Indian Constitution PDF

INDIAN CONSTITUTION Semester - I Prof. Smit vachhani Assistant Professor Darshan Institute of Management UNIT – 1 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Rajkot – Morbi Highway, Rajkot – 363650...

INDIAN CONSTITUTION Semester - I Prof. Smit vachhani Assistant Professor Darshan Institute of Management UNIT – 1 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK Rajkot – Morbi Highway, Rajkot – 363650 1  MEANING AND TYPES OF GOVERNMENT ❖ Meaning of the Government. A system or group of people who rule or control a country is known as a government. Most keywords that usually describe governments are monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy, mainly of Greek or Roman origin. Therefore, these have existed for more than 2,000 years, but their usefulness has yet to be exhausted. From this, we can deduce that mankind has not altered this much since it existed. When it comes to types of government, it can be tough to classify systems in a single word as governments are ever- evolving, and national governments comprise several types. According to the Pew Research Centre, the democracy of all types has been the most popular idea around the globe. Across the world, more than 50% believe that representative democracy is a good way of governing their country. In the past few years, people in Sweden have been among the most likely of any country who are highly satisfied with the working of democracy, just like India and Tanzania. So, what is a government? A government is an institution or a system made of a group of people that takes care or manages a country or a state. Every government has its own constitution or a set of fundamental principles that it follows to ensure effective governance. Now when we say governance, what does that entail? How does it work? Once appointed or formed, the government is responsible for the social welfare, law and order, defence, and financial affairs of the country. ❖ Definition of Forms of Government It's in the name: defining a form of government means to define the structure and organization of the government. How does it operate day to day? Who is in charge, and what happens if the public is unhappy with them? Can the government do what it wants to? Humans have very early on realized that they must organize their societies in some ways, to prevent chaos and disorder. To this day, most people agree that one form of organized government is necessary to ensure social order and overall desirable living conditions for people. There have always been a few who support the absence of organized government. This setup is referred to as anarchy by sociologists. ❖ Forms of Government in the World History has witnessed many types of governments emerging all over the world. As conditions changed, so did the forms of government in different areas of the world. Some forms disappeared for a while, then emerged in other places, then transformed and returned to a previous form. By analyzing these changes and the general characteristics of past and present governments, scholars identified four main forms of government. 2 ❖ Different Forms of Government. There are many different forms of government. We are going to look at the each of them and gain understanding of: Monarchies, Oligarchies, dictatorships (and totalitarian governments), Democracies and Socialism. 1. Monarchy as a Form of Government Plato as advocated the rule of philosopher kings (in his Republic) for the existence of an ideal state. Kingship or monarchy is the form of government in which the supreme authority rests in the hands of a single person. The views of Aristotle was that monarchy was the rule of one person for the good of the people, but the perverted from the monarchy is tyranny which was the rule of one person for his selfish ends. Jellinik defines,monarchy as a state in which sovereignty rested in a single person. Monarchy is the oldest form of government known to mankind.It was the most suitable to the primitive society where the people were not capable governing themselves. The source of political authority was the ruler.All laws were his commands. His authority was supreme and unlimited. The Monarch combined in himself the functions of the law maker, the executive, the judiciary and the military authority. At first, monarch was elective and later it become a hereditary institution.The early roman kings were elected.The medieval kings were called gods or ‘son of Heaven’ as in Japan.At present all the existing monarchies are hereditary.The king comes in to office through the principles of primogeniture and holds office for life. Monarchies are classified in to absolute, limited, hereditary and elective monarchies. A monarchy is a government where a single person (the monarch) rules the government. The title of the monarch is hereditary; this means one inherits the position. In some societies, the monarch was appointed by a divine power. The title is passed on through accession when the existing monarch dies or abdicates (voluntarily gives up the title). Monarchies of most nations today are ingrained in tradition rather than modern politics. There are many monarchies around the world today. The list is so long that we can't include them all here. However, we will mention a few that you might have already heard of due to these royal families' engagements with the public and their regular appearances in media all over the world. Present-day Monarchies Let's look at a few present-day monarchies. 1. United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth 2. Kingdom of Thailand 3. Kingdom of Sweden 4. Kingdom of Belgium 5. Kingdom of Bhutan 6. Denmark 7. Kingdom of Norway 3  8. Kingdom of Spain 9. Kingdom of Tonga 10. Sultanate of Oman 11. Kingdom of Morocco 12. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 13. Japan 14. Kingdom of Bahrain Scholars differentiate between two forms of monarchies; absolute and constitutional. ❖ Absolute monarchies A ruler of an absolute monarchy has unmitigated power. The citizens of an absolute monarchy are often treated unfairly, and the reign of an absolute monarchy can often be oppressive. Absolute monarchy was a common form of government in Europe in the Middle Ages. Today, most absolute monarchies are in the Middle East and Africa. Oman is an absolute monarchy. Its ruler is Sultan Quaboos bin Said Al Said, who has been guiding the oil-rich nation since the 1970s. ❖ Constitutional monarchies Nowadays, most monarchies are constitutional monarchies. This means that a nation recognizes a monarch, but expects the monarch to abide by laws and the nation’s constitution. Constitutional monarchies usually emerged from absolute monarchies as a result of changes in society and political climate. In a constitutional monarchy, there is usually an elected leader and parliament, who are centrally involved in political matters. The monarch has a symbolic role in holding up tradition and customs, but holds no real authority. Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. People in Britain enjoy the ceremonies and traditional symbolism that comes with the monarchy, so they may show support to King Charles III and the royal family as a result. ❖ Merits and Demerits of Monarchy. The merits are that the decision making is very quick and efficient as it does not have to go through any procedures to get approved. The king is the only one who decides. There is also not power struggle and confusion in the power structure. Thus, is seen as the best system as some societies are incapable of ruling themselves and because this system has a lot of experience. The demerits are that, if the monarch of the state is cruel and brutish, the people will suffer under him. For example- King Louis XIV. Another issue is, if the royal bloodline is killed, there will be a bloody fight over the ruling position which makes it 4  dangerous. Also, just one person having all the wisdom and control over the entire country is just wrong. 