weapons systems, such as submarines, torpedoes, and anti-ship missiles. 20 | P a g e 2.2.8 Offshore Ships Offshore ships are mainly used for oil exploration and construction at sea. There are many types of offshore vessels. In addition, these ships provide transit and respite to crew personnel to and from the operational areas of the high seas when required. As noted above, the term offshore vessels is a collective context and include a wide range of vessels employed in the region of the high seas. These ships are usually 50 to 100 meters (160 to 330 ft) in length and perform various tasks such as logistic support and transportation of goods, equipment, and equipment. Advantages 1. To support offshore operations in the oil and gas sector, offshore ships like supply ships and platform support ships are essential. 2. These have equipment and safety features to protect the well-being of the staff and deal with emergencies. Disadvantages 1. For safe and effective operations, offshore ships rely heavily on weather conditions. 2. These ships are complex vessels with modern technology and equipment. Their operation and maintenance necessitate skilled personnel and specialized training. 21 | P a g e 2.2.9 Passenger Ships Passenger ships are also known as cruise ships, primarily for transferring passengers from one place to another. Unlike the seaplanes used for transportation, cruise ships are usually used for round-trip voyages to various ports, where passengers can go on tours. Modern types of passenger ships have less hull strength, speed, and agility than seagoing ships. Although they have added facilities to cater to water tourists, recent ships have been described as “floating condominiums laden with balconies.” Generally, cruise ships do two to three nights or more round trips without visiting any port. Advantages 1. Passenger ships offer a unique and enjoyable travel experience, allowing passengers to visit different locations and participate in leisure activities. 2. They make a significant economic contribution to the cruise industry by promoting local business growth, creating jobs, and bringing in tourism revenue. Disadvantages 1. Ships that carry passengers, especially large cruise ships, can have a substantial environmental impact. 2. Passenger ships may become overcrowded, especially during busy travel times, resulting in clogged common areas, lengthy lines, and insufficient personal space. 22 | P a g e 2.2.10 Roll-on Roll-Off Ships Roll-on roll-off ships are types of ships that are used to carry wheeled cargo. Wheeled cargo is nothing other than cars, motorcycles, trucks, buses, and railroad cars are driven on and off a ship, either on their wheels or using a platform vehicle, such as Self-propelled modular transporter. Roll-on roll-off ships contrast with lift-on/lift-off (LOLO) ships, which use cranes to load and unload cargo. RORO ships have built-in or shore-based ramps or ferry slips that allow cargo to be rolled on and off the vessel efficiently. The word RORO is generally used for large ocean-going vessels. Advantages 1. Ro-Ro ships provide effective cargo handling capabilities, enabling the direct driving of vehicles, machinery, and other wheeled cargo onto and off the vessel. 2. Cars, trucks, trailers, construction equipment, and even perishable goods can all be transported on ro-ro ships. Disadvantages 1. Although Ro-Ro ships can transport various wheeled cargo, they might not be able to transport all non-wheeled cargo. 2. Ro-Ro ships need specialized port facilities with proper ramp systems and enough room for vehicle loading and unloading. 23 | P a g e 2.2.11 Livestock Carriers A livestock carrier is a large vessel used for the live animal export of sheep, cattle, and goats. These types of ships are typically newly built or converted from container ships. When transporting livestock, adequate ventilation, food, and water are primary considerations. Livestock carriers must carry enough food for the animals during the journey and enough stock for emergencies. Common livestock carriers have a capacity of about 30,000 to 40,000 sheep (or 3000 to 4000 head of cattle). Livestock carriers typically travel the Middle East between Australia and New Zealand. Advantages 1. Livestock carriers are specifically designed to transport live animals safely and decently. 2. Livestock carriers support the export and import of livestock between nations by facilitating the trade of live animals internationally. Disadvantages 1. The risk of disease transmission and outbreaks can rise when animals are kept in close quarters in livestock carriers. 2. It can be difficult for livestock carriers to comply with local, state, and federal laws about environmental standards, biosecurity, and animal welfare. 24 | P a g e 2.2.12 Heavy Lift Ships As the name suggests, a heavy-duty ship is designed to carry heavy industrial components that regular ships cannot handle. They are huge ships capable of carrying other ships, large industrial units, floating plants, etc. For example, these ships transport offshore platforms from construction to drilling sites. Some are equipped with high-capacity cranes for loading at ports without bulky capacity. And some allow the cargo to float in position before the ship lifts the cargo out of the water. Advantages 1. Large and heavy loads that cannot be carried by standard cargo ships can only be transported by heavy lift ships. 2. Heavy lift ships transport heavy cargo to remote or inaccessible locations worldwide. Disadvantages 1. Because of their specialised design and equipment, heavy lift ships have a limited cargo capacity. 2. To load and unload heavy cargo, heavy lift ships need the appropriate port facilities and machinery. 25 | P a g e 2.2.13 Tanker Ships Tanker ships are designed to transport large amounts of stored liquids or gases. Tanker ships are further classified into different types based on their cargo. The main types include oil tankers, chemical tankers, and gas carriers. Apart from their applications, these ships also carry commodities such as vegetable oil, molasses, and alcohol. In the United States Navy, a tanker used to refuel other ships is called an oiler. Tankers can range in size from several hundred tons in capacity for long- distance transportation. Advantages 1. Tanker ships are made for the safe transportation of liquid cargo, including liquefied natural gas (LNG), chemicals, crude oil, and petroleum products. 2. Because tanker ships can transport large amounts of cargo, they can benefit from economies of scale. Disadvantages 1. Safety is the top priority because tanker ships transport hazardous and flammable materials. 2. Tanker ships are extremely dependent on fluctuations in the oil industry. 