General Osteology PDF 2024/2025 - Comenius University

This presentation/lecture is copyrighted study material intended exclusively for students of Jessenius Faculty of Medicine at Comenius University for study purposes. Unauthorized use of the audio-video, video, audio or other recording of this presentation/lecture, or its part, including unautho...

This presentation/lecture is copyrighted study material intended exclusively for students of Jessenius Faculty of Medicine at Comenius University for study purposes. Unauthorized use of the audio-video, video, audio or other recording of this presentation/lecture, or its part, including unauthorized modifications and their further unauthorized distribution, or provision to unauthorized persons in any way, will be considered a violation of internal regulation no. 16/2017 Code of Ethics of CU in Bratislava, as amended ("Code of Ethics of Comenius University") and will result in a legal liability. Depending on the nature and intensity of the student's unlawful conduct and other circumstances, any cases of violation of the Code of Ethics of CU may lead to legal consequences for the student at the academic, criminal, civil or disciplinary level. General osteology Department of Anatomy Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin Comenius University Bratislava Ac. year 2024/2025 Human skeleton – around 10% of body weight axial skeleton vertebral column ribs, sternum skull appendicular skeleton skeleton of the upper limb skeleton of the lower limb Functions of the human skeleton: support, movement protection of vital organs haematopoiesis - blood cell production metabolism of minerals (reservoir of calcium and phosphorus) endocrine function Functions of the human skeleton: support - internal framework which mechanically supports the body movement - allowed by the joints between the bones and powered by the muscles attached to the bones protection of vital organs - skull - the brain - thoracic skeleton - the lungs and the heart with large vessels - vertebral canal - the spinal cord, Functions of the human skeleton: haematopoiesis - blood cell development in the bone marrow bone marrow - gelatinous substance within the spongy bone; it contains blood stem cells - responsible for the generation of blood cells and marrow adipose tissue depending on the prevalence of hematopoietic cells vs marrow adipose tissue ✓ red marrow (medulla ossium rubra) hematopoietically active https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/bone-marrow in adults only in vertebrae, skull, sternum, ribs, hip bones and at the epiphyses of the long bones ✓ yellow marrow (medulla ossium flava) made mostly of fat - marrow adispose tissue not found in children until cca 7 years then progressive conversion towards "yellow" marrow with the age https://www.mybeckman.co/resources/sample-type/tissues/bone-marrow  Functions of the human skeleton: metabolism of minerals - reservoir of endocrine function calcium and phosphorus - osteoblasts release the hormon - 99% of body calcium and 30% of body phosphorus osteocalcin - bone-specific protein reserves - bound in the bones - bone marrow - iron metabolism - haemoglobin https://labs.selfdecode.com/blog/osteocalcin/ Schalin-Jäntti, Camilla. (2019). Unmet therapeutic, educational and scientific needs in parathyroid disorders. European journal of endocrinology. 181. 10.1530/EJE-19-0316. Bone organic substances – cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts) and collagen typ I inorganic matrix – calcium phosphate, magnesium phosphate,calcium carbonate... collagen fibrils are encased within calcium phosphate crystals Macroscopic architecture - 2 forms: Sangchay, Napakorn. (2015). Impact of nitric acid exposure on compact (cortical) bone – outer layer the morphometrix analysis of osteon. - osteons and lamellae (see next slide) - at the epiphysis – thin shell - at the diaphysis - thick spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone - trabeculae – long slender protrusions - no true osteons - less density (5-70% of compact bone) spongy (cancellous or trabecular) - spongy bone in flat bones of the skull bone is called „diploe“ http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php Sangchay, Napakorn. (2015). Impact of nitric acid exposure on the morphometrix analysis of osteon.  