historical perspective.pdf

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 11 12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction measure behavior relevant to such...

CHAPTER 1 Introduction 11 12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction measure behavior relevant to such factors as occupational preferences. Chapter 17 The Western world most likely learned about testing programs through the reviews the relatively new area of medical testing for brain damage and health status. Chinese. Reports by British missionaries and diplomats encouraged the English It also covers important recent advancements in developmental neuropsychology. East India Company in 1832 to copy the Chinese system as a method of selecting Finally, Chapter 18 covers tests for industrial and organizational psychology and employees for overseas duty. Because testing programs worked well for the company, business. the British government adopted a similar system of testing for its civil service in 1855. After the British endorsement of a civil service testing system, the French Issues of Psychological Testing and German governments followed suit. In 1883, the U.S. government established the American Civil Service Commission, which developed and administered Many social and theoretical issues, such as the controversial topic of racial differences competitive examinations for certain government jobs. The impetus of the testing in ability, accompany testing. Part III covers many of these issues. As a compromise movement in the Western world grew rapidly at that time (Wiggins, 1973). between breadth and depth of coverage, we focus on a comprehensive discussion of those issues that have particular importance in the current professional, social, and political environment. Charles Darwin and Individual Differences Chapter 19 examines test bias, one of the most volatile issues in the field Perhaps the most basic concept underlying psychological and educational testing (Cormier, McGrew, & Evans, 2011; Moreno & Mickie, 2011). Because psychological pertains to individual differences. No two snowflakes are identical, no two finger- tests have been accused of being discriminatory or biased against certain groups, prints the same. Similarly, no two people are exactly alike in ability and typical be- this chapter takes a careful look at both sides of the argument. Because of charges havior. As we have noted, tests are specifically designed to measure these individual of bias and other problems, psychological testing is increasingly coming under the differences in ability and personality among people. scrutiny of the law (Caffrey, 2009; Saccuzzo, 1999). Chapter 20 examines test bias Although human beings realized long ago that individuals differ, developing as related to legal issues and discusses testing and the law. Chapter 21 presents a tools for measuring such differences was no easy matter. To develop a measuring general overview of other major issues currently shaping the future of psychological device, we must understand what we want to measure. An important step toward testing in the United States with an emphasis on ethics. From our review of the understanding individual differences came with the publication of Charles Darwin’s issues, we also speculate on what the future holds for psychological testing. highly influential book The Origin of Species in 1859. According to Darwin’s theory, higher forms of life evolved partially because of differences among individual forms Historical Perspective of life within a species. Given that individual members of a species differ, some possess characteristics that are more adaptive or successful in a given environment We now briefly provide the historical context of psychological testing. This discus- than are those of other members. Darwin also believed that those with the best or sion touches on some of the material presented earlier in this chapter. most adaptive characteristics survive at the expense of those who are less fit and that the survivors pass their characteristics on to the next generation. Through this process, he argued, life has evolved to its currently complex and intelligent levels. Early Antecedents Sir Francis Galton, a relative of Darwin, soon began applying Darwin’s theories Most of the major developments in testing have occurred over the last century, many to the study of human beings (see Figure 1.5). of them in the United States. The origins of testing, however, are neither recent nor FIGURE 1.5 Given the concepts of survival of the fittest and American. Evidence suggests that the Chinese had a relatively sophisticated civil Sir Francis Galton. individual differences, Galton set out to show that service testing program more than 4000 years ago (DuBois, 1970, 1972). Every third some people possessed characteristics that made year in China, oral examinations were given to help determine work evaluations and them more fit than others, a theory he articulated promotion decisions. in his book Hereditary Genius, published in 1869. By the Han Dynasty (206–220 B.C.E.), the use of test batteries (two or more Galton (1883) subsequently began a series of tests used in conjunction) was quite common. These early tests related to such experimental studies to document the validity of diverse