26 | P a g e 2.2.14 Tugs A tug is a marine vessel that operates other ships by pushing or pulling along a direct contact or tow line. These boats usually haul vessels that cannot sail well independently, such as in crowded harbors or narrow canals. Modern tugs are highly maneuverable, with pulling power that can exceed 100 tons. Early tug models had steam engines, while modern ones had diesel engines. Some tugs are sea-going, and some are icebreakers or rescue tugs. Many tugs carry deluge guns, aiding firefighting, especially in harbors. Advantages 1. Tugboats are designed and outfitted with powerful engines and towing equipment to help tow and move larger vessels such as ships, barges, or floating structures. 2. Tugboats give ships more propulsion and control, improving maritime operations safety. Disadvantages 1. Tugboats typically travel at slower speeds than other types of vessels, which limits their usefulness for lengthy journeys or operations that must be completed quickly. 2. Tugboats depend on outside variables like weather, water depth, and tidal patterns. 27 | P a g e 2.2.15 Canoe A canoe is a light vessel, usually pointed at both ends and opened from above. These are typically driven by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using single-blade paddles. Currently, canoes are widely used for competition and pleasure, such as racing, whitewater, touring and camping, freestyle, and general entertainment. Most modern canoes are molded plastics or composites such as fiberglass or Kevlar or incorporate graphite. The intended use of canoes is determined by their size, length, and construction material. Advantages 1. Canoes are highly maneuverable watercraft that allows easy navigation in various water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and calm coastal areas. 2. On the water, canoes offer a quiet and environmentally friendly mode of transportation. Disadvantages 1. Compared to larger watercraft, canoes have a smaller carrying capacity. 2. Canoes are less stable than other types of watercraft, particularly in rough conditions or when loaded unevenly. 28 | P a g e 2.2.16 Yacht A yacht is a sailing or power vessel used for pleasure, cruising, or racing. These types of ships have a cabin with facilities that are suitable for overnight use. The vessel is expected to be at least 33 feet (10 m) in length and may be judged to have good aesthetic qualities. These are powered by electrical power provided by a motor-driven alternator or a battery recharged by the motor. There are mainly two types of yachts available; Racing yachts are designed to emphasize performance over comfort, and charter boats are run as a for-profit business. Advantages 1. For individuals or groups, yachts offer a private and exclusive environment. 2. Yachts can be modified and customized to fit particular preferences and requirements. Disadvantages 1. The smooth sailing, guest services, and onboard maintenance often require a crew when operating a yacht. 2. A yacht comes with several upfront costs, including the purchase price, maintenance, crew salaries, insurance, fuel, and docking fees. 29 | P a g e 2.2.17 Hovercraft A hovercraft is a floating craft capable of traveling over land, water, mud, ice, and other surfaces. A hovercraft has a skirt to contain air. When the air blower is turned on, this skirt creates a pocket that traps pressurized air. That pressurized air gives a hovercraft lift to move forward. Nowadays, they are used worldwide for disaster relief, Coast Guard, military, survey applications, and specialized transport for sport or passenger service. As the hovercraft rises above the surface, there is no friction between the skirt and the ground, so it can travel smoothly on the land. Advantages 1. Hovercraft can travel across various surfaces, including ice, mud, marshes, and water. 2. Hovercraft can travel at high speeds, often faster than traditional boats or vehicles. Disadvantages 1. Because of the operation of their engines and fans, hovercraft make a lot of noise. 2. Compared to other forms of transportation, hovercraft typically have a lower capacity for passengers and cargo. 30 | P a g e 2.2.18 Submarine A submarine, also known as a sub, is a vessel capable of independent operation underwater. This differs from a submersible, which has limited capability underwater. Submarines usually have large ballast tanks filled with air that help them float on the ocean’s surface. At the top of the ballast tank are valves that are opened when the submarine is timed to submerge. Most large submarines have a cylindrical body with conical ends, usually located in the middle, which houses communication and sensing equipment and periscopes. Submarines include a wide range of types and capabilities. Advantages 1. With their ability to operate underwater while submerged, submarines can be hidden and operate stealthily. 2. In naval combat, submarines provide an offensive and strategic advantage. Disadvantages 1. They are less useful in situations that call for fast pursuits or agile movements because they are slower and less flexible than surface vessels. 2. Due to their complexity and advanced technology, submarines have high construction and maintenance costs. 31 | P a g e 2.2.19 Sailboat A sailboat is a boat partly or wholly propelled by sails and smaller than a sailing ship. The forces of the wind on the sail and the water on the underwater parts of the boat combine to propel the boat through the water. When the wind blows across the sails, the aerodynamic lift is created, much like the wing of an airplane. Some sailboats have motor propellers, which help propel the sailboat even with no wind. Advantages 1. Sailboats are energy and environmentally friendly due to their reliance on wind energy for propulsion. 2. On the water, sailing offers a calm and peaceful experience. Disadvantages 1. Sailboat propulsion heavily depends on wind conditions. Their speed and maneuverability may be restricted by calm or unstable winds. 2. When there is bad weather, like a storm or strong winds, sailboats may have trouble. 32 | P a g e 2.2.20 Barge A barge is a flat-bottomed boat that runs on a river and can transport bulk cargo. The barge can be self-propelled, usually with a slow-rotating diesel engine and a large- diameter fixed-pitch propeller. Draft horses initially pulled the barges on an adjacent towpath. Some other types of barges must be pulled by tugs or pushed by pusher boats. Compared to towed barges, the pusher system has improved handling and is more efficient, as the pushing tug becomes part of the unit, contributing to the movement of the whole. Advantages 1. Barges are able to move a lot of cargo on a single trip thanks to their large cargo carrying capacity. 2. Since they can travel through inland waterways like rivers, canals, and lakes, they can access places that other modes of transportation might not be able to. Disadvantages 1. Compared to other forms of transportation like trucks or trains, barges typically travel at a slower speed. 