Compact and spongy bone compact (cortical) bone spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone - Haversian system – osteons 3 types of cells are responsible for the bone homeostasis: - branched protrusions - trabeculae, - osteon - concentrinc rings osteoblasts - producing the osteocytes within the bone matrix, (lamellae) of bony tissue bone matrix, when they are bone marrow within irregular around the central entrapped in the lacunae - cavities formed by trabeculae „Haversian“ canal containing become osteocytes the blood and lymphatic - trabeculae of spongy bone follow osteocytes - mature bone cells vessels and nerves the lines of mechanical stress and osteoclasts - resorbing the they can realign due to stress bone changes osteon http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php Sangchay, Napakorn. (2015). Impact of nitric acid exposure on the morphometrix analysis of osteon.  Bone modeling and remodeling osteogenesis (bone formation) –performed by the osteoblasts osteoclasis (bone resorption) – performed by the osteoclasts bone modeling – osteogenesis and osteoclasis at the different sites – the shape of the bone changes bone remodeling - osteogenesis and osteoclasis at the same site – the shape of the bone is not changed but the old bone is replaced by the new bone in constant loading of bones - osteogenesis and osteoclasis are in balance osteogenesis ˃ osteoclasis... osteosclerosis osteogenesis < osteoclasis...osteolysis or osteoporosis https://www.osc-ortho.com/blog/what-are-osteoporosis-osteopenia/ http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php https://musculoskeletalkey.com/osteosclerosis/ Periosteum covers the outer surface of the bones except the articular surfaces (they are covered by articular cartilage) it consists of 2 layers: outer – fibrous layer – dense connective tissue and fibroblasts inner – osteogenic regenerative layer - progenitor cells → osteoblasts – this layer is responsible for: - the growth of the bone in the width (appositional growth) - regeneration (healing process e.g. after the fracture) periosteum is highly vascularized (periostal vessels) and very well innervated (high density of the sensory nerve fibres) Sharpey fibres anchor the periosteum to the compact bone Illustration from Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013.  Endosteum endosteum covers the surface of the spongy bone – trabeculae and the Haversian canals it is formed by a single layer of the epithelial cells it is much thinner than the periosteum R.K. FUCHS, S.J. WARDEN, C.H. TURNER,2 - Bone anatomy, physiology and adaptation to mechanical loadingEditor(s): Josep A. Planell, Serena M. Best, Damien Lacroix, Antonio Merolli,In Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials,Bone Repair Biomaterials,Woodhead Publishing2009,Pages 25- 68,ISBN 9781845693855,https://doi.org/10.1533/978184569661 http://histology.med.yale.edu/b 0.1.25. one/bone_reading.php  Classification of the bones long bones flat bones short bones irregular bones air filled bones sesamoid bones https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=8947  Long bones shaft (body; corpus in Latin) – diaphysis proximal end - proximal epiphysis distal end – distal epiphysis metaphysis between the epiphysis and diaphysis apophysis – elevation, protrusion at the bone with separate ossification centre epiphysial plate or growth cartilage - responsible for the longitudinal growth of the long bones - around 20 years of age, the cartilage is replaced by bony tissues medullary cavity within the shaft (in adult - yellow bone marrow) https://www.theskeletalsystem.net/types-of-bones/long-bones humerus, femur, radius, ulna, metacarpal bones, phalanges... not the size, however, the shape is important phalanges are miniatur long bones - they have diaphysis - shaft and 2 epiphyses - head and base https://www.mybeckman.co/resources/sample-type/tissues/bone-marrow Flat bones Short bones layer of spongy bone between two thin no medullary cavity but a core of spongy layers of compact bone bone scapula, frontal bone, parietal carpal bones – scaphoid, bone, sternum, ribs, ilium... trapezium... tarsal bones – talus, calcaneus... Irregular bones Air - filled bones (pneumatic bones) vertebra, sacrum,ethmoid bone, mandible... frontal bone, sphenoid bone, maxilla, mastoid process of temporal bone, ethmoid bone... Sesamoid bones bones embedded in tendons patella, pisiform bone... patella Blood supply of the