topics as civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography. Tests his position. He concentrated on demonstrating had become quite well developed by the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.). During that individual differences exist in human this period, a national multistage testing program involved local and regional testing sensory and motor functioning, such as reaction centers equipped with special testing booths. Those who did well on the tests at time, visual acuity, and physical strength. In the local level went on to provincial capitals for more extensive essay examinations. doing so, Galton initiated a search for knowledge After this second testing, those with the highest test scores went on to the nation’s concerning human individual differences, which capital for a final round. Only those who passed this third set of tests were eligible is now one of the most important domains of for public office. (From the National Library of Medicine) scientific psychology. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 11 12/13/16 4:41 PM 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 12 12/13/16 4:41 PM  CHAPTER 1 Introduction 13 14 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Galton’s work was extended by the U.S. psychologist James McKeen Cattell, who The Evolution of Intelligence and Standardized coined the term mental test (Cattell, 1890). Cattell’s doctoral dissertation was based on Galton’s work on individual differences in reaction time. As such, Cattell perpetuated Achievement Tests and stimulated the forces that ultimately led to the development of modern tests. The history and evolution of Binet’s intelligence test are instructive. The first version of the test, known as the Binet-Simon Scale, was published in 1905. This instrument contained 30 items of increasing difficulty and was designed to iden- Experimental Psychology and Psychophysical Measurement tify intellectually subnormal individuals. Like all well-constructed tests, the Binet- A second major foundation of testing can be found in experimental psychology and Simon Scale of 1905 was augmented by a comparison or standardization sample. early attempts to unlock the mysteries of human consciousness through the scientific Binet’s standardization sample consisted of 50 children who had been given the test method. Before psychology was practiced as a science, mathematical models of the under standard conditions—that is, with precisely the same instructions and format. mind were developed, in particular those of J. E. Herbart. Herbart eventually used In obtaining this standardization sample, the authors of the Binet test had norms these models as the basis for educational theories that strongly influenced 19th-cen- with which they could compare the results from any new subject. Without such tury educational practices. Following Herbart, E. H. Weber attempted to demon- norms, the meaning of scores would have been difficult, if not impossible, to eval- strate the existence of a psychological threshold, the minimum stimulus necessary to uate. However, by knowing such things as the average number of correct responses activate a sensory system. Then, following Weber, G. T. Fechner devised the law that found in the standardization sample, one could at least state whether a new subject the strength of a sensation grows as the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. was below or above it. Wilhelm Wundt, who set up a laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, It is easy to understand the importance of a standardization sample. However, is credited with founding the science of psychology, following in the tradition of the importance of obtaining a standardization sample that represents the population Weber and Fechner (Hearst, 1979). Wundt was succeeded by E. B. Titchner, whose for which a test will be used has sometimes been ignored or overlooked by test users. student, G. Whipple, recruited L. L. Thurstone. Whipple provided the basis for For example, if a standardization sample consists of 50 white men from wealthy immense changes in the field of testing by conducting a seminar at the Carnegie families, then one cannot easily or fairly evaluate the score of an African American Institute in 1919 attended by Thurstone, E. Strong, and other early prominent U.S. girl from a poverty-stricken family. Nevertheless, comparisons of this kind are psychologists. From this seminar came the Carnegie Interest Inventory and later the sometimes made. Clearly, it is not appropriate to compare an individual with a group Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Later in this book, we discuss in greater detail the that does not have the same characteristics as the individual. work of these pioneers and the tests they helped develop. Binet was aware of the importance of a standardization sample. Further Thus, psychological testing developed from at least two lines of inquiry: one development of the Binet test involved attempts to increase the size and based on the work of Darwin, Galton, and Cattell on the measurement of individual representativeness of the standardization sample. A representative sample is one differences, and the other (more theoretically relevant and probably stronger) based that