GENDER-AND-SEXUALITY-PERCEPTION-LESSON-1 (1).pdf

GENDER AND SEXUALITY PERCEPTION LESSON 1-17 Lesson Proper for Week 1 Completion requirements GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTIONS OF SEXUAL INTENT Gender differences in sexual intent perception, and the possible adverse consequences of this phenomenon, it is an opportune moment to s...

GENDER AND SEXUALITY PERCEPTION LESSON 1-17 Lesson Proper for Week 1 Completion requirements GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTIONS OF SEXUAL INTENT Gender differences in sexual intent perception, and the possible adverse consequences of this phenomenon, it is an opportune moment to summarize existing research findings and recommend future directions. This article aims to provide a qualitative review and integration of findings pertaining to gender differences in sexual intent perception. To this end, we will (a) Define and critique key constructs and typical research methodologies, (b) Summarize findings, (c) Review theoretical explanations for gender differences, and (d) Propose future directions. We intend our treatment to represent the breadth and depth of the field, and we will rely on selective studies for illustration. SEXUAL INTENTIONS Sexual intentions or sexual intent is best understood as one person’s subjective interest in pursuing some type of sexual activity. The word subjective is intended to connote cognitive and affective appraisals, but not necessarily physiological sexual arousal; sexual activity includes sexual behaviors that range from touching and kissing to intercourse. Perceptions of sexual intentions or sexual intent perceptions, then, refer to the assessment of one person’s interest in pursuing sexual activity. These judgments may reflect one’s assessment of another person’s interest in pursuing sexual activity with (a) oneself or (b) a third party. DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTION VERSUS MISPERCEPTION The phenomenon of one person perceiving another person’s behavior as more sexual than was intended has been termed “misperception of sexual intent” (Abbey, 1982). Other researchers have extended Abbey’s definition and noted that the term misperception could convey two separate meanings, that is, interpreting another person’s behaviors as more or less sexual than intended (Haselton, 2003). In addition, the term misperception implies that a person’s behaviors were interpreted incorrectly and that people are aware of this error or discrepancy. CONSTRUCT STRENGTHS, LIMITATIONS, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS There are both general strengths and limitations to the construct of sexual intentions and the methodology used to assess them. We discuss each in turn and, in our discussion of limitations, propose future directions for refining the conceptualization of these constructions. A final problem is that the constructs of sexual intent and perceptions of sexual intent may be conflated with other constructs such as sexual consent. Arguing from a feminist perspective, we hold that being interested in pursuing sex or perceiving someone as interested in pursuing sex is not synonymous with agreeing to or consenting to engage in sex. However, we also hold that whether individuals actually view them as distinct is an empirical question that, if addressed, would provide important information regarding the constructs of sexual intentions and perceptions of sexual intentions. In sum, sexual intentions represent a unique, useful, and important construct that is worthy of greater empirical attention. GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL INTENTIONS As discussed above, Abbey (1982) found that men saw more sexuality in male and female targets than did women. Subsequent sexual intent studies have typically included an investigation of some aspect of rater and target gender differences. Collectively, findings suggest that the reliability of rater gender differences in sexual intent perception varies based on target gender Despite a stream of studies supporting the finding that men, compared to women, infer more sexuality in female targets, there have been some exceptions (see Cahoon & Edmonds, 1989; Quackenbush, 1987; Sigal, Gibbs, Adams, & Derfler, 1988). Target Influences Studies of sexual intent perception commonly include manipulations of one or more target attributes. Three target attributes that have frequently been examined as moderators are discussed here: target gender, target behaviors, and target identity. Target gender Several studies have examined sexual intent perceptions as a function of target gender, focusing on whether male or female targets are perceived more sexually. When the gender of a target engaging in behavior is manipulated, researchers typically find that the behavior is interpreted more sexually when the target is female. Target behaviors The influence of target behaviors has been examined in several studies using a variety of methods.  