2. Forms of Government: Oligarchy An oligarchy is a government where a small, elite groups rules all over society. In an oligarchy, the members of the ruling elite do not necessarily receive their titles by birth, like in a monarchy. The members are people in significant positions of power in business, in the military or in politics. States don’t usually define themselves as oligarchies, as the term carries a negative connotation. It is often associated with corruption, unfair policymaking and the small elite group’s sole purpose of upholding their privilege and power. There are journalists and scholars who claim that the US is actually an oligarchy. Paul Krugman (2011), Nobel-prize-winner economist, argues that large American corporations and Wall Street executives rule the US as an oligarchy, and it’s not really a democracy as claimed. This theory is supported by findings that the couple of hundred wealthiest American families possess more than the poorest of a hundred million US citizens together (Schultz, 2011). There is also further study on the income and wealth inequality and the resulting inequality of (political) representation in America. Russia is considered to be an oligarchy by many. Wealthy business owners and military leaders control politics for the purposes of growing their own wealth and not for the nation. Most of the wealth is in the hands of a small group of people in Russia. As the rest of society is dependent on their businesses, the oligarchs have political and social power. Instead of using this power to bring changes in the country for all, they exploit it to generate more wealth and ability to control for themselves. This is a typical characteristic of oligarchies. 3. Dictatorship as a Form of Government A dictatorship is a government in which a single person or small group holds all the power, and has absolute authority over politics and the population. Dictatorships are often corrupt and aim to limit the liberties of the general population in order to maintain their power. Dictators take and keep absolute power and authority through economic and military means, and they often use even brutality and threat. They know that the people are easier to control if they are poor, starving and afraid. Dictators often start out as military leaders, so to them, violence is not necessarily an extreme form of control against opposition. Some dictators also have a charismatic personality, according to Max Weber, which can make them appealing to citizens regardless of the force and violence they apply. 5  Kim Jong-Il and his son and successor, Kim Jong-Un have both been known as charismatic leaders. They have generated support as dictators of North Korea, not only through military power, propaganda and oppression, but by having a personality and charisma that captured the public. In history, there have been many dictators who based their rule on a belief system or ideology. There have been others, who just wanted to preserve their power and had no ideology behind their rule. Adolf Hitler is probably the most famous dictator whose rule was based on an ideology (national socialism). Napoleon is also considered as a dictator, but did not base his rule on any specific ideology 4. Forms of Government: Democracy The term democracy comes from the Greek words ‘demos’ and ‘kratos’, which mean ‘common people’ and ‘power’. Thus, democracy literally means ‘power to the people’. It is a government in which all citizens have the equal right to have their voices heard and determine state policy through elected representatives. Laws passed by the state (ideally) reflect the will of the majority of the population. In theory, the socioeconomic status, gender and race of citizens should not negatively impact their say in government matters: all voices are equal. Citizens must follow the country’s constitution and laws, which determines the rules and responsibilities of political leaders and citizens. Leaders are also limited in power and in the duration of their term in power. In the past, there have been examples of democracies. Ancient Athens, a city-state in Greece, was a democracy in which all free men above a certain age had the right to vote and contribute to politics. Similarly, some Native American tribes were also practicing democracy. The Iroquois, for example, elected their chiefs. In other tribes, women were also allowed to vote and even to become chiefs themselves. ❖ What are Some Basic Rights of Citizens in a Democracy Citizens are granted some basic, fundamental rights in a democracy, some of which include: Freedom to organize parties and hold elections Freedom of speech Free press Free assembly Prohibition of unlawful imprisonment Pure and Representative Democracies (People Participation indirectly in decisions) 6  The US, in theory, claims to be a pure democracy, where citizens vote on all proposed legislation before a law is passed. Sadly, this is not how the American government works in practice. The main reason for it is that a pure and direct democracy would be very difficult to adopt. The United States is a representative democracy, in which citizens elect representatives to make legal and policy decisions on their behalf. Americans elect a president every four years, who comes from one of the two major parties of Republicans and Democrats. Furthermore, citizens elect representatives on state and local levels as well. This way, it seems that all citizens have a say in all matters - small or large - in the United States. In the US, the government has three branches - the executive, judicial and legislative branches - that must check on each other in order to make sure that no one branch abuses their power. ❖ Merits and Demerits of Democracy Merits of democratic form of government are that there is a peaceful shift in power without any conflicts. Some demerits include- the government manipulates the opinion of the people through social media and free gifts and bribes before election to vote in their favour. Also, the people are divided by religion and the government supports this divide. Example- India. Many countries exist in the world and they function according to what works for them. The sovereign of each country is different. 5. Socialism: History, Theory, and Analysis Socialism is a populist economic and political system based on collective, common, or public ownership of the means of production. Those means of production include the machinery, tools, and factories used to produce goods that aim to directly satisfy human needs. In contrast to capitalism, whereby business owners control the means of production and pay wages to workers to use those means, socialism envisions shared ownership and control among the labouring class. ❖ Essential Features In a purely socialist system, all production and distribution decisions are made by the collective, directed by a central planner or government body. Worker cooperatives, however, are also a form of socialized production. Socialist systems tend to have robust welfare systems and social safety nets so that individuals rely on the state for everything from food to healthcare. The government determines the output and pricing levels of these goods and services. Socialists contend that shared ownership of resources and central planning provide a more equal distribution of goods and services and a more equitable society. 7 ❖ Key takeaways Socialism is an economic and political system based on collective ownership of the means of production. All legal production and distribution decisions are made by the government in a socialist system. The government also determines all output and pricing levels and supplies its citizens with everything from food to healthcare. Proponents of socialism believe that it leads to a more equal distribution of goods and services and a more equitable society. Socialist ideals include production for use, rather than for profit; an equitable distribution of wealth and material resources among all people; no more competitive buying and selling in the market; and free access to goods and services. Capitalism, with its belief in private ownership and the maximizing of profits, stands in contrast to socialism, but most capitalist economies today have some socialist aspects. ❖ Understanding Socialism Common ownership under socialism may take shape through technocratic, oligarchic, totalitarian, democratic, or even voluntary rule. Due to its practical challenges and poor track record, socialism is sometimes referred to as a utopian or “post-scarcity” system, although modern adherents believe it could work if only properly implemented. They argue that socialism creates equality and provides security—a worker’s value comes from the amount of time they work, not in the value of what they produce—while capitalism exploits workers for the benefit of the wealthy. ❖ Socialist ideals include: Production for use, rather than for profit An equitable distribution of wealth and material resources among all people No more competitive buying and selling in the market Free access to goods and services. ❖ Modern Socialism. As an old socialist slogan describes, “From each according to ability, to each according to need.” Modern socialism developed in opposition to the excesses and abuses of liberal individualism and capitalism. Under early capitalist economies during the late 18th and 19th centuries, western European countries experienced industrial production and compound economic growth at a rapid pace. Some individuals and families rose to riches quickly, while others sank into poverty. Capitalism created income inequality and spurred other social concerns. 