comprises individuals similar to those for whom the test is to be used. When on the work of the German psychophysicists Herbart, Weber, Fechner, and Wundt. the test is used for the general population, a representative sample must reflect all Experimental psychology developed from the latter. From this work also came the idea segments of the population in proportion to their actual numbers. that testing, like an experiment, requires rigorous experimental control. Such control, By 1908, the Binet-Simon Scale had been substantially improved. It was revised as you will see, comes from administering tests under highly standardized conditions. to include nearly twice as many items as the 1905 scale. Even more significantly, The efforts of these researchers, however necessary, did not by themselves lead the size of the standardization sample was increased to more than 200. The 1908 to the creation of modern psychological tests. Such tests also arose in response to Binet-Simon Scale also determined a child’s mental age, thereby introducing a important needs such as classifying and identifying the mentally and emotionally historically significant concept. In simplified terms, you might think of mental age handicapped. One of the earliest tests resembling current procedures, the Seguin as a measurement of a child’s performance on the test relative to other children of Form Board Test (Seguin, 1866/1907), was developed in an effort to educate and that particular age group. If a child’s test performance equals that of the average evaluate the mentally disabled. Similarly, Kraepelin (1912) devised a series of 8-year-old, for example, then his or her mental age is 8. In other words, in terms of examinations for evaluating emotionally impaired people. the abilities measured by the test, this child can be viewed as having a similar level of An important breakthrough in the creation of modern tests came at the turn of ability as the average 8-year-old. The chronological age of the child may be 4 or 12, the 20th century. The French minister of public instruction appointed a commission but in terms of test performance, the child functions at the same level as the average to study ways of identifying intellectually subnormal individuals in order to provide 8-year-old. The mental age concept was one of the most important contributions of them with appropriate educational experiences. One member of that commission the revised 1908 Binet-Simon Scale. was Alfred Binet. Working in conjunction with the French physician T. Simon, In 1911, the Binet-Simon Scale received a minor revision. By this time, the Binet developed the first major general intelligence test. Binet’s early effort launched idea of intelligence testing had swept across the world. By 1916, L. M. Terman of the first systematic attempt to evaluate individual differences in human intelligence Stanford University had revised the Binet test for use in the United States. Terman’s (see Chapter 9). revision, known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Terman, 1916), was the Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 13 12/13/16 4:41 PM 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 14 12/13/16 4:41 PM  CHAPTER 1 Introduction 15 16 CHAPTER 1 Introduction only American version of the Binet test that flourished. It also characterizes one of By the 1930s, it was widely held that the objectivity and reliability of these new the most important trends in testing—the drive toward better tests. standardized tests made them superior to essay tests. Their use proliferated widely. Terman’s 1916 revision of the Binet-Simon Scale contained many improvements. It is interesting, as we shall discuss later in the book that teachers of today appear to The standardization sample was increased to include 1,000 people, original items have come full circle. Currently, many people favor written tests and work samples were revised, and many new items were added. Terman’s 1916 Stanford-Binet (portfolios) over standardized achievement tests as the best way to evaluate children, Intelligence Scale added respectability and momentum to the newly developing and reduce or prevent marginalization of minority children (Watson, 2015). testing movement. Rising to the Challenge World War I For every movement there is a countermovement, and the testing movement in the The testing movement grew enormously in the United States because of the de- United States in the 1930s was no exception. Critics soon became vocal enough to mand for a quick efficient way of evaluating the emotional and intellectual function- dampen enthusiasm and to make even the most optimistic advocates of tests defen- ing of thousands of military recruits in World War I. The war created a demand for sive. Researchers, who demanded nothing short of the highest standards, noted the large-scale group testing because relatively few trained personnel could evaluate the limitations and weaknesses of existing tests. Not even the Stanford-Binet, a land- huge influx of military recruits. However, the Binet test was an individual test. mark in the testing field, was safe from criticism. Although tests were used between Shortly after the United States became actively involved in World War I, the two world wars and many new tests were developed, their accuracy and utility the army requested the assistance of Robert Yerkes, who was then the president remained under heavy fire. of the American Psychological Association (see Yerkes, 1921). Yerkes headed Near the end of the 1930s, developers began to reestablish the respectability of a committee of distinguished psychologists who soon developed two structured tests. New, improved tests reflected the knowledge and experience of the previous group tests of human abilities: the Army Alpha and the Army Beta. The Army two decades. By 1937, the Stanford-Binet had been revised again. Among the Alpha required reading ability, whereas the Army Beta measured the intelligence many improvements was the inclusion of a standardization sample of more than of illiterate adults. 