2. Docks, ports, and waterways with navigable channels are necessary for barges to operate efficiently. 33 | P a g e 2.2.21 Corvette Ship A corvette is a type of small warship. It is generally the smallest class of ships regarded as official warships. In the modern era, a corvette can be used as a fast attack craft, missile boat, and coastal patrol craft. Typically, these corvettes weigh between 500 and 2,000 tonnes. Recent corvette designs may weigh up to 3,000 tonnes and have a hangar to house a helicopter, making them similar in size and functionality to smaller frigates. 34 | P a g e 2.2.22 Reefer Vessels A reefer ship is a refrigerated cargo ship designed for transporting perishable cargo, such as fruits, meat, vegetables, dairy products, and similar items that require temperature control. Simply put, a reefer ship can carry the equivalent of 40 to 250 trucks, depending on its size. Due to the extensive trade between the hemispheres, reefer ships operate seasonally but can operate all year long. 35 | P a g e 2.2.23 Frigate A frigate is a kind of naval warship that is bigger and more heavily armed than a corvette while also being smaller and faster than a destroyer. Frigates can hold a crew of several hundred sailors and are typically between 110 and 150 meters long. In order to engage enemy targets, these ships frequently have a combination of surface- to-air missiles, anti-ship missiles, torpedoes, and naval guns. In naval operations, frigates are essential for convoy protection, maritime surveillance, maritime interdiction, and supporting larger fleet operations. 36 | P a g e 2.2.24 Panamax Ship A ship that meets the maximum construction requirements to pass through the Panama Canal is referred to as a panamax ship. The word “Panamax” is a combination of the words “Panama” and “maximum.” These vessels are made to fit through the locks and narrow channels of the Panama Canal, a vital international shipping route that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Normally, Panamax ships can carry between 65,000 and 80,000 deadweight tonnes (DWT) of cargo. Some Panamax ships can transport many shipping containers and are also equipped to handle containerized cargo. 37 | P a g e  3. SHIP’S TERMINOLOGY – The basics What are ship terminologies? Ship terminologies are technical terms used by people in the shipping industry. Common terms include keel, tiller, starboard side, pier, hatch, dock, helm, valve, bow, beam, draft, freeboard, knots, nautical miles and so on. Below are some of the terms that may be encountered daily and a description of what they refer to on a Ship:  Aft: Near or toward the Stern of the vessel.  After Peak: Enclosed space at the after end of the ship, below the main deck, used for ballast or fresh water.  ANCHOR HANDLING TUG: Tug that moves anchors and tow drilling vessels, lighters and similar. Also ANCHOR HANDLING TUG/SUPPLY used also for supplies  ASTERN: Behind, or a backward direction in the line of a vessel's fore and aft line. When a vessel moves backwards it is said to move astern; opposite to ahead.  Ballast: Water or other weight carried in a ship without profit, mainly for stability.  Bellow: Deck bellow  Bilge: The lowest point inside the ship to which all liquids spilled or drained will flow. Also referred to as bilge wells, in hold spaces.  Bulkhead: A vertical partition.  BOATSWAIN (BOSUN): The highest unlicensed rating on the ship with charge of all deck hands and who in turn comes under the direct orders of the master or chief mate or mate.  BOW THRUSTERS: A propeller at the lower sea-covered part of the bow of the ship, which turns at right angles to the fore-and-aft line and thus provides transverse thrust as a maneuvering aid.  BUOY: A floating object marking the navigable limits of channels, sunken dangers, isolated rocks, telegraph cables etc.  Bunkers: Tanks in which the ships fuel is stowed.  Breather Pipe: A vent fitted to the crank case of a diesel engine to prevent pressure build up and usually vents to the deck and is fitted with gauze wire at the free end to prevent flashback.  CARGO PLAN: A plan giving the quantities and description of the various grades carried in the ship's cargo tanks, after the loading is completed.  CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY: Private organizations that undertake inspections and provide advice on the hull and machinery of a ship, also supervise ships during their construction and afterwards in respect to their seaworthiness. Ships are then referred to as being 'in class'. Although not compulsory, an unclassed ship will find it difficult to attract insurance. 38 | P a g e  CREW: The personnel engaged on board ship, excluding the master and officers and the passengers on passenger ships.  Cavitation: A term used to the process of bubbles bursting as water is circulated through a centrifugal pump or over the propeller ad a result of pressure variations.  Cofferdam: The empty space between two bulkheads separating two adjacent watertight compartments.  Deck: Floor  DEADWEIGHT (DWT): A common measure of ship carrying capacity, equalling the number of tonnes of cargo, stores and bunkers that the ship can transport. It is the difference between the number of tonnes of water a vessel displaces 'light' and the number of tons it displaces when submerged to the 'deep load line'.  Deckhead: Ceiling  DERRICK: A type of crane found on merchant ships, the name is believed to have been the name of a London hangman named Derrick of the 17th century.  Deeptank: A ballast or Bunker tank  DRAFT: The depth of a ship in the water. The vertical distance between the waterline and the keel, is expressed in metres except in the USA where it is in feet.  Duplex Filters: A pair of filters that allows for the removing of one filter without shutting down the system.  Double Bottom Tanks: Space between the bottom of the ship and the tank top. It can contain water ballast or fuel.  DRY DOCK: An enclosed basin into which a ship is taken for underwater cleaning and repairing. It is fitted with watertight entrance gates which when closed permit the dock to be pumped dry. Sometimes has two or more compartments separated by watertight doors. Dry docks are also referred to as Graving Docks.  Goose Neck vent: Inverted pipe at the top of fuel tanks  GDP: Gross Domestic Product: The total value of goods and services produced by a nation over a given period, usually 1 year.  HATCH: An opening, generally rectangular, in a ship's deck providing access into the compartment below.  HOLD: A general name for the large compartments below the main deck designated for stowage of general cargo.  HULL: Shell or body of a ship - applies to the side and bottom of ship.  