bones https://3d4medical.com/blog/blood-supply-to-the-bone Nutrient artery system (arteriae nutritiae) nutrient arteries are branches from major systemic arteries artery runs into the bone through the nutrient foramen to the medullary cavity supplies cca 2/3 of the bone within Haversian system (osteons) Metaphyseal-epiphyseal system epiphyseal and metaphyseal arteries from the arteries around the joint – periarticular plexuses Periostal system periostal arteries (from periosteum) supply outer 1/3 of the bone Bone development endesmal enchondral - begins since the end of the 2nd embryonic month - ends around 20years of age - 2 types of ossification – osteogenesis: endesmal and enchondral Endesmal (intramembranous) ossification direct conversion of embryological mesenchymal tissue - membranes to the bony tissue mesenchymal cells differentiate directly to the osteoblasts flat bones of the skull (e.g. parietal bones, frontal bone...) http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php Čihák, R.: Anatomie 1. Grada, 2011.  endesmal Bone development enchondral - begins since the end of the 2nd embryonic month - ends around 20years of age - 2 types of ossification – osteogenesis: endesmal and enchondral Enchodral (cartilagineous) ossification indirect bone is synthetized from the hyaline cartilage mesenchymal cells firstly differentiate to the chondrocytes that proliferate, produce the matrix and form the cartilagineous model of the bone; subsequently the cartilagineous template of the bone is rebuilt to the bony tissue majority of the bones – e.g. long bones... http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php Čihák, R.: Anatomie 1. Grada, 2011. Ossification centres Primary ossification centres appear during the first half of the intrauterine development (the first centres cca in the 8. – 9. embryonic week) situated in the diaphyses of the long bones or at the bodies of the irregular bones Secondary ossification https://radiopaedia.org/articles/diaphysis centres ?lang=us emerge during the 2nd half of the intrauterine development and postnataly during the first years situated in the epiphyses and apophyses (epiphyseal and Mikael Häggström, from source image by apophyseal ossification) James Heilman - File:Tibfracture.png Appearance of ossification centres Skeletal development of the hand. Schematic representation (source: Schmitt and Lanz 2008). https://radiologykey.com/skeletal-age/ Determination of the skeletal age (skeletal maturity) – the most common method - wrist X ray – reflects maturity of the carpal bones – important e.g. for the orthopedics – treatment planning references Paulsen, F. et al. Sobotta Anatomy Textbook, Elsevier Science, 2018. 840 s. ISBN 9780702067600. Paulsen, F. et al. Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy, (3 Volume Set), Urban and Fischer, 2013. 1180 s. ISBN 9780702052507. English Edition with English Terminology Drake, R. wt al. Gray´s Anatomy for Students, 4th Edition. Elsevier Science, 2019, 1180 pp. ISBN 9780323393041 Song L. Calcium and Bone Metabolism Indices. Adv Clin Chem. 2017;82:1-46. doi: 10.1016/bs.acc.2017.06.005. Epub 2017 Aug 7. PMID: 28939209. Sangchay, Napakorn. (2015). Impact of nitric acid exposure on the morphometrix analysis of osteon. http://histology.med.yale.edu/bone/bone_reading.php Schalin-Jäntti, Camilla. (2019). Unmet therapeutic, educational and scientific needs in parathyroid disorders. European journal of endocrinology. 181. 10.1530/EJE-19-0316. https://www.osc-ortho.com/blog/what-are-osteoporosis-osteopenia/ https://musculoskeletalkey.com/osteosclerosis Illustration from Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013. R.K. FUCHS, S.J. WARDEN, C.H. TURNER,2 - Bone anatomy, physiology and adaptation to mechanical loadingEditor(s): Josep A. Planell, Serena M. Best, Damien Lacroix, Antonio Merolli,In Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomaterials,Bone Repair Biomaterials,Woodhead Publishing2009,Pages 25-68,ISBN 9781845693855,https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845696610.1.25. https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=8947 https://www.theskeletalsystem.net/types-of-bones/long-bones https://3d4medical.com/blog/blood-supply-to-the-bone Schmitt and Lanz 2008 : Skeletal development of the hand. Schematic representation. https://radiologykey.com/skeletal-age/ Čihák, R.: Anatomie 1. Grada, 2011.