3000 individuals. A mere 2 years after the 1937 revision of the Stanford-Binet test, World War I fueled the widespread development of group tests. About this time, David Wechsler published the first version of the Wechsler intelligence scales (see the scope of testing also broadened to include tests of achievement, aptitude, interest, Chapter 10), the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (W-B) (Wechsler, 1939). The and personality. Because achievement, aptitude, and intelligence tests overlapped Wechsler-Bellevue scale contained several interesting innovations in intelligence considerably, the distinctions proved to be more illusory than real. Even so, the 1916 testing. Unlike the Stanford-Binet test, which produced only a single score (the so- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale had appeared at a time of strong demand and high called IQ, or intelligence quotient), Wechsler’s test yielded several scores, permitting optimism for the potential of measuring human behavior through tests. World War I an analysis of an individual’s pattern or combination of abilities. and the creation of group tests had then added momentum to the testing movement. Among the various scores produced by the Wechsler test was the performance Shortly after the appearance of the 1916 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the IQ. Performance tests do not require a verbal response; one can use them to evaluate Army Alpha test, schools, colleges, and industry began using tests. It appeared to intelligence in people who have few verbal or language skills. The Stanford-Binet many that this new phenomenon, the psychological test, held the key to solving the test had long been criticized because of its emphasis on language and verbal skills, problems emerging from the rapid growth of population and technology. making it inappropriate for many individuals, such as those who cannot speak or who cannot read. In addition, few people believed that language or verbal skills play Achievement Tests an exclusive role in human intelligence. Wechsler’s inclusion of a nonverbal scale Among the most important developments following World War I was the devel- thus helped overcome some of the practical and theoretical weaknesses of the Binet opment of standardized achievement tests. In contrast to essay tests, standardized test. In 1986, the Binet test was drastically revised to include performance subtests. achievement tests provide multiple-choice questions that are standardized on a More recently, it was overhauled again in 2003, as we shall see in Chapter 9. (Other large sample to produce norms against which the results of new examinees can be important concepts in intelligence testing will be formally defined in Chapter 10, compared. which covers the various forms of the Wechsler intelligence scales.) Standardized achievement tests caught on quickly because of the relative ease of administration and scoring and the lack of subjectivity or favoritism that can occur in essay or other written tests. In school settings, standardized achievement Personality Tests: 1920–1940 tests allowed one to maintain identical testing conditions and scoring standards for Just before and after World War II, personality tests began to blossom. Whereas in- a large number of children. Such tests also allowed a broader coverage of content telligence tests measured ability or potential, personality tests measured presumably and were less expensive and more efficient than essays. In 1923, the development stable characteristics or traits that theoretically underlie behavior. Traits are rela- of standardized achievement tests culminated in the publication of the Stanford tively enduring dispositions (tendencies to act, think, or feel in a certain manner in Achievement Test by T. L. Kelley, G. M. Ruch, and L. M. Terman. any given circumstance) that distinguish one individual from another. For example, Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 15 12/13/16 4:41 PM 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 16 12/13/16 4:41 PM  CHAPTER 1 Introduction 17 18 CHAPTER 1 Introduction we say that some people are optimistic and some pessimistic. Optimistic people tend FIGURE 1.7 to remain so regardless of whether or not things are going well. A pessimist, by con- Card 1 of the Rorschach trast, tends to look at the negative side of things. Optimism and pessimism can thus inkblot test, a projective be viewed as traits. One of the basic goals of traditional personality tests is