8  The most famous early socialist thinkers were Robert Owen and Henri de Saint-Simon, and later Karl Marx and then Vladimir Lenin. It was primarily Lenin who expounded on the ideas of earlier socialists and helped bring socialist planning to the national level after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. 9  MEANING OF CONSTITUTION A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a notable example of an un-codified constitution; it is instead written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases, or treaties. India’s Constitution is the supreme law of India. It defines the Government’s fundamental political values, policies, processes, powers, rights, and duties. It conveys constitutional supremacy & not parliamentary supremacy because it is not established by the Parliament but by a constituent assembly and adopted by its citizens, with a declaration in its preamble. The Constitution of India is the longest Constitution in the world. It had three ninety-five articles in twenty-two parts and eight schedules at its beginning. It comprises of around 1,46,385 words making it the world’s largest functioning constitution. It currently has a preamble, twenty-five parts with twelve schedules, five appendices, four forty-eight articles & hundred and one amendments. ❖ History It was the idea of an Indian Communist revolutionary and political activist Manabendra Nath Roy to have a Constituent Assembly for making of the Indian Constitution. He is considered to be the pioneer of the Communist Movement in India. In 1936, the Indian National Congress (INC) officially demanded a Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution of India in its Lucknow session. The Drafting Committee bore the responsibility of drafting the Constitutional document. In this article, the history and the preamble of the Constitution as well as the rights provided to the citizen by the State and the duties of citizens towards the State will be discussed. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly for the formation of the Constitution of India took place on December 9, 1946, with Dr Sachidanand Sinha as its Interim President. Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Constituent Assembly and H.C. Mukherjee as the Vice President. After eleven thorough sessions starting from February 1948 to November 1949, the draft was finally passed and accepted on November 26, 1949. All the members of the Assembly signed the official copy of the Indian Constitution which came into effect on January 26, 1950, which has been celebrated as Republic Day in India ever since. It originally contained a Preamble, 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. Some of the provisions such as those related to Citizenship, Elections, Provisional Parliament, etc. were given immediate effect. 10 ❖ Preamble WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship; EQUALITY of status and opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; The ‘Objectives Resolution’ given by Jawaharlal Nehru became the Preamble to the Constitution of India. It was unanimously adopted by the Assembly. It has been modified by the 42nd Amendment Act which currently becomes the Preamble. The Preamble is a preface or introduction to the Constitution. The idea of the preamble was borrowed from the Constitution of the USA and its language was borrowed from Australia. The words ‘SOCIALIST', ‘SECULAR', and ‘INTEGRITY' were added to the preamble by the 42nd Amendment in 1976 while the original version contains the words ‘SOVEREIGN',’ DEMOCRATIC’, and ‘REPUBLIC'. The Preamble is non-justiciable in nature which means it cannot be enforced in a court of law. It has a very limited role to play although it declares that the people of India have enacted, adopted and provided the Constitution to themselves, therefore, sovereignty lies with the people ultimately. Meaning of some important words: Sovereign: The word “Sovereign” means India is an independent nation and the Legislature of Indian has the power to enact laws in the country. Socialist: The word “Socialist” was added to the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976. Socialism means the achievement of socialist ends through democratic ways. Secular: The term “Secular” means that all religions that equal respect, protection, and support from the state. 11 Democratic: “Democratic” indicates the Constitution established a form of government which is by the people, for the people, and of the people. Republic: In a Republic state, the head of the state is elected either directly or indirectly by the people. Justice: The expression “Justice” embraces three forms: social, economic, and political through provisions of Fundamental and Directive principles. Liberty: The word “Liberty” means the liberty of expression, thought, faith, belief, and worship. It also provides freedom from slavery, discrimination, despotism. Equality: The word “Equality” provides equal status and opportunities to all the citizens and people of the country. Fraternity: “Fraternity” means a feeling of brotherhood. The Preamble urges the people to assure the dignity of the individual and unity, the integrity of the nation. ❖ Fundamental Rights The Constitution of India provides citizens with some Fundamental Rights which are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution from Articles 12 to 35. Originally there were seven fundamental rights. However, the Right to Property was deleted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978. At present, there are six Fundamental Rights which are given as follows: Right to Equality (Articles 14-18) Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22) Right Against Exploitation (Articles 23-24) Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28) Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30) Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) ❖ Fundamental Duties The Constitution has provided us with Fundamental Rights to protect and safeguard our interests and freedom, therefore, we shall have some duties as well. Abide by and follow the Constitution, respect the National Flag and the National Anthem, Cherish and follow the noble deeds of our freedom fighters, Protect and preach the ideals of sovereignty, unity and integration among citizens of India 12  Defend the security of the nation and render service to the nation when called upon us to do so at any given cost, Promote harmony regardless of caste, creed, race, religion, and gender, Preserve and protect the heritage, culture and monuments and buildings of the cultural importance of our country, Protect and improve our national environment Develop the spirit of scientific and humanitarian interest, enquiry and reforms. Safeguard public property Strive towards excellence Provide opportunities for education to every ward by the guardian. ❖ Commencement of the Indian Constitution When the Indian Constitution came into existence, it had 395 articles, and they were split into eight schedules and 22 parts. Today, it has a preamble, 25 parts with 12 schedules, 101 amendments, 448 articles, and five appendices. ❖ Earlier legislation of the Constitution of India The introduction to the Constitution of India has been drawn from various sources. Being mindful of the conditions and needs of India, its framers did borrow features from earlier