KEEL: The lowest longitudinal timber of a vessel, on which framework of the whole is built up; combination of iron plates serving same purpose in iron vessel.  KNOT: Unit of speed in navigation, which is the rate of nautical mile (1,852 metres or 6,080 feet) per hour. i.e. 1.852 km/h. 39 | P a g e  LIFEBOAT: A specially constructed (often double-ended) boat, which can withstand heavy, rough seas.  LNG: Liquefied Natural Gas.  MAIN DECK: The main continuous deck of a ship running from fore to aft; the principle deck; the deck from which the freeboard is determined.  Muster List: Notice displayed throughout ship indicating the crew’s names, duties, alarms and muster stations.  Port Side: Left hand side of a ship facing the bow.  PILOT: A person who is qualified to assist the master of a ship to navigate when entering or leaving a port. In most ports pilotage is compulsory.  Starboard Side: Right hand side of the ship facing the bow.  WATCH: The day at sea is divided into six four-hour periods. Three groups of watchstanders are on duty for four hours and then off for eight, then back to duty. Seamen often work overtime during their off time.  WW: Weather working  Heat Exchanger: Equipment found in the engine room that can be used as a heater or cooler and makes use of one liquid to heat or cool another in two separate compartments.  Manifold: A chamber common to various pipes that lead from more than one tank.  TERN - The bow or rear of the ship; an upright post or bar of the bow of a vessel.  TRIM - The relationship between a ship's draughts forward and aft.  Scavenge: The term used to describe the removal of exhaust gases from the cylinder and re-charging with fresh air for a new combustion cycle.  Scavenge Trunking: A space on the main engine that is common to all cylinders from which air is diverted into the cylinders under pressure from turbo chargers for combustion.  Intercooler: The cooler found between two stages on a multistage compressor.  Aftercooler: The cooler found after the final stage of a compressor.  Turbo Charge: A turbine driven by the main engine exhaust gases and keyed to a common drive shaft with a compressor that increases the air intake pressure and volume of air allowed into the cylinder.  Blow Down: A term used to describe the draining of water from a boiler for lowering of the level, for removing of sediment/contaminants or draining when internal inspections are to be conducted.  Gauge glass: Equipment that indicates the level of water inside a boiler.  Lagging: Material wrapped around hot steam pipes to protect the user from injury or to insulate.  Surging: A term used to describe the effect of pressure variations within the scavenge spaces of an engine.  Compressor: Equipment used on board ships to produce high pressure air. 40 | P a g e  Injector: The name used to describe a valve inserted into the cylinder head that allows for fuel to be atomized inside the cylinder.  Revolution: Refers to the movement of a point on a shaft through one complete rotation and back.  Stern Gland: An inner seal around the propeller shaft found at the hull where the shaft exits the ship’s structure.  Header Tank: A storage tank/reservoir also referred to as the expansion tank used to maintain the level or pressure in a gravity system for water or oil and allows expansion of liquid when hot. The system can be bled into the Header tank and is also filled via the header tank.  Indicator Cock: A valve found on the head of the main engine that is used when turning or barring the engine over before starting. Also used to take indicator cards.  Lubricator: A self-contained pump that supplies oil for lubrication and cooling to the cylinder liner of large speed two stroke engines.  Tank Tops: The area beneath the deck plates on the lower deck of the engine room.  Strum Box: A coarse strainer usually fitted to the bilge suction line to prevent rags, etc from being drawn into the pump.  Strainer: A coarse filter fitted to all sea suction lines to prevent solids from being drawn into the pumps or coolers.  Filter: Fitted to the suction line of oil and fuel pumps to remove solid particles and prevent damage to the system.  Vent Pipe: These are fitted to all tanks to prevent pressure build up within when tanks heat up or are filled. They also prevent vacuum being formed when tank is pumped out.  Overflow Pipe: Is a vent pipe that leads to a tank r bilge to prevent damage to machinery if tank is over filled.  Tail Shaft: Is the shaft between the propeller and the last coupling on the shaft that supports the propeller.  Gland: A seal found on any shaft that can or does turn. It is made of soft material to avoid damage to the shaft or spindle when used on valves.  Shaft Bearings: These are the pedestal bearings that support the length of the shaft between the engine and the stern gland. 41 | P a g e  4. PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF A SHIP The principal dimensions are the length between perpendiculars, the moulded breadth known also as beam, the draught and the depth. The classic way of defining the hull surface is by plane sections. The transverse sections are called stations, the horizontal ones waterlines, and the longitudinal buttocks. Fig 10: Ship’s dimensions  Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP or L): The horizontal distance between the forward and aft perpendiculars is called the length between perpendiculars. It is constant for a given ship and does not depend on the loading condition of the ship.  Beam (B): The breadth of the ship at the broadest point is called the beam.  Draft (T): The vertical distance between the waterline and the deepest part of the ship at any point along the length is the draft. Drafts are usually measured at the forward, Tf, and the aft, Ta, perpendiculars although they can also be defined at the fore and aft draft marks which may not coincide with the perpendiculars. The mean draft, Tm, is the average of the forward and aft drafts. Other Measurements.. In addition to the principal dimensions, the following, also shown in Fig 10 are also used in describing ships:  Length Overall (LOA): The extreme length of the ship along the centerline is called the length overall.  Length on Waterline (LWL): This is the length along the centerline at the waterline in the ship's design loaded condition. 42 | P a g e   Freeboard (F): This is the distance between the waterline and the uppermost watertight deck at any location along the ship.  Displacement Volume (V): The displacement volume is the total volume of the underwater hull at any given waterline.  Displacement (W): The displacement is the weight of the water of the displaced volume of the ship; for static equilibrium it is the same as the weight of the ship and all cargo on board. Therefore, displacement is directly related to displacement volume and it can be found by multiplying the volume with the specific gravity of the water in any set of consistent units. For example, if the volume is in cubic feet, we may divide it by 35 to get the displacement in long tons in seawater, or by 36 in fresh water.  