to mea- personality test. sure traits. As you will learn, however, the notion of traits has important limitations. Such tests provide an The earliest personality tests were structured paper-and-pencil group tests. ambiguous stimulus to These tests provided multiple-choice and true-false questions that could be which a subject is asked administered to a large group. Because it provides a high degree of structure—that to make some response. is, a definite stimulus and specific alternative responses that can be unequivocally scored—this sort of test is a type of structured personality test. The first structured personality test, the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, was developed during World War I and was published in final form just after the war (see Figure 1.6). As indicated earlier, the motivation underlying the development of the first personality test was the need to screen military recruits. History indicates that tests such as the Binet and the Woodworth were created by necessity to meet unique by the late 1930s and early 1940s. Following World War II, however, personality challenges. Like the early ability tests, however, the first structured personality test tests based on fewer or different assumptions were introduced, thereby rescuing the was simple by today’s standards. Interpretation of the Woodworth test depended structured personality test. on the now-discredited assumption that the content of an item could be accepted During the brief but dramatic rise and fall of the first structured personality tests, at face value. If the person marked “False” for the statement “I wet the bed,” then interest in projective tests began to grow. In contrast to structured personality tests, it was assumed that he or she did not “wet the bed.” As logical as this assumption which in general provide a relatively unambiguous test stimulus and specific alternative seems, experience has shown that it is often false. In addition to being dishonest, the responses, projective personality tests provide an ambiguous stimulus and unclear person responding to the question may not interpret the meaning of “wet the bed” response requirements. Furthermore, the scoring of projective tests is often subjective. the same way as the test administrator does. (Other problems with tests such as the Unlike the early structured personality tests, interest in the projective Rorschach Woodworth are discussed in Chapter 13.) inkblot test grew slowly (see Figure 1.7). The Rorschach test was first published by The introduction of the Woodworth test was enthusiastically followed by Herman Rorschach of Switzerland in 1921. However, several years passed before the creation of a variety of structured personality tests, all of which assumed that the Rorschach came to the United States, where David Levy introduced it. The a subject’s response could be taken at face value. However, researchers scrutinized, first Rorschach doctoral dissertation written in a U.S. university was not completed analyzed, and criticized the early structured personality tests, just as they had until 1932, when Sam Beck, Levy’s student, decided to investigate the properties of done with the ability tests. Indeed, the criticism of tests that relied on face value the Rorschach test scientifically. Although initial interest in the Rorschach test was alone became so intense that structured personality tests were nearly driven out of lukewarm at best, its popularity grew rapidly after Beck’s work despite suspicion, existence. The development of new tests based on more modern concepts followed, doubt, and criticism from the scientific community. Today, however, the Rorschach is revitalizing the use of structured personality tests. Thus, after an initial surge of under a dark cloud (see Chapter 14). interest and optimism during most of the 1920s, structured personality tests declined Adding to the momentum for the acceptance and use of projective tests was the development of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan in 1935. Whereas the Rorschach test contained completely FIGURE 1.6 Yes No ambiguous inkblot stimuli, the TAT was more structured. Its stimuli consisted of The Woodworth ambiguous pictures depicting a variety of scenes and situations, such as a boy sitting 1. I wet the bed. Personal Data Sheet in front of a table with a violin on it. Unlike the Rorschach test, which asked the represented an attempt 2. I drink a quart of whiskey each day. subject to explain what the inkblot might be, the TAT required the subject to make to standardize the up a story about the ambiguous scene. The TAT purported to measure human needs 3. I am afraid of closed spaces. psychiatric interview. It and thus to ascertain individual differences in motivation. contains questions such 4. I believe I am being followed. as those shown here. 5. People are out to get me. The Emergence of New Approaches to Personality Testing 6. Sometimes I see or hear things that other The popularity of the two most important projective personality tests, the Rorschach people do not hear or see. and TAT, grew rapidly by the late 1930s and early 1940s, perhaps because of disil- lusionment with structured personality tests (Dahlstrom, 1969a). However, as we Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 