Human Behavior in Organizations - Chapter 5 - Motivating Behavior PDF

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana CHAPTER 5: Motivating Behavior which results in a choice of goal directed behaviors. Afte...

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana CHAPTER 5: Motivating Behavior which results in a choice of goal directed behaviors. After performing the behavior, The Importance of Motivation the individual experiences rewards or punishments that affect the original need Motivation deficiency. set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M), ability (A), and environment (E): P=M×A×E To reach high levels of performance, an employee must: Want to do the job well (motivation). Be able to do the job effectively (ability). Early Perspectives on Motivation Have the materials, resources, Traditional approach equipment, and information Scientific management – required to do the job approach to motivation that (environment). assumes that employees are A deficiency in any one of these motivated by money. areas hurts performance Human relations approach suggests that fostering a false sense of employees’ inclusion in The Motivational Framework decision making will result in How motivational processes occur: positive employee attitudes and Need: anything an individual motivation to work hard. requires or wants. A need Human resource approach deficiency triggers attempts to assumes that people want to satisfy the need. contribute and are able to make Goal-directed behaviors result genuine contributions. from individuals trying to satisfy their need deficiencies. Rewards and punishments are Individual Differences and Motivation consequences of goal-directed Task-specific self-efficacy behavior. - a person’s beliefs in their Assessment of the extent to which capabilities to do what is required the outcome addressed the to accomplish a specific task. original need deficiency Three dimensions of self-efficacy: Magnitude - beliefs about how Figure 5.1 Motivational Framework difficult a task can be to accomplish This framework provides a useful way to Strength - beliefs about how see how motivational processes occur. confident the person is that the When people experience a need deficiency, they seek ways to satisfy it, 1|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana specific task can be - Describes existence, relatedness, accomplished. and growth needs. Generality - beliefs about the - More than one need may degree to which similar tasks can motivate a person at the same be accomplished. time. - Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression components The Hierarchy of Needs Two-factor theory - identifies motivation factors, Need-based theory which affect satisfaction, and - assumes that need deficiencies hygiene factors, which determine cause behavior dissatisfaction. Hierarchy of needs Motivation factors - Are intrinsic to - assumes that human needs are the work itself and include factors arranged in a hierarchy of such as achievement and importance recognition. Hygiene factors – Are extrinsic to Basic (or Growth needs the work itself and include factors deficiency) needs −Esteem such as pay and job security −Physiological −Self- actualization −Security Figure 5.3 The Two-Factor Theory of −Belongingness Motivation The traditional view of satisfaction suggested that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were opposite ends of a single dimension. Herzberg’s two- Figure 5.2 The Hierarchy of Needs factor theory found evidence of a more complex view. In this theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs consists motivation factors affect one of five basic categories of needs. This dimension, ranging from satisfaction figure illustrates both general and to no satisfaction. Other workplace organizational examples of each characteristics, called “hygiene type of need. Of course, each factors,” are assumed to affect individual has a wide variety of another dimension, ranging from specific needs within each category. dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction. The ERG and Two-Factor Theories ERG theory 2|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana The Acquired Needs Framework Acquired needs framework – centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Need for achievement – the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past. Need for affiliation – the need for human companionship. Need for power – the desire to control the resources in one’s The Expectancy Theory of Motivation environment. Expectancy theory – suggests that people are motivated by how much The Equity Theory of Motivation they want something and the Process-based perspective – focuses likelihood they perceive of getting it. on how people behave in their Basic expectancy model efforts to satisfy their needs. components: Equity theory – focuses on people’s Effort-to-performance desire to be treated with what they expectancy - The perceived perceive as equity and to avoid probability that effort will lead perceived inequity. to performance. Equity – the belief that we are Performance to outcome being treated fairly in relation expectancy - The perceived to others; inequity is the belief probability that performance that we are being treated will lead to certain outcomes unfairly in relation to others. Outcome - Anything that Equity comparison process in results from performing a terms of an input-to-outcome behavior. ratio. Valence - The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular outcome has for a person Figure 5.4 Responses to Perceptions of Equity Figure 5.5 The Expectancy Theory of and Inequity. Motivation People form equity perceptions by The expectancy theory is the most comparing their situation with that of complex model of employee someone else. If they perceive motivation in organizations. As equity, they are motivated to shown here, the key components of maintain the current situation. If they expectancy theory are effort-to- perceive inequity, they are performance expectancy, motivated to use one or more of the performance-to-outcome strategies shown here to reduce instrumentality, and outcomes, each inequity. of which has an associated valence. 3|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana These components interact with Believe their performance will effort, environment, and ability to result in the desired rewards. determine an individual’s How Learning Occurs performance. Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience. How learning occurs: Traditional view - Classical Figure 5.6 The Porter-Lawler Model conditioning, a simple form of learning that links a The Porter and Lawler expectancy conditioned response with an model provides interesting insights unconditioned stimulus into the relationship between Contemporary view - Learning satisfaction and performance. As as a cognitive process, which illustrated here, this model predicts assumes people are that satisfaction is determined by the conscious, active participants perceived equity of intrinsic and in how they learn. extrinsic rewards for performance. That is, rather than satisfaction Reinforcement Theory and Social Learning causing performance, which many Reinforcement theory people might predict, this model - Based on the idea that behavior argues that it is actually is a function of its consequences performance that eventually leads - Also called operant conditioning to satisfaction. (Skinner). - People consciously explore different behaviors and systematically choose those that result in the most desirable outcomes. Social learning - When people observe the behaviors of others, recognize the consequences, and alter their Evaluations of Expectancy Theory own behavior as a result. Expectancy theory has been tested - Behavior being observed and by many different researchers in a imitated must be relatively simple. variety of settings and using a variety - Observed and imitated behavior of methods. must be concrete, not - Its complexity makes it difficult to intellectual. test. - Learner must have the physical People will engage in motivated ability to imitate the observed behavior if they: behavior. Value the expected rewards. Believe their efforts will lead to performance. 4|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Behavior Modification Fixed-interval - Behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined, Behavior modification – the constant schedule based on time. application of reinforcement theory Variable-ratio - Behavior is reinforced to influence the behaviors of people according to the number of in organizational settings. behaviors exhibited, but the number Positive reinforcement uses of behaviors needed to gain rewards or other desirable reinforcement varies from one time consequences that a person to the next. receives after exhibiting Variable - interval Behavior is behavior. reinforced after periods of time, but Negative reinforcement the time span varies from one time (avoidance) involves the to the next opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting Motivating the Right Behavior behavior. Punishment is the application 1. Define the problem—what is it that of unpleasant or aversive could be improved? consequences to decrease 2. Identify and define the specific the likelihood of a behavior. behavior(s) you wish to change. Extinction decreases the 3. Record and track the occurrence of frequency of behavior by the target behavior. eliminating a reward or 4. Analyze the current negative desirable consequence that consequences of the undesired follows a behavior. behavior and arrange for more positive consequences to follow the Figure 5.7 Types of Reinforcers desired behavior. Individual behavior can be affected 5. Evaluate whether the behavior has when stimulus is either presented or improved and by how much. removed after a particular behavior. This is also dependent on whether the stimulus is positive or negative Table 5.1 Applying Motivation Theories to Various Managerial Challenges to Enhance Motivation The Timing of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio - Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain reinforcement held constant. 5|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana CHAPTER 8: Decision Making Table 8.1 Characteristics of Programmed and and Problem Solving Nonprogrammed Decisions The Nature of Decision Making Decision making – the process of choosing from among several alternatives. Problem solving – a special form of decision making that requires finding Decision-Making Conditions the answer to a question. The range of available information Figure 8.1 Elements of Decision Making can be considered as a continuum. Condition of certainty – a A decision maker has a goal, manager knows what the evaluates the outcomes of outcomes of each alternative alternative courses of action in terms of a given action will be and of the goal, and selects one has enough information to alternative to be implemented. estimate the probabilities of various outcomes. Condition of risk – the decision maker cannot know with certainty what the outcome of a given action will be but has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes. Types of Decisions Condition of uncertainty – the Programmed decision – a decision decision maker lacks enough that recurs often enough to develop information to estimate the decision rules probability of possible - Decision rule – a statement that outcomes. tells decision makers which Figure 8.2 Alternative Outcomes under alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision Different Decision-Making Conditions. situation. The three decision making conditions Nonprogrammed decision – a of certainty, risk, and uncertainty for decision that recurs infrequently and the decision about whether to for which there is no previously promote a new video game to the established decision rule market. 6|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Evaluating, Choosing, and Implementing The evaluation process usually includes: 1. Describing the anticipated outcomes (benefits) of each alternative. 2. Evaluating the anticipated costs of each alternative. 