Buoyancy: Any ship partially or wholly immersed in water will experience an upward push called buoyancy. The force of buoyancy is equal to the weight of the volume of water the ship displaces.  Reserve Buoyancy: The watertight volume between the waterline and the uppermost continuous watertight deck is the reserve buoyancy of the ship. It enables the ship to take on additional weight, and it is closely related to the ability of the ship to survive a damage.  Moment of Inertia (I): For hydrostatic calculations we will always refer to the moment of inertia as the second moment of area unless specified otherwise. It is a measurement of a plane surface's resistance to rotation about an axis in the same plane. The magnitude of the moment of inertia depends upon the shape of the area and the location and orientation of the axis of rotation. The moment of inertia is measured in the fourth power of a linear unit, such as ft4, in4, or a combination.  Tonnage: Tonnage is a description of the cargo capacity of a merchant ship. It is a volume measurement and does not directly indicate displacement  Sheer: The difference between the design trim freeboard at any point and that of the midship section. The sheer line is the line of intersection of the main or weather deck with the side of the ship.  Camber: This represents the curvature in an athwartship or transverse vertical plane; it is the height of the deck at the centerline above the height at the side.  Tumble Home: The slant inward from the vertical of a transverse section of a hull above the design waterline. Tumble home is the opposite of flare.  Flare: the slant upward and outward from the vertical of a transverse section of a hull above the design waterline.  Dead rise: The athwartship rise of the bottom from the keel to the bilge. Flotation Characteristics.. The following terms are used with regards to ship flotation:  Trim: Trim is the difference between the drafts forward and aft. Typicallu, we assign positive and negative values to trim to indicate trim (down) by the stern or trim (down) by the bow respectively.  List, Heel, and Roll: Angular transverse inclinations of ships are described as list, heel, or roll, depending on the nature of the situation. List describes a definite attitude of transverse inclination of a static nature. Heel describes a temporary inclination generally involving motion, while roll indicates periodic inclination from side to side. For example, a ship rolls in a seaway, lists due to a side damage, and heels in a turn. 43 | P a g e  5. IMO – INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION Since its founding in 1948, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has played a key part in the structuring of policy and procedure across the global maritime industry. Alongside its sister-agency, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), a number of crucial, internationally recognised agreements have been enforced. With the key goals of improving safety to ships, their operation and lives that sail upon them, in addition to improving the protection of the marine environment from pollution caused by routine operations and accidental damage, four key Conventions have been put in place to mandate requirements and standards surrounding safety procedures, pollution prevention practices, seafarer training and qualification, and labour laws of the maritime industry. Below details each of the four pillars of maritime law and the important role each one plays. 5.1 SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea Overview With one of the industry’s main concerns being the safety of crew and personnel on board vessels, SOLAS – Safety of Life at Sea – is generally regarded as the most important of all international Conventions. The international SOLAS Convention sets minimum safety requirements for the construction, equipment, and operation of merchant ships. The 14 chapters currently included in the SOLAS Convention consist of a range of codes and regulations which specify the minimum safety standards for the area mentioned above. The SOLAS Convention does not apply to all ships. Only vessels travelling international waters (excluding warships, cargo ships of less than 500 GT, non-propelled ships, wooden ships, non-commercial pleasure yachts and fishing vessels) will be held accountable to the standards enforced by SOLAS. All signatory flag states must ensure all ships registered under their flag comply with the standards set out under SOLAS. Certificates are issued to a ship to confirm that these standards have been met. 44 | P a g e Brief History Originally actioned in 1914 in response to the sinking of the RMS Titanic, recommendations were incorporated into the International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). Among other items, these recommendations included lifeboats, lifeboat drills and inspections to ensure the lifesaving equipment and crew knowledge were in place, should the need arise. This was the first major industry-wide safety Convention. The SOLAS Convention has witnessed various versions over the years (1929, 1948, 1960). The latest version was introduced 1974, when a completely new Convention was adopted. One of the biggest changes meant that any amendments to SOLAS could now be implemented in a vastly reduced time frame to that previously enforced; the ‘tacit acceptance procedure’ permitted amendments to be enforced on a specified date, unless a certain number of objections were received. Current Operation Still maintained by the IMO, today the SOLAS 1974, as amended, Convention continues to mandate basic safety aspects for ships travelling in international waters, such as machinery, fire protection, and lifesaving appliances. The SOLAS Convention is regularly updated and amended to remain abreast of the changing needs, technologies, and risks of the maritime industry. An up-to-date, detailed outline of the SOLAS Convention chapters can be found on the IMO website. 