legislation like the Govt. of India Act of 1858, The Indian Council Acts of 1892, 1861, and 1909, the Govt. of India Acts 1935 and 1919, and the Indian Independence Act of 1947. The latter resulted in the formation of two countries; India and Pakistan. It also split the earlier Constituent Assembly into two parts. Every new assembly possessed sovereign power for drafting as well as enacting a novice Constitution for distinct states. ❖ What do You Mean by Indian Constitution? Though the definition of the Indian Constitution is vast, every Indian should know the meaning of the Indian Constitution and the worth of the introduction to the Constitution. It is vast and has several areas that all the citizens of India must be familiar with. Every law aspirant must be aware of the introduction to the Constitution of India extremely well because it forms the fundamentals of his profession and education. ❖ The Offering of the Indian Constitution The Constitution of India provides many Fundamental rights to its Citizens. All the rights that the Constitution of India provides are justiciable, and people have every right to move the High Courts and the Supreme Court when their rights are encroached upon. Nonetheless, the Indian Fundamental Rights aren't absolute as reasonable restrictions can 13 get imposed too. In the 42nd Amendment that was done in 1976, fundamental duties were included in the Constitution, and their purpose was to remind people that besides enjoying their rights as citizens, they must also carry on their duties as duties and rights are correlative. ❖ Facts of Indian Constitution There are some interesting facts about the Indian Constitution besides the details of a few sections and articles. Students who have been tossing with the idea of pursuing higher education in law should revise the overview of the Indian Constitution. These facts are the following: The Indian Constitution is the most voluminous and longest Constitution worldwide. The Preamble of the Constitution of India got inspiration from the Constitution and preamble of the USA. The actual copies of the Constitution of India weren't printed or typed. They were written by hand, and now they are kept in the Indian Parliament's library. Prem Bihari Narain Raizada wrote the actual copies of the Indian Constitution. The Indian Constitution recognizes some fundamental rights, and they were embraced from the American Constitution's fundamental rights. 283 members signed the original Indian Constitution, and they belonged to the Constituent Assembly. The Indian Constitution is regarded as one of the most honoured and best Constitutions worldwide. The idea of the 5-year plan was inspired by the USSR or Soviet Union's five planning commissions. There are nearly 2.18 crore unresolved cases in the distinct as well as Indian high courts. Originally, the Indian Constitution was written in Hindi and English. The English variety of the Constitution of India has 1,17,369 words. Various artists who hailed from Shantiniketan had decorated the pages of the Indian Constitution. On 9th December 1946, the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly took place. It took nearly three years to write and complete the Indian Constitution. Nearly 2000 amendments were made in the initial draft of the Indian Constitution. On 24th January 1950, the Indian Constitution was signed. On 26th January 1950, the Indian Constitution was enforced legally. The Constitution of India borrowed many things from the Constitutions of different nations, like the USA, the USSR, France, Germany, Japan, etc. 14  In the year 2019, there were 103 amendments that were made in the Indian Constitution since the time it was enforced. 15  HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONSTITUTE ASSEMBLY ❖ How was the Constituent Assembly of India Formed? The Constituent Assembly of India was originally formed to frame the Constitution of India. Provincial Assembly were the ones who elected this committee. M. N. Roy, a pioneer of the Communist movement in India was the first person who proposed the idea of the Constituent Assembly in 1934. This idea was later proposed by the Indian National Congress in 1935. There was a session held by the Indian National Congress presided by Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru in April 1935 at Lucknow. During this session, the members of Congress raised an official demand for the Constituent Assembly. Although this demand was rejected. In 1938, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru made an impactful statement regarding the Constitution and Assembly, ‘The constitution of free India must be framed, without outside interference, by a constituent assembly elected based on adult franchise’ Later on, C. Rajagopalachari who was an independence activist and at the same time an Indian statesman, writer and lawyer raised his voice for the making of Constituent Assembly of India on 15 November 1939. The British accepted the demand for a Constituent Assembly through their ‘August offer’ of 1940. The elections for the Assembly were held for the first time under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. To fulfill the purpose of its making, the Constituent Assembly framed the Constitution of India and implemented it on 16 May 1946. ❖ How were Members of the Constituent Assembly Elected? The Provincial Assembly elected the members of the Constituent Assembly Of India by a single, transferable-vote system. The total numbers of members of the Assembly were 389. Among these members 292 represented the provinces, 93 were the representatives of the princely states and 4 were from the chief commissioner provinces: Delhi, British Baluchistan, Coorg and Ajmer-Merwara. The elections that were assigned to the British Indian provinces for the 296 seats were completed by August 1946. In this election, Congress won the majority of the seats: 208. On the other hand, Muslim League had only won 73 seats. As they have lost in this election, the Muslim League refused to work with Congress and the political situation got worse. The Hindu-Muslim riots began and the Muslims demanded their own Constituent Assembly for Muslims. On 9 December 1946, the Constituent Assembly of India met for the first time. Later on, they reassembled again on 14 August 1947 as a sovereign body. 16  Due to the partition between India and Pakistan, a separate constituent assembly of Pakistan was framed on 3 June 1947. Since a new assembly was formed, new elections were held for West Punjab and East Bengal. West Punjab became part of Pakistan and East Bengal became Bangladesh. After this reorganization, the total members of the Constituent Assembly were 299 and they framed the Constitution of India. On 9 December 1946, these delegates sat for 2 years 11 months and 18 days to discuss what things and laws should be included in the Constitution. Over these two years, the Constituent Assembly had 11 sessions. This committee was chaired by B. R. Ambedkar. ❖ Functions of the Constituent Assembly of India: Frame the Constitution of India and make sure that everyone in the country gets equal rights and opportunities. The assembly adopted the National flag on July 22, 1947. Enact the laws In May 1949 the assembly approved India’s membership in the British Commonwealth. On January 24, 1950, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of India through this committee. Adopted both the National anthem and National Song on January 24, 1950. ❖ Criticism of the Constituent Assembly of India: The major criticism of the Constituent Assembly of India was that it was not formed by universal suffrage. Many feel that it was dominated by Congress members and lawyer- politicians. There were allegations that since the Constituent Assembly was formed during the British order it was not a sovereign body. The committee took an unreasonable time to frame the Constitution. The committee consisted majorly of Hindus. Are all these criticisms true? Not at all! The constituent assembly consisted of members from all the religions, castes and cultures of the society. This means that equal opportunity is given to all. The time taken by the constituent assembly to frame the Constitution is reasonable since India is a big country and they have to account for people from all the sections of the society. The secular provisions in the Constitution is a proof that the Constitution gave equal rights and opportunities to everyone irrespective of their caste and religion. 