3. Estimating the uncertainties and risks associated with each alternative. The Rational Approach to Decision Making Planning may require a contingency Rational decision-making approach plan – alternative actions to take if – a systematic, step-by-step process the primary course of action is for making decisions. unexpectedly disrupted or rendered Assumptions: inappropriate Managers follow a systematic, Implementation may result in post- step-by-step process. decision dissonance – doubt about Organizations are dedicated a choice that’s already been made to making logical choices. Organizations want to do Strengths of Rational Approach what makes the most sense economically. Forces decision in a logical, Decision makers are sequential manner. completely objective and In-depth analysis enables the have complete information. decision maker to choose on the basis of information rather than Figure 8.3 The Rational Decision-Making emotion or social pressure Approach The rational model follows a Weaknesses of the Rational Approach systematic, step-by-step approach from goals to implementation, Rigid underlying assumptions are measurement, and control. often unrealistic. Information limited by time or cost constraints, manager’s ability to process information. Not all alternatives are easily quantified. Outcomes unknown due to unpredictability of the future. Evidence-Based Decision Making Evidence-based management (EBM) 7|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana the commitment to identify achieve a common goal (can be and utilize the best theory and positive or negative). data. Intuition - An innate belief about Face the hard facts and build something without conscious a culture in which people are consideration (hunch, often results in encouraged to tell the truth, better decision making). even if it’s unpleasant −Be Escalation of commitment - Occurs committed to “fact-based” when a decision maker stays with decision making. the decision even when it appears Treat your organization as an to be wrong. unfinished prototype. Risk propensity - The extent to which Look for the risks and a decision maker is willing to gamble drawbacks in what people in making a decision. recommend. Ethics - A person’s beliefs about what Avoid basing decisions on constitutes right and wrong untested beliefs, what was behavior. done in the past, or uncritical Prospect theory - Argues that people “benchmarking” of what making decisions under a condition winners do. of risk are more motivated to avoid losses than to seek gains. The Administrative Model An Integrated Approach to Decision Making Administrative model of decision making – argues that managers use The integrated (or practical) bounded rationality, rules of thumb, approach suboptimizing, and satisfaction in - Combines the unrealistic making decisions. demands of the rational Bounded rationality – decision approach and the limited, short- makers cannot deal with all term orientation of the behavioral the information pertaining to a approach to create a more problem, so they tackle some practical approach for making subset of it. decisions in organizations. Suboptimizing – knowingly Hybrid approaches accepting less than the best - Managers use a combination of possible outcome to avoid rational, behavioral, and unintended negative practical approaches to make consequences on other decisions. −Research has shown aspects of the organization. that speed of decision making Satisficing – examining isn’t a factor in the quality of the alternatives only until a decision. solution that meets minimal requirements is found. Figure 8.4 Practical Approach to Decision Other Behavioral Forces in Decision Making Making with Behavioral Guidelines Coalition - An informal alliance of The practical model applies some of individuals or groups formed to the conditions recognized by the 8|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana behavioral approach to the rational Failure to perceive nonobvious approach to decision making. risks and drawbacks of an Although similar to the rational alternative. model, the practical approach Rejection of expert opinions. recognizes personal limitations at Ignoring potential for setbacks each point (or step) in the process. or actions of competitors in not developing contingency plans. Table 8.2 Prescriptions for Preventing Groupthink Leader prescriptions 1. Assign everyone the role of critical evaluator. 2. Be impartial; do not state preferences. 3. Assign the devil’s advocate role to at least one group member. 4. Use outside experts to Figure 8.5 The Groupthink Process challenge the group. 5. Be open to dissenting points of Groupthink can occur when a highly view. cohesive group with a directive Organizational prescriptions leader is under time pressure; it can 1. Set up several independent result in a defective decision-making groups to study the same process and low probability of issue. successful outcomes. 2. Train managers and group leaders in groupthink prevention techniques. Individual prescriptions 1. 1. Be a critical thinker. 2. Discuss group deliberations with a trusted outsider, report back to the group. Decision-Making Defects and Decision Quality Process prescriptions Group deliberations dominated by 1. Periodically break the group groupthink increase the likelihood into subgroups to discuss the that decision-making defects will issues. occur. 2. Take time to study external Effects of groupthink: factors. Consideration of and focus on 3. Hold second-chance fewer alternatives. meetings to rethink issues before making a commitment. 9|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Participation in Decision Making Certain personality traits: openness; attraction to To what degree should employees complexity; high levels of be involved in the decision-making energy, independence and process? autonomy; strong belief in self- Benefits of participation: confidence and self-creativity Better solutions in “judgmental Cognitive abilities: Not all tasks”. intelligent people are creative, Produces more and better but all creative people are solutions in complex problem- intelligent and can think solving tasks. convergently and divergently Creates a greater interest in the task. Figure 8.6 The Creative Process Drawbacks: The creative process generally Higher risk of polarization and follows the four steps illustrated here. group thinking. Of course, there are exceptions, and the process is occasionally different. In most cases, however, these steps Group Problem Solving capture the essence of the creative Techniques to help the group process. problem-solving process work better: Brainstorming – a technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in developing many courses of action. Nominal group technique – members generate many ideas, discuss them, and then vote—repeating the cycle until they reach a decision. Delphi technique – a method of systematically gathering judgments from experts for use in developing forecasts. The Creative Individual Creativity – a person’s ability to Enhancing Creativity in Organizations generate new ideas or to conceive Clearly communicate that creativity of new perspectives on existing and innovation are valued: ideas. Use explicit goals to make Traits of creative individuals: creativity a part of the Background experiences organizational culture. where creativity was nurtured Reward creative successes. Don’t punish creative failures. 