Target identity  Rater Influences  Self-reported attitudes  Self-reported experiences  Race and Ethnicity Influences  Situational Influences  Alcohol  Priming influences   Social-Information Processing Another variable frequently studied is target identity. A few studies have manipulated the identity of opposite-sex targets (e.g., stranger, opposite-sex friend, sibling, etc.) while obtaining sexual intent ratings for behavioral cues in social interactions (e.g., smiling at an opposite-sex person at a party). The influence of rater attributes on sexual intent perceptions has also received considerable attention. Self-reported personality characteristics stereotypically associated with masculinity or femininity have not been consistently predictive of men’s or women’s sexual intent perceptions Rater experiences examined in relation to sexual intent include nonconsensual sexual experiences, consensual sexual experiences, and dating experiences, all of which appear to be related to perceptions of sexual intent. Consensual sexual experiences and dating experiences have also been linked to sexual intent perceptions. A critical aspect of target and rater identity is the target or rater’s ethnicity and/or race. Two situational influences, alcohol and priming, have received some attention in the sexual intent literature. Each is reviewed in turn. Situational alcohol variables, including the presence of alcohol, raters’ acute alcohol consumption (or the belief that they had consumed alcohol), and raters’ a priori beliefs about the effects of alcohol have been investigated in vignette and dyadic interaction studies. In prototypical studies, participants read vignettes depicting drinking or nondrinking target persons and then rated the targets’ sexual intentions. The effects of rater’s alcohol consumption on sexual intent perceptions have been investigated using dyadic interaction studies with alcohol administration. Participants’ alcohol expectancies (a priori beliefs about alcohol’s effects) have also been linked to sexual intent perceptions. In addition to the Friedman et al. (2005) study discussed above, other studies have similarly examined priming influences on sexual perceptions. For example, Sigal and colleagues (1988) examined whether priming raters with either a romantic or nonromantic 5-minute film clip would influence perceptions of a subsequent videotaped stimulus. EXPLANATIONS FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL INTENT PERCEPTIONS Two types of explanations for gender differences in sexual intent perceptions have been offered: those that focus on ultimate or distal causes and those that emphasize more immediate or proximal causes. We will review both types and will begin with proximal explanations, which focus on specific, immediate mechanisms that might underlie gender differences in sexual perceptions. Proximal explanations include information-processing biases, social skills deficits, and self- presentation. Distal explanations include those related to socialization, evolution, or biology. Four explanations for gender differences in sexual intent perception stem from social-information- processing models.  Sexualized schemata  Self-Presentation  Distal Explanations  Socialization  Evolutionary Psychology Homosexuality, Societal Attitudes Toward Homophobia The term “homophobia,” which refers to the irrational fear, hatred, and intolerance of homosexuality, has historically been used when describing the oppression faced by LGBT people in society. However, the recognition that prejudice is a social-level phenomenon, rather than an individual pathology, has led to the more common use of the term “heterosexism,” which refers to the ideological denial, denigration, and stigmatization of sexual minorities. Despite much progress over the past few decades, heterosexist laws, policies, attitudes, and behaviors are still widespread in the United States. For example, federal law does not That men, compared to women, may have more sexualized expectancies in general and more sexualized schemas about women in particular.Social skill deficits have also been posited as an explanation for gender differences in sexual intent perceptions. Gender differences in sexual intent perceptions could also be explained by self-presentational factors. For example, women may be less comfortable reporting their own sexual intentions or assessing other people’s (Abbey, 1982), or men may be prone to exaggerate their own. Among the distal explanations offered for gender differences in sexual intent perceptions are those related to socialization, evolution, and biology. Abbey (1982) ascribed gender differences to the differential socialization of men and women. Drawing from evolutionary theory, Haselton and Buss (2000) argued that men and women have a propensity for different types of errors in assessing sexual intentions because of differing natural selection pressures. From a strictly evolutionary point of view, men do not have to make any parental investment to pass on their genes; therefore, it is advantageous for men to have many mates (Trivers, 1972). Haselton and Buss (2000) hypothesized that, because men look to maximize their mating opportunities, they will “possess