17  GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935 The Government of India Act of 1935 was the lengthiest document that converted India into a Federal Country. It was a milestone in the history of the running of the Government of India. The British came to India in the 1600s primarily for trade. The East India Company came by with a special right to trade in India, which was granted to the company by Queen Elizabeth I. The British East India Company ruled over Indians for over 200 long years before the Indians were granted Independence in August 1947. The independence of India necessitated the formation of a constitution, which would guide the government’s functioning. Today, this constitution is the source of justice for the common man. Although the foundation of the Indian constitution was laid down after its independence, it still had various features adapted from the British Constitution. ❖ Features of the Indian Act of 1935 The adaptation of the Indian Government act of 1935 was taken from the British and was one of the lengthiest documents that our constitution had. It consisted of 10 schedules along with 321 sections. Below are some of its features: 1. It led to the establishment of a federal system of the Indian Government. 2. It divided the powers between the centre and the states or provinces. 3. Certain powers lie only with the centre, while the others lie only with the states. However, there were powers that lay with both the centre and the states. 4. There were 36 common powers. 5. It led to the abolishment of independent authorities in the states. Though the provinces could act as an independent authority within their acquired areas, the centre had a ruling authority over them. 6. The Governor was the ruling authority in the states. This continued in 1937 but was abolished in 1939. 7. It proposed diarchy, but the states rejected this, as they refused to be ruled over. 8. It also introduced the concept of having two chambers within the state. One was termed the Upper house, and the other the Lower house. However, the houses were to work under many restrictions. 18  9. The states where these houses came into play were Madras, Bombay, Bengal and others. 10. There was a feature of representation of people in the community. It meant separate electorates were to be made for the scheduled castes, workers and women. 11. The secretary of the state of India was to be appointed by a team of advisors. 12. It also included voting; about 10% of the country’s population had the right to vote. 13. It also gave a feature for the control of the flow of currency in the country. A reserve bank was to be established for the same. 14. The Act of 1935 led to the foundation of the federal court, which came into existence in 1937. 15. It also wished to establish separate public commissions at both the central and state levels. 16. The federal court established by this Act was the working court until the Supreme court came into existence. It had a judge accompanied by eight judges at maximum. 17. The Act also proposed Railways and gave its authority to Federal railways. The authority of Federal Railways lay under the Governor General of India and was not answerable to any other power. It served as a milestone and paved the way for a responsible form of government in India. It was the last constitution given to India by the British before the country gained independence in 1947. It worked great for women as they got a separate electorate and hence a major role in the decision-making powers. It paved the way for the Independence of India and the formation of the constitution thereafter. ❖ Defects in the Act of 1935 It provided no solution in the matters of defence. It gave no clear solution for which India had been struggling for independence. It spoke nothing in regards to the fundamental rights of the Indian population. Even though the British assured Dominion status to India, they did not actually grant powers to the Indians. The British still held power to govern as they pleased. Not transferring the powers to Indians led to the denial of the Act from both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim league. 19  INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT OF 1947 The Indian Independence Act, approved by the United Kingdom Parliament on July 18, 1947, provided for the foundation of independent India and Pakistan in the areas of South Asia described as "India" under the 1935 Government of India Act. The Indian Independence Act, enacted decades into a movement for Indian independence, was slated to go into force on August 15, 1947, less than a month after it was passed. Direct British authority in India began in 1858 as a result of the Indian Mutiny, an uprising against the East India Company's supremacy. Direct rule was meant to strengthen Indian representation while safeguarding British imperial interests, but subsequent aggravations and injustices fueled an increasingly fervent independence movement. By the 1920s, noncooperation and civil disobedience campaigns were putting pressure on the British to grant India self-government; in 1930, the Indian National Congress issued the Purna Swaraj resolution, which called for total independence. Unrest in India following World War II persuaded a war-weary Britain to plan its exit from the subcontinent. The fast division of India, a compromise plan offered in June 1947 by Lord Mountbatten, the British viceroy of India, to settle conflicts about communal representation in an independent India, was one of the most significant components of the law. The plan called for the Indian National Congress to take control of most of India, while the Muslim League, concerned that India's sizeable Muslim minority would not have a role in a Hindu- dominated administration, would take control of places with mostly Muslim populations. However, the plan's implementation resulted in an enormous population shift, accompanied by terrible religious bloodshed, as around 15 million Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims rushed to cross the hastily defined borders before the division was complete. The proposed power transfer took effect at midnight on August 14-15. Lord Mountbatten honoured the transfer of power with ceremonies on August 14 in Karachi, Pakistan, and August 15 in New Delhi, India. Independence Day is observed in both countries on the dates of those festivities. ❖ Historical Background Attlee's Announcement: Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, announced on 20 February 1947 that: 1. The British Government would grant full self-government to British India by 30 June 1948 at the latest, 20  2. The future of the Princely States would be decided after the date of final transfer is decided. 3. June Plan: The 3 June 1947 Plan was also known as the Mountbatten Plan. The British government proposed a plan, announced on 3 June 1947, that included these principles: 1. Principle of the partition of British India was accepted by the British Government 2. Successor governments would be given dominion status 3. Autonomy and sovereignty to both countries 4. Can make their own constitution 5. Princely States were given the right to join either Pakistan or India, based on two major factors: Geographical contiguity and the people's wishes. ▪ The Indian Independence Act of 1947 became the 3rd June Plan's implementation. ▪ The Act determined that India and Pakistan would get independence on August 15, 1947. ▪ The Boundary Commission might draw the new boundaries of the dominions. ▪ The British suzerainty over the princely states ended. These states must decide whether to join both India and Pakistan or to remain independent. Over 560 states are adamant in joining India. ▪ Until the constitutions of the new dominions become operative, the heads of the country will be the respective Governor-Generals, who will be able to agree to legislation passed in the name of the monarch via the Constituent Assemblies. ▪ On July 18, 1947, this Act received royal assent and went into effect. ❖ Royal Assent The Indian Independence Act was passed by the British Parliament on July 5, 1947. It received royal assent from