10 | P a g e  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Verbal and Nonverbal Communication CHAPTER 9: Communication Verbal communication The Communication Process communicating via spoken Communication – transmission of words or phrases. Typically information from one person to happens in real time but can another to create shared be asynchronous. understanding and feeling ▪ Intranet – an Encoding - Converting a organization’s private thought, idea, or fact into a network through which message composed of employees securely symbols, pictures, or words. communicate and Message - The encoded collaborate information. Verbal intonation – the Channel - The medium used to emphasis given to spoken send the message. words or phrases. Decoding - Translating the message back into something Nonverbal communication that can be understood by communications that are not the receiver. spoken or written but that Feedback - A check on the have meaning to others. success of the communication ▪ Body language – a Noise Anything that blocks, body movement such distorts, or changes in any way as a gesture or the message the sender expression that conveys intended to communicate. information to others. Written communication – Figure 9.1 The Communication Process communication that occurs The communication process involves via digital, printed, or written a number of steps. The process words or symbols begins with encoding a message, then transmitting that message through a channel, and it then being Active Listening and Feedback decoded by the receiver. Feedback Active listening helps improve communication - purposeful involvement in effectiveness, but, on the other listening to what others say and hand, noise can block or distort it. clarifying messages’ meanings using verbal and nonverbal cues. - Engage in the process of capturing information −Interpret and synthesize received information. - React to information through cues, verbal and nonverbal 11 | P a g e  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Effective and acceptable feedback that influences the message to a recipient is timely, frequent, received. consistent, specific, and private. Information Overload - An Responding to feedback involves abundance of information can acknowledgment, agreement make it difficult to process all of it, where applicable, requests for making clarity and conciseness details as necessary, and taking important in preventing this. responsibility Organizational Culture - Culture can influence who is willing and allowed to communicate what to whom and Communication Characteristics may limit how messages can be sent. Clarity - An organized message that Cultural Differences - Different can be interpreted with little or no national cultures have different confusion. norms and ways of expressing Conciseness - Conveying information and ideas. information efficiently through a singular focus, avoiding overcomplex messages; saying Cultural Differences “more with less”. Consistency - Ensuring the core Words and gestures can mean meaning remains the same across different things in different cultures. messages, across channels and Low-context cultures – cultures that media, and over time. rely on the words themselves to Audience consideration - Identifying convey meaning. People say what one’s audience and adapting a they mean and mean what they message to the audience’s size, say. level of understanding, interests, High-context cultures – cultures in attitudes, and beliefs. which situational and nonverbal cues are used to convey meaning. Requires greater trust and Table 9.2 Common Communication Barriers understanding. Lack of cultural understanding is the Noise - Anything that blocks, distorts, biggest challenge in communicating or changes the message the sender with people around the world. intended to communicate. Selective Perception - The receiver receives a limited amount of the Overcoming Barriers to Communication message based on their expectations and beliefs, usually to Approaches to overcome reinforce preexisting beliefs. communication barriers: Misperception - The receiver does Training on effective not understand the message in the communication and listening way the sender intended. strategies. Filtering - Information is intentionally Cross-cultural training to withheld by the sender or ignored or recognize cultural distorted by the receiver in a way communication patterns. 12 | P a g e  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Midterms Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Changing organizational do it, and how to get it done to communication styles to enhance efficiency, goal clarity, and remove communication production. When a manager gives barriers. instructions to a subordinate Flattened communication Relationship-oriented structure to decrease communication – communicating in distortion. a way that is employee-focused and intended to develop trust, Media Richness commitment, and cooperation. Media richness – ability of a When a manager provides positive communication medium to carry feedback or appreciation to a nonverbal cues, provide rapid subordinate. feedback, convey personality traits, and support the use of natural language. Communication Styles ✓ Interactivity, or the availability Communication style – way in which of feedback. people interact and exchange ✓ The ability to transmit multiple information with others. cues, such as physical Passive communication style – presence, voice inflection, avoiding conflict and nonverbal cues, and pictures. prioritizing the desires and ✓ Language variety for needs of others over one’s conveying a broad set of own desires and needs. concepts and ideas. Passive–aggressive ✓ The personal focus of the communication style – medium, or the degree to appearing cooperative but which it allows the expression silently feeling or doing the of emotions and other social opposite of what one is cues. communicating. Table 9.4 Media Richness of Various Assertive communication style Managerial Communications – openly communicating one’s needs, desires, and ideas while considering the needs of others and not being overbearing. Aggressive communication style – dominating or controlling others by blaming, intimidating, criticizing, threatening, or attacking Task- and Relationship-Oriented them. Communication Task-oriented communication - communicating what the receiver is expected to do, when and where to 13 | P a g e