17 12/13/16 4:41 PM 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 18 12/13/16 4:41 PM  CHAPTER 1 Introduction 19 20 CHAPTER 1 Introduction shall see in Chapter 14, projective tests, particularly the Rorschach, have not with- The Period of Rapid Changes in the Status of Testing stood a vigorous examination of their psychometric properties (Wood, L ­ ilienfeld, ­Nezworski, Garb, Allen, & Wildermuth, 2010). The 1940s saw not only the emergence of a whole new technology in psychological testing but also the growth of applied aspects of psychology. The role and signifi- In 1943, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) began a new era for structured personality tests. The idea behind the MMPI—to use empirical cance of tests used in World War I were reaffirmed in World War II. By this time, methods to determine the meaning of a test response—helped revolutionize structured the U.S. government had begun to encourage the continued development of applied psychological technology. As a result, considerable federal funding provided paid, personality tests. The problem with early structured personality tests such as the Woodworth was that they made far too many assumptions that subsequent scientific supervised training for clinically oriented psychologists. By 1949, formal university investigations failed to substantiate. The authors of the MMPI, by contrast, argued training standards had been developed and accepted, and clinical psychology was that the meaning of a test response could be determined only by empirical research. born. Other applied branches of psychology—such as industrial, counseling, educa- tional, and school psychology—soon began to blossom. The MMPI, along with its updated companion the MMPI-2 (Butcher, 1989, 1990), is currently the most widely used and referenced personality test. Its emphasis on the One of the major functions of the applied psychologist was providing psychological need for empirical data has stimulated the development of tens of thousands of studies. testing. The Shakow, Hilgard, Kelly, Sanford, and Shaffer (1947) report, which was the foundation of the formal training standards in clinical psychology, specified Just about the time the MMPI appeared, personality tests based on the statistical procedure called factor analysis began to emerge. Factor analysis is a method of that psychological testing was a unique function of the clinical psychologist and finding the minimum number of dimensions (characteristics, attributes), called recommended that testing methods be taught only to doctoral psychology students. factors, to account for a large number of variables. We may say a person is outgoing, is A position paper of the American Psychological Association published 7 years later (APA, 1954) affirmed that the domain of the clinical psychologist included testing. It gregarious, seeks company, is talkative, and enjoys relating to others. However, these descriptions contain a certain amount of redundancy. A factor analysis can identify formally declared, however, that the psychologist would conduct psychotherapy only how much they overlap and whether they can all be accounted for or subsumed in “true” collaboration with physicians. Thus, psychologists could conduct testing independently, but not psychotherapy. Indeed, as long as psychologists assumed the under a single dimension (or factor) such as extroversion. In the early 1940s, J. R. Guilford made the first serious attempt to use factor role of testers, they played a complementary but often secondary role vis-à-vis medical analytic techniques in the development of a structured personality test. By the practitioners. Though the medical profession could have hindered the emergence of clinical psychology, it did not, because as tester the psychologist aided the physician. end of that decade, R. B. Cattell had introduced the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF); despite its declining popularity, it remains one of the most Therefore, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, testing was the major function of the well-constructed structured personality tests and an important example of a test clinical psychologist (Shaffer, 1953). developed with the aid of factor analysis. Today, factor analysis is a tool used in the For better or worse, depending on one’s perspective, the government’s efforts design or validation of just about all major tests. (Factor analytic personality tests to stimulate the development of applied aspects of psychology, especially clinical will be discussed in Chapter 13.) See Table 1.2 for a brief overview of personality psychology, were extremely successful. Hundreds of highly talented and creative tests. young people were attracted to clinical and other applied areas of psychology. These individuals, who would use tests and other psychological techniques to solve practical human problems, were uniquely trained as practitioners of the principles, empirical TABLE 1.2 Summary of Personality Tests foundations, and applications of the science of psychology. Woodworth Personal Data Sheet: An early structured personality test that assumed Armed with powerful knowledge from scientific psychology, many of these early that a test response can be taken at face value. clinical practitioners must