the then British monarch, George VI on July 18, 1947. The Act 21 abolished the title of the 'Emperor of India' from the British Crown. George VI issued a royal proclamation that the word 'Emperor of India' be henceforth, omitted from his titles and styles. ❖ Provisions : The Act's most important provisions were: On August 15, 1947, British authority left India. India will be partitioned into two independent provinces, India and Pakistan, with each state becoming sovereign on this day. The powers previously wielded by British authority in India might be handed to each of those states. Punjab and Bengal will be partitioned, and their borders will be drawn by a commission led by Mr. Redcliff. The position of Secretary of State for India will be abolished. The Governor-General for each province was to be appointed by the Queen of England on the advice of the Dominion government. He was not to act on his own discretion or judgement, but only as the constitutional head of the state. To establish the regulations, each Domain must have its own legislature. No British Parliament Act will automatically apply to India. Both countries will have a Constituent Assembly that will also function as a legislative body. It will follow the 1935 Act as closely as practicable until a Constitution is drafted by a Constituent Assembly in any dominion. Provincial governors will serve as the provinces' constitutional heads. The practise of reserving Secretary of State positions should be abandoned. Government employees who wish to quit following the transfer of authority to both dominions must do so. The British rule over India's states and tribal regions will end on August 15, 1947. In this case, power will be passed to states rather than dominions, and states will be free to join either India or Pakistan. The UK government's connection with India will now be controlled by the Office of Commonwealth Affairs. The title of King and Emperor of India was surrendered by the King of England. East Bengal, West Pakistan, Sindh, and British Baluchistan are all Pakistani areas. If the NWFP votes in a referendum to join Pakistan, this territory will also join Pakistan. 22 ❖ Impact of The Act The Indian Independence Act of 1947 was a defining moment in constitutional history. As Attlee described it, it was "the culmination of a protracted chain of events" in India, "the accomplishment of the British mission." In the House of Lords, Lord Samuel described the Law as "a peace treaty without war." Even Indian authorities applauded the passage of this Act. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, for example, stated that British dominion over India ends today and that our relationship with the UK will be maintained on the basis of equality, kindness, and mutual understanding. The law signalled the start of a new period of free India, although many people and leaders were dissatisfied with it. According to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, "August 14 is a day of mourning for Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan." The termination of British sovereignty over Indian states, whether by accession to the Dominion or independence, poses a severe threat to India's unity. Nation. Despite these flaws, it is impossible to deny that the Indian Independence Act of 1947 signified the end of British control in India and the beginning of a free India. ❖ Repeal of The Act The statute gave both provinces the authority to annul any act of parliament that applied to them, including the Indian Independence Act. Later, by creating their respective constitutions, India and Pakistan abrogated the 1947 Independence Act. The Indian Independence Act 1947 was effectively repealed by Section 395 of the Indian Constitution and Section 221 of the Pakistan Constitution of 1956. The status of dominion was also removed with the passage of the Indian Constitution, and India became a republic. Surprisingly, the British Parliament has yet to contribute to the repeal of the Indian Independence Act of 1947. Although the new constitution lacks the legal authority to repeal legislation, this is done to break the chain of law and establish the constitution as an independent legal system. 23  SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTIONS The Constitution of India has borrowed many of its features. The founding fathers of the country borrowed good features from different nations and formulated the constitution which is best suited for India. The list below gives an idea of the same: British: It borrowed the Parliamentary system, the Constitutional Head of the State, the Lower House being more powerful than the Upper House, the Responsibility of the Council of Ministers towards Parliament, and the prevalence of the rule of Law US: It has borrowed the Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Functions of the Vice-president, amendment of the constitution, the nature and also functions of the Supreme Court, and independence of the Judiciary. Australia: List of Concurrent powers and procedures for solving deadlock over concurrent subjects between the center and the states. Irish: Directive principles of State Policy and method of nomination of members to the Rajya Sabha Weimer Constitution of Germany: Powers of the President Canadian: It adopted provisions of a strong nation, the name of the Union of India, and the vesting of the residual powers. South Africa: The procedure of amendment with a 2/3rd majority in Parliament and election of members of Rajya Sabha on the basis of proportional representation by the State legislatures.: ❖ Constitution of India – Major Features 1. Written Constitution: The Constitution of India is a written document that codifies the fundamental principles, rights, and responsibilities of Indian citizens. Example: The Constitution of India was adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950. 24 2. Lengthy Constitution: The Indian Constitution is one of the lengthiest constitutions in the world, comprising a preamble and 470 articles divided into 25 parts, along with numerous schedules and amendments. Example: Article 368 of the Constitution empowers the Parliament to amend the Constitution through a special procedure. 3. Federal System with Unitary Features: The Indian Constitution establishes a federal system of government, where power is divided between the central government and the states. However, it also contains certain unitary features that give more authority to the central government in specific situations. Example: The President of India can assume more power during emergencies, such as a national emergency or a breakdown of constitutional machinery in a state. 4. Parliamentary Form of Government: India follows a parliamentary form of government, where the President is the nominal head of state, and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Council of Ministers, led by the Prime Minister, is responsible for the day- to-day administration. Example: The Prime Minister of India is appointed by the President after the parliamentary elections and is the chief executive of the country. 5. Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to the citizens, which include the right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and the right to constitutional remedies. Example: Article 21 guarantees the right to life and personal liberty, protecting individuals from arbitrary deprivation of life or personal liberty. 6. Directive Principles of State Policy: The Constitution includes Directive Principles of State Policy, which provide guidelines for the government to promote social and economic justice and uplift the marginalized sections of society. Although not enforceable by courts, these principles serve as a moral and political obligation for the government. Example: Article 39A directs the state to ensure equal justice and provide free legal aid to the poor and weaker sections of society. 7. Independent Judiciary: The Constitution establishes an independent judiciary as a guardian of the fundamental rights and the Constitution itself. The Supreme Court of India, along with the High Courts, has the power of judicial review to ensure the constitutionality of laws. Example: In the Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court held that the basic structure of the Constitution cannot be amended, safeguarding the core principles of the Constitution. 