5.2 MARPOL – Marine Pollution Overview MARPOL – The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships – is the main international maritime Convention covering the prevention of environmental pollution by ships. MARPOL covers pollution prevention from a routine operational and accidental perspective. In addition to setting standards for the discharge and cleaning processes of operational shipping waste, the MARPOL Convention also sets standards for the stowing, handling, and transfer of hazardous cargoes. Unlike SOLAS, the MARPOL Convention applies to vessels of all types flagged under a State member of the Convention, or that operate within its jurisdiction, regardless of where they sail. Signatory flag states are obliged to incorporate MARPOL requirements into domestic law. 45 | P a g e Brief History MARPOL was brought in to address the issue that large amounts of ocean are not under the jurisdiction of any one country or government. Due to this, monitoring for or proactive actions to protect against pollution were the responsibility of no one body. The Torrey Canyon disaster in 1967 was the biggest oil spill to date and was the tipping point which put in motion the development of a Convention to address pollution prevention. Following this event, the IMO established MARPOL in 1973, putting in place an international agreement on the prevention of pollution to the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes. However, the 1973 MARPOL Convention was not enforced, and following a number of further incidents between 1976-1977, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol was added to the original MARPOL Convention. The combined Convention entered into force in 1983. MARPOL initiated changes to ship design and standard of construction, with the aim of mitigating any potential treat of spillage, following incidents at sea. Current Operation MARPOL remains under the governance of the IMO and has undergone further amendments over the years. Six technical annexes continue to specify regulations aimed at preventing and minimising pollution from ships One of the most recent updates to come into force was the IMO 2020. Under Annex VI, regulation 14 of the MARPOL Convention, the IMO set a limit for the sulphur content in fuel oil used on board ships. The new limit of 0.50wt% will significantly reduce the amount of sulphur oxide produced by ships, resulting in far-reaching health and environmental benefits. The new regulation applies to all ships of member states, regardless of size, operation, or destination. An up-to-date, detailed outline of the MARPOL Convention Annexes can be found on the IMO website. 46 | P a g e 5.3 STCW – Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping Overview The STCW – Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers – sets minimum qualification standards for personnel and crew of all levels on board a ship, including masters, officers and watch personnel. Similar to the other pillars, the main purpose of the international Convention is to promote safety at sea, alongside the protection of the marine environment. STCW is helping to further achieve these goals through a common agreement which ensures similar programmes of training with equal standards are carried out by all seafarers of equal role and rank globally. The STCW Convention requires that training leading to the issue of certification is provided by an approved source. The STCW standards apply to all ships greater than 24 meters in length and apply to all crew members. Certificates, minimum sea-time, and refresher courses are required for some roles. Unlike other Conventions, the STCW applies to ships of non-Party States when visiting ports of States which are parties to the Convention. Brief History In 1978, the STCW Convention established basic requirements of training, certification and watchkeeping for all seafarers on an international level. Prior to this, any such standards were set by individual governments. With each country abiding by national requirements, standards of training, expected knowledge, and experience varied widely throughout the world. Major amendments were made to the STCW in 1995 and again in 2010, to address concerns with the existing Convention and incorporate updates to meet modern day training requirements. Current Operation Like the SOLAS and MARPOL Conventions, STCW remains governed by the IMO. The STCW Convention is made up of the STCW Code and Chapters. The Code is split into Part A and Part B. Part A provides mandatory standards regarding the STCW Convention and its annex, while Part B details recommended guidance. The Annex is comprised of 8 Chapters, which are divided into Regulations. An up-to-date account of the STCW Convention Annexes can be found on the IMO website. 47 | P a g e 5.4 MLC – Maritime Labour Convention Overview The MLC – Maritime Labour Convention – sets out minimum standards for seafarers working on a ship. The comprehensive Convention provides an internationally recognised, single source of regulation and guidance. Under the MLC, seafarers will have minimum working and living rights covering: Contracts of Employment  Pay  Manning Levels  Hours of Rest  Leave Entitlement  Repatriation  Compensation for Ship Loss or Foundering  Career and Skills Development  In addition to standards stipulating minimum age and medical certification, under the MLC, seafarers will need to be trained and qualified to perform onboard duties (training must conform to IMO standards) and receive personal safety training. The MLC also ensures seafarers have access to satisfactory accommodation, recreational and medical facilities, when living on onboard. The MLC requires that seafarers’ work environments on ships must undergo regular risk assessments in order to mitigate workplace accidents. A system for reporting accidents and occupational ailments must also be in place under the MLC. The MLC does not cover seafarers serving on ships operating across inland or sheltered waters, fishing vessels, or warships and auxiliary vessels. Brief History MLC was established in 2006 by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). The aim of the Convention was to ensure the rights and needs of the seafarers are safeguarded and free from opportunities of exploitation. The Convention did not come into force until 2013. The main reasons behind the Convention was due to the sheer size and spread of international maritime trade activities and the number of people employed by the sector. The ILO state that the MLC “was designed to be applicable globally, easy to understand, readily updatable and uniformly enforced”. 