have felt frustrated by their relationship to physicians (see Saccuzzo & Kaplan, 1984). Unable to engage independently in the practice The Rorschach Inkblot Test: A highly controversial projective test that provided an ambiguous stimulus (an inkblot) and asked the subject what it might be. of psychotherapy, some psychologists felt like technicians serving the medical profession. The highly talented group of post-World War II psychologists quickly The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A projective test that provided ambiguous began to reject this secondary role. Further, because many psychologists associated pictures and asked subjects to make up a story. tests with this secondary relationship, they rejected testing (Lewandowski & The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): A structured personality Saccuzzo, 1976). At the same time, the potentially intrusive nature of tests and fears test that made no assumptions about the meaning of a test response. Such meaning of misuse began to create public suspicion, distrust, and contempt for tests. Attacks was to be determined by empirical research. on testing came from within and without the profession. These attacks intensified The California Psychological Inventory (CPI): A structured personality test and multiplied so fast that many psychologists jettisoned all ties to the traditional developed according to the same principles as the MMPI. tests developed during the first half of the 20th century. Testing therefore underwent The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF): A structured personality test another sharp decline in status in the late 1950s that persisted into the 1970s (see based on the statistical procedure of factor analysis. Holt, 1967). Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 19 12/13/16 4:41 PM 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 20 12/13/16 4:41 PM  CHAPTER 1 Introduction 21 The Current Environment Beginning in the 1980s and through the present, several major branches of applied psychology emerged and flourished: neuropsychology, health psychology, forensic psychology, and child psychology. Because each of these important areas of psychol- ogy makes extensive use of psychological tests, psychological testing again grew in status and use. Neuropsychologists use tests in hospitals and other clinical settings to assess brain injury. Health psychologists use tests and surveys in a variety of medical settings. Forensic psychologists use tests in the legal system to assess mental state as it relates to an insanity defense, competency to stand trial or to be executed, and emotional damages. Child psychologists use tests to assess childhood disorders. Tests are presently in use in developed countries throughout the world (Black & William, 2007; Schwager et al., 2015). As in the past, psychological testing remains one of the most important yet controversial topics in psychology. As a student, no matter what your occupational or professional goals, you will find the material in this text invaluable. If you are among those who are interested in using psychological techniques in an applied setting, then this information will be particularly significant. From the roots of psychology to the present, psychological tests have remained among the most important instruments of the psychologist in general and of those who apply psychology in particular. Testing is indeed one of the essential elements of psychology. Though not all psychologists use tests and some psychologists are opposed to them, all areas of psychology depend on knowledge gained in research studies that rely on measurements. The meaning and dependability of these measurements are essential to psychological research. To study any area of human behavior effectively, one must understand the basic principles of measurement. In today’s complex society, the relevance of the principles, applications, and issues of psychological testing extends far beyond the field of psychology. Even if you do not plan to become a psychologist, you will likely encounter psychological tests. Attorneys, physicians, social workers, business managers, educators, and many other professionals must frequently deal with reports based on such tests. Even as a parent, you are likely to encounter tests (taken by your children). To interpret such information adequately, you need the information presented in this book. The more you know about psychological tests, the more confident you can be in your encounters with them. Given the attacks on tests and threats to prohibit or greatly limit their use, you have a responsibility to yourself and to society to know as much as you can about psychological tests. The future of testing may well depend on you and people like you. A thorough knowledge of testing will allow you to base your decisions on facts and to ensure that tests are used for the most beneficial and constructive purposes. Summary The history of psychological testing in the United States has been brief but in- tense. Although these sorts of tests have long been available, psychological testing is very much a product of modern society with its unprecedented technology and Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 98137_ch01_ptg01_001-022.indd 21 12/13/16 4:41 PM