25 8. Secularism: The Constitution of India embraces the principle of secularism, where the state treats all religions equally and does not promote any particular religion. Example: Article 25 guarantees freedom of religion, allowing individuals the right to practice, profess, and propagate their religion. 9. Universal Adult Suffrage: The Constitution provides for universal adult suffrage, ensuring that every citizen above the age of 18 has the right to vote without any discrimination. Example: General elections are held every five years in India, where eligible citizens elect their representatives to the Parliament and state legislatures. 10. Single Citizenship: Unlike some other countries, India follows the principle of single citizenship, where every citizen of India is a citizen of the country as a whole and not of any particular state. Example: All Indian citizens enjoy certain rights and privileges across the country, irrespective of the state they belong to. 11. Reservation Policy: The Constitution provides for reservation of seats in educational institutions and government jobs for socially and economically disadvantaged sections of society, such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes. Example: Reservation policies aim to promote social inclusion and upliftment of marginalized communities. 12. Judicial Activism: The Constitution allows for judicial activism, where the judiciary takes an active role in interpreting and safeguarding the Constitution and fundamental rights. Example: The Supreme Court has played a vital role in shaping various aspects of governance, social justice, and human rights through its progressive interpretations of the Constitution. 13. Rigidity and Flexibility: The Constitution of India is considered both rigid and flexible. While some provisions can only be amended through a special majority in Parliament, certain other provisions can be amended by a simple majority. Example: Amendments to fundamental rights require a special majority, while amendments to certain other provisions may require a simple majority. 14. Independent Bodies: The Constitution establishes various independent bodies, such as the Election Commission, Comptroller and Auditor General, and Union Public Service Commission, to ensure fair and transparent functioning of democratic institutions. Example: The Election Commission of India conducts elections at various levels and ensures the integrity of the electoral process. 26 15. Protection of Cultural and Educational Rights: The Constitution safeguards the cultural and educational rights of diverse communities and minorities in India. Example: Article 29 and 30 provide protection to religious and linguistic minorities in matters of education and the preservation of their distinct culture. These features represent some of the key aspects of the Constitution of India, which has played a pivotal role in shaping India's democratic system and safeguarding the rights and freedoms of its citizens. ❖ Philosophy of Constitution On January 22, 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Objectives Resolution drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru. The Objectives Resolution contained the fundamental propositions of the Constitution and set forth the political ideas that should guide its deliberations. The main principles of the resolution were: that India is to be an independent, sovereign republic ; that it is to be a democratic union with an equal level of self-government in all the constituent parts; that all power and the authority of the Union Government and governments of the constituent parts are derived from the people; that the constitution must strive to obtain and guarantee to the people justice-based upon social, economic and political equality, of opportunity and equality before the law; that there should be freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association and action; that the constitution must provide just rights for minorities, and people from backward and tribal areas, etc. so that they can be equal participants of social, economic and political justice; and to frame a constitution that should secure for India, a due place in the community of nations. The philosophy of a Constitution consists of the ideals for which the constitution stands and the policies that the Constitution enjoins upon the rulers of the Community to follow. The Constitution of India reflects the impact of our ideology in the following spheres: 27 (i) Secularism: Secularism is the hallmark of the Indian Constitution. People professing different religions have the freedom of religious worship of their own choice. All religions have been treated alike. The fact appreciated in India was that all religions love humanity and uphold the truth. All the social reformers and political leaders of modern Indian have advocated religious tolerance, religious freedom and equal respect for all religions. This very principle has been adopted in the Constitution of India where all religions enjoy equal respect. However, the word ‘secularism’ was nowhere mentioned in the Constitution as adopted in 1949. The word ‘secularism’ has now been added to the Preamble to the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment passed in 1976. (ii) Democracy: We have borrowed the modern form of democracy from the West. Under this system, democracy means the periodic responsibilities of the Government to go to the people. For this purpose; elections have been held every five-year to elect a Government by the people. However, democracy covers even the economic and social aspects of life. This aspect of democracy is well-reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy. They are aimed at human welfare, co-operation, international brotherhood and so on. (iii) Sarvodaya: Sarvodaya refers to the welfare of all. It is different from the welfare of the majority. It seeks to achieve the welfare of all without exception. It is referred to as Ram Rajya. The concept of Sarvodaya was developed by Mahatma Gandhi Acharya Vinoba Bhave and J. Narayan under which the material, spiritual, moral and mental development of everyone is sought to be achieved. The Preamble to the Indian Constitution and the Directive Principles of State Policy represent this ideal. (iv) Socialism: Socialism is not new to India. Vedanta’s philosophy has socialism in it. The national struggle for freedom had this aim also in view. Jawaharlal Nehru referred to himself as a socialist and republican. Almost all the parties in India profess to promote democratic socialism. These principles are included in the Directive Principles of State Policy. However, to lay emphasis on this aspect, the word ‘socialism’ was specifically added to the Preamble to the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment. (v) Humanism: Humanism is a salient feature of Indian ideology. Indian ideology regards the whole of humanity as one big family. It believes in resolving international disputes through mutual negotiations. This is what we find in the Directive Principles of State Policy. (vi) Decentralization: Decentralization is another aspect of Sarvodaya. Indian has always practised decentralization through the Panchayat system. Mahatma Gandhi also advocated decentralization. It is on this account that he is regarded as a philosophical anarchist. We have introduced the Panchayati Raj system in India to achieve the objective of decentralization. The concept of cottage industries as laid down in the Directive Principles of State Policy also refers to decentralization. (vii) Liberalism: Liberalism does not refer to the Western concept of liberalism. It refers, in the Indian context, to self-government, secularism, nationalism, economic reforms, constitutional approach, representative institutions etc. all these concepts were advocated by the modern Indian leaders. 