48 | P a g e Current Operation Today the MLC stands as the fourth pillar of international maritime law, building on the three other key IMO Conventions (SOLAS, MARPOL and the STCW), and further promoting and supporting maritime safety and environmental protection. The Convention demonstrates how “international cooperation can combine constructively for the most globalized of industries to concretely address the challenges to securing decent working and living conditions for seafarers, while simultaneously helping to ensure fair competition for ship owners,” says Cleopatra Doumbia-Henry, Director of the International Labour Standards Department of the ILO Under the MLC, the national authority of the party has the power to withdraw a ship’s maritime labour certificate if requirements and conditions are found to be in breach of MLC standards. Channels are available for seafarers to open a complaint should they feel the MLC is not followed on board a vessel. Although the Convention is not ratified globally, the MLC applies to all ships entering ports of parties to Convention. Consequences may be faced by any vessel not complying with the MLC. Further details of the MLC and its components can be found on the ILO website. Ongoing Compliance Monitoring The Four Pillars of Maritime Law play an important role in the levels of safety and environmental protection seen present across the industry today. These standards would not be possible without a mutual, global effort to uphold the Conventions and drive further improvements. To monitor for compliance of each of the four pillars, Port State Controls (PSCs) of member flags may inspect a ship from a different flag state (and MoU) if there are clear grounds for believing that the ship, its crew, equipment or certification do not comply with the requirements of the SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW and MLC Conventions. Ongoing work is completed by the relevant governing bodies, with the support of the wider maritime industry, to ensure each of the Conventions remain up to date in addressing current maritime operations, procedures, technologies, and concerns. 6. STCW CERTIFICATES The term ‘certificates’ covers all official documents required under STCW. It includes certificates of competence, endorsements, certificates of proficiency, and any documentary evidence showing that a requirement of the convention has been met. Certificates are important as they are the main paper evidence you have on hand to prove that your level of maritime education and training, your length of service at sea, your professional competence, medical fitness and age all comply with STCW standards. 49 | P a g e Every party to the convention has to ensure that certificates are only issued to those seafarers who meet STCW standards. Certificate of competence: This document is issued to masters, officers, radio operators and ratings forming part of a watch who meet the standards of competence relevant to their particular functions and level of responsibility on-board. 6.1. Certification paths There are two different ways of gaining your STCW certificates. Whichever path you choose; the standards are identical. The difference lies in the number of functions you will be able to perform on-board and this is reflected in the certificate awarded. 6.1.1. The traditional method: STCW certificates awarded in the traditional way are classified according to which department of the ship (deck or engine) you work in. Most seafarers around the world have been awarded their certificates in this way. Under this method you will probably work in the same department (deck or engine) throughout your entire seafaring career. The change introduced by STCW in this path is that in order to qualify for a specific certificate, say watch-keeping officer in charge of a navigational watch, you will need to be competent in the specific functions stated for that level of responsibility. There is a general decreasing emphasis on the sea-time requirement to gain the required competence. Under the STCW-78 convention, seafarers were also allowed to qualify for a certificate on the basis of sea-going service alone (ratings qualifying as watch-keeping officers, for example). This is no longer possible under STCW provisions, as all seafarers are now required to complete a minimum approved sea-going service and to have completed an approved education and training programme before they are eligible for the next higher certificates of competence. The introduction of the able seafarer deck and the able seafarer engine into the STCW Convention under the 2010 amendments involved substantial reductions in sea-time from the requirements of ILO convention 74. At the same time the competency tables were revised to reflect modern ship requirements and the demands of today’s vessels. Administrations should recognize ILO certification and provide for a transition to the new certification. 6.1.2. The alternative method: This refers to STCW certificates issued to enable the holder to perform different functions that are not necessarily within the same department. The certificate awarded will specify the functions and the level of responsibility. A candidate for alternative certification will need to qualify in all these functions at a determined level of responsibility in one 50 | P a g e department (deck or engine) before being able to qualify for other functions (at the same level of responsibility) in a different department. For example, a watch-keeping officer applying for an alternative certificate will have to qualify in all the functions of a watch-keeping officer, either in the deck or the engine department, before he or she can qualify for additional functions at the same level in other departments. Standards of competence, age and medical fitness are the same as for the traditional method. The purpose of the alternative certification is to allow for shipboard organization to be in line with modern technological developments and to open up a new career path for seafarers. Under the convention, ship-owners are not allowed to use alternative certification as a means of reducing the number of crew members on board and increasing everybody else’s workload, or to undermine the integrity of the profession by assigning combined deck and engine room watch-keeping duties to a single certificate holder during a watch. Alternative certification is still optional for all parties to the convention. To date, very few parties have elected to issue certificates in this way. The amended 2010 STCW Convention introduced qualifications for an integrated rating with a number of options in how this can be achieved. However, the above criteria should apply, and the introduction of integrated ratings on vessels is not intended to reduce crew numbers. 6.1.3. General requirements for Officers If you are an officer, you must meet minimum requirements in respect of standards of competence, seagoing service time, medical fitness and age. You should be in possession of a valid certificate of competence according to your rank and functions on-board. This certificate should be endorsed (in the same certificate or in a separate document) by the issuing administration. You should also have all the ancillary certificates required such as radar or ARPA, GMDSS, and those referring to safety duties on-board specific types of ships. Further down you’ll be given guidance as to what certificates officers require. To know the exact requirements and standards of competence for each certificate you should consult chapters II (master and deck department), III (engine department), IV (radio personnel), V (training requirements for personnel on certain types of ships), VI (emergency, occupational safety, medical care and survival functions) of the STCW Convention. These chapters should be read in conjunction with the respective section of part A of the STCW Code. 6.1.4. Revalidation requirements for Officers: Certificates for masters, officers and radio operators must be endorsed by the issuing administration and re-validated at intervals not exceeding five years. Certificates issued under STCW standards should be upgraded to the 2010-amended STCW standards 51 | P a g e before January 2017 (see section 4). Other certificates for specialized training are subject to refresher training (see part 2 in this section). 