intention-reading adaptations” that will make them prone to interpret women’s behavior as demonstrative of more sexual intent. Homophobia clearly compromises sexual and reproductive health for many LGBTQ people. However, the health impacts of homophobia go well beyond sexual and reproductive health. Health professionals and epidemiologists recognize that health and disease are not caused by biological processes in isolation. Social factors, known as the social determinants of health, play a very important role in supporting health and causing illness. There is evidence that the health of LGBTQ people is affected by societal homophobia, and that this is exacerbated by medical personnel who, if not actively homophobic, may be undereducated about the health needs of LGBTQ patients. This in turn affects how LGBTQ people use health care services. The Rainbow Health Coalition’s 2006 pamphlet states, Removing homosexuality from the DSM has not dampened scientific curiosity about possible causes of homosexuality or scientifically reliable indicators of sexual orientation. However, serious questions have been raised about the professional ethics of psychological testing to identify sexual orientation, especially when it can be applied within discriminatory institutional contexts. Similarly serious questions have been raised on broader ethical and scientific grounds with regard to the project of identifying a so-called gay gene or prenatal biochemical causes of homosexuality. Homophobia refers to antipathy toward persons who are thought to be gay, lesbian, homosexual, or deviant from gender stereotypes in ways that suggest a same-sex sexual orientation. It is a form of prejudice and may be related to harassment or violence toward persons thought to be homosexual. Most people in cultures that embody heterosexist values, such as Western societies, adopt attitudes that stigmatize same-sex sexual, erotic, or affectional attractions. These attitudes tend to be more prevalent in men than in women and tend to be more potent when focused on male same-sex attractions than on female ones. Frequently, these prejudicial attitudes are internalized and can lower the self-esteem of lesbians, bisexuals, and gay men. Sexual Minorities (LGBTQ) and Addiction The present wave of homophobia and discrimination against the LGBTQ population makes addiction treatment twice as difficult. The diversity and the high sensitivity level demands recognition, respect, and accommodation for special needs in the course of counseling and treatments. Understanding the struggle with being LGBTQ is critical to effective treatment of psychoactive drug addiction. Individual, Relationship, and Family-Level Factors At the individual level, internalized homophobia, defined by Meyer and Dean (1998) as the “direction of negative social attitudes towards the self (p. 161),” is an important risk factor for sexual assault. SGM people who have experienced multiple forms of sexual abuse (e.g., in childhood and later in adulthood) are significantly more likely to have feelings of internalized homophobia (Gold, Dickstein, Marx, & Lexington, 2009 Exposure to violence in childhood and adolescence—sexual abuse, in particular—is one of the most strongly associated risk factors for sexual assault victimization in adulthood (Arreola, Neilands, & Diaz, 2009; Classen, Palesh, & Aggarwal, 2005; Desai, Arias, Thompson, & Basile, 2002; Tyler, 2008). Homosexuality, Stress and Homophobia George Weinberg is generally credited with coining the term homophobia. He defines external homophobia as the irrational fear and hatred that heterosexuals feel toward gay people and internal (or internalized) homophobia as the self-loathing gay people feel for themselves. Weinberg suggests several origins of homophobia: the religious motive, the secret fear of being homosexual, repressed envy, and the threat to values. In fact, plethysmographic studies demonstrate that in some men, homophobic attitudes may defend against unwanted homoerotic feelings. Homophobia and Heterosexism Weinberg (1972) was the first person to coin the term “homophobia,” meaning a morbid fear of gay people; hence, a person with this fear would be called homophobic. He perceived this trait as an individual pathology within the homophobic person as a counter to those who viewed a homosexual as suffering from pathology. Malyon (1982, 1985, 1993) took the next step by stating that a gay person could himself carry within him these negative opinions about homosexuality, and he called that “internalized homophobia.” A gay person suffering from internalized homophobia is one who identifies with the negative stereotypes about gay people, including, but not limited to, the inability to form stable love relationships. A primary goal of gay-affirmative psychotherapy is to reverse the process of heterosexism. Gay- affirmative therapy encourages clients to recognize the extent to which a heterosexist culture pressures a gay person to regard his homosexuality as the cause of his psychological troubles. Gay- affirmative therapy allows a client to shift the responsibility more