28 (viii) Mixed Economy: Co-existence is a salient feature of our ideology. Co-existence has manifested itself through a mixed system of economy. In this system, we have allowed both the private and public sectors of the economy to work simultaneously. Large scale and essential industries have been put in the public sector. (ix) Gandhism: Gandhism represents an ethical and moral India. Gandhi set a new example of fighting foreign rule through non-violence. He taught the importance of non-violence and truth. He advocated un-touchability, cottage industry, prohibition, adult education and the uplift of villages. He wanted a society free of exploitation and decentralized in character. All these Gandhian principles have found an honourable place in the Constitution of India. 29  NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF INDIA National Symbols of India: National symbols are the heritage and pride of our country. We Indians are situated all over the world and these 17 National Symbols of India represent India’s culture and heritage. These National Symbols of India are also necessary because they are of national importance and every citizen must know about them. In exams like banking and IAS exams aspirants can expect questions regarding the 17 national symbols of India. In this article, we will cover the 17 National Symbols of India and their significance. 1. National Flag (Tiranga) Tiranga is the national flag of India. The flag is designed by Pingali Venkayya and was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 22nd July 1947. The top saffron colour, indicates the strength and courage of the country. The white middle band indicates peace and truth with Dharma Chakra. The green colour shows the fertility, growth and auspiciousness of the land. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 July 1947. 2. National Emblem (State Emblem of India) The national emblem of India is adopted from Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath. Its motto is Satyameva Jayate; ("Truth Alone Triumphs). It features four Asiatic lions standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. The National Emblem symbolizes power, courage, and confidence and at the bottom is a horse and a bull with beautiful wheel Dharma chakra at centre. 3. National Calendar (Saka Calendar) Saka Calendar was introduced by the Calendar Committee in 1957. The usage of the Saka Calendar was officially started at 1 Chaitra 1879 Saka Era, or 22 March 1957. 4. National Anthem (Jana Gana Mana) The National Anthem of India Jana-gana-mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as 30 the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950. It was first sung on 27 December 1911 at the then Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress. The complete song consists of five stanzas. The first stanza contains the full version of the National Anthem. 5. National Song (Vande Matram) The song of India is Vande Mataram, composed in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterji. On January 24, 1950, the President, Dr. Rajendra Prasad came up with a statement in the Constituent Assembly, "the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honored equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it." The first political occasion when Vande Matram was sung was the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. The song was a part of Bankimchandra's most famous novel Anand Math (1882). 6. National Currency (Indian Rupee) The Indian rupee (ISO code: INR) is the official currency of the Republic of India. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Indian rupee symbol is derived from the Devanagari consonant "र" (ra) and the Latin letter "R" was adopted in 2010. It has been designed by Udaya Kumar Dharmalingam. The INR depicts an equality sign that symbolizes the nation's desire to reduce economic disparity. The design of the INR was selected from among five shortlisted symbols. According to Udaya Kumar, the design is based on the Indian tricolor. 7. National Animal (Bengal Tiger) Royal Bengal Tiger is the national animal of India and ranks among the biggest cats in the world. It was adopted as the national animal of India in April 1973 due to the dwindling population of the tigers. Prior to the tiger the national animal of India was the Lion. 8. National Bird (Peacock) The Indian peacock (Pavo cristatus) is the national bird of India. A bird indigenous to the subcontinent, the peacock represents the unity of vivid colors and finds references in Indian culture. The Government of India declared the Peacock as the national bird of India on February 1, 1963. It is found in the drier lowland areas and is a resident breeder across the Indian subcontinent. 31 9. National Aquatic Animal (Dolphin) The Ganges river dolphin has been declared as the National Aquatic Animal of India by the Indian government. It is also the city animal of the Guwahati. The South Asian river dolphin primarily found in the Ganges, Yamuna, Chambal river, Brahmaputra river and their tributaries. 10. National Fruit (Mango) Mango (Mangifera indica) , affectionately called King of Fruits is the National fruit of India. Its sweet fragrance and delectable flavors have won the hearts of many around the world since time immemorial. As the national fruit of India, it represents prosperity, abundance and richness in favor of the country’s image. 11. National Flower (Lotus) The national flower of India is Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera). It is an aquatic herb that is often termed as ‘Padma’ in Sanskrit and enjoys a sacred status in the Indian culture. The Lotus symbolizes spirituality, fruitfulness, wealth, knowledge, and illumination, along with purity of heart and mind. 12. National Tree (Banyan Tree) The national tree of India is the Banyan tree, designated formally as Ficus benghalensis. The tree is often symbol of the fabled ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ or the ‘Tree of Wish Fullfillment’ as it is associated with longevity and has important medicinal properties. The very size and life span of the banyan tree makes it a habitat for a large number of creatures. 13. National River (Ganga) The Ganges or the Ganga is the national river of India. It originates in the snowfields of the Gangotri Glacier in the Himalayas as the Bhagirathi River. According to the Hindus, this is the most sacred river on the earth. Interestingly, the Ganga is also the longest river in India covering 2,510 km of mountains, plains and valleys. The major Indian cities through which it passes through are Varanasi, Allahabad and Haridwar. 14. National Reptile (King Cobra) King Cobra or Snake eater (Ophiophagus hannah) is the National Reptile of India and is found in the forests of India and Southeast Asia. It is the world longest venomous snake 32 which is capable of growing up to 19 ft and may live up to 25 years.They have an ability to inject 6 ml of venom in a single bite. It has its own cultural significance, in Hinduism King cobra is also known as Nagas and are considered as divine and worshiped Lord Shiva is often depicted with a cobra coiled around his neck. 15 National Game of India Hockey has maintained its status as India’s national sport despite cricket’s rising popularity. The Indian hockey team reached its pinnacle between 1928 and 1956, winning all six of those years’ consecutive Olympic gold medals. 16. National Heritage Animal (Indian Elephant) The Indian Elephant has been declared a National Heritage Animal of India, native to mainland Asia. The Indian elephant has been listed as endangered and threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. 17. Oath of Allegiance (National Pledge) The National Pledge is an oath of allegiance to the Republic Of India. It is commonly recited by Indians in unison at public events, especially in schools, and during the Independence Day and Republic Day celebrations. The pledge was originally composed in Telugu language by writer Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao in 1962. It was first read out in a school in Visakhapatnam in 1963 and was subsequently translated into various regional languages. 33 Video Links: 1 Different Forms of Government (What are the Forms of Government?) https://youtu.be/fjn8i_Z4lRs 2 The Constitution of India - An Introduction https://youtu.be/sDstf8ockUo 3 The Story of Indian Independence - Short Film by Unacademy https://youtu.be/- sw19FyG2oY 4 Government of India Act 1935 in Hindi [ UPSC ] - Bharat Shasan Adhiniyam 1935 https://youtu.be/vuYiT6yhElI 5 Indian Independence Act of 1947 in hindi | Historical Background of Indian Constitution UPSC SSC CGL https://youtu.be/QEUlBgpj1gU 34