6.1.5 Officers serving on ships registered under a foreign flag: If you intend to serve on ships registered under the flag of a foreign country, then you need an endorsement of recognition issued by the administration of that country. Some administrations may also require an endorsement of recognition for specialized training certificates. In some instances, administrations from other countries will only recognize training which has been completed at specific training establishments in your country of origin. If in doubt, ask the foreign administration if it has any requirements in this respect. 6.1.6 Going for the next higher Certificate: If you eventually want to opt for the next higher certificate you will need to meet a number of requirements, including approved training and education, minimum age, approved seagoing service and medical fitness. 6.1.7 Officers' duties on joining any Ship: All officers need to complete a period of ship-specific and security familiarization training before being assigned any shipboard functions. There is no certificate awarded for this, but a record of the training should be kept in the ship’s official logbook. This requirement applies to any member of the crew, including hotel staff holding officer rank in passenger ships. 6.1.8 Basic safety training for Officers: Officers serving on any type of ship who are designated with safety and pollution prevention responsibilities in the operation of the ship need basic safety training. Such training must cover personal survival techniques, basic fire prevention and firefighting, elementary first aid, and personal and social responsibilities. This requirement applies to practically all officers serving on merchant ships. Cadets assigned with these duties also need to complete basic safety training before going to sea. Basic safety training should be documented as having taken place within five years of the officers being assigned to safety and pollution prevention duties. You need to complete an approved training course or provide evidence that you have achieved the required standards of competence within the previous five years (by participating in drills and exercises, for example, or assessment by a qualified assessor). It is advisable that you do hold some form of documentary evidence to show that you have achieved competence in these functions within the previous five years (this may be in the form of record of drills or letters from a training centre). 6.1.9 New requirements of the amended 2010 STCW All ships must have a qualified security officer delegated by the company and master of the ship, who is responsible for ensuring that the other crew are familiarised and trained 52 | P a g e in security matters for that vessel. The revised convention has introduced bridge resource management and engine resource management requirements for senior officers and leadership and management skills within their certificate. Companies should be responsible for providing training in these areas where seafarers do not have appropriate training. Where the company requires to carry an electro-technical officer they should comply with the new competency requirements under A-III/6. 7. CERTIFICATES AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS BY RANK FOR ENGINEERS 7.1 Chief engineer C/R certificate required. D/P Documentary proof. T/O Training onboard. E/R Endorsement required. General requirements to obtain a certificate of competency as a chief engineer Chief engineer officers on ships powered by main propulsion machinery of 3,000 kW propulsion power or more must: a) Previous certificate & seagoing service: meet the requirements for certification as an officer in charge of an engineering watch and have not less than 36 months approved seagoing service, of which not less than 12 months shall have been served as an engineer officer in a position of responsibility while qualified to serve as second engineer officer. b) Education & training: have completed approved education and training and meet the standard of competence specified in section A-III/2 of the STCW Code. Chief engineer officers on ships powered by main 53 | P a g e propulsion machinery of 750 kW — 3,000 kW propulsion power must: a) Previous certificate & seagoing service: meet the requirements for certification as an officer in charge of an engineering watch and have not less than 24 months approved seagoing service, of which not less than 12 months shall have been served while qualified to serve as second engineer officer. b) Education & training: have completed approved education and training and meet the standard of competence specified in section A-III/3 of the STCW Code. 7.2 Second engineer General requirements to obtain a certificate as a second engineer Second engineer officers on ships powered by main propulsion machinery of 3,000 kW propulsion power or more must: a) Previous certificate & seagoing service: meet the requirements for certification as an officer in charge of an engineering watch and have not less than 12 months approved seagoing service as assistant engineer officer or engineer officer. b) Education & training: have completed approved education and training and meet the standard of competence specified in section A-III/2 of the STCW Code. Note: Second engineer officers qualified for service on ships powered by main propulsion machinery of 3,000 kW propulsion power or more, may serve as chief engineer officer on ships powered by main propulsion machinery of less than 3,000 kW propulsion power provided not less than 12 months approved seagoing service shall have been served as an engineer officer in a position of responsibility and the certificate is so endorsed. Second engineer officers on ships powered by main propulsion machinery of 750 kW — 3,000 kW propulsion power must: a) Previous certificate & seagoing service: meet the requirements for 54 | P a g e certification as an officer in charge of an engineering watch and have not less than 12 months approved seagoing service as assistant engineer officer or engineer officer. b) Education & training: have completed approved education and training and meet the standard of competence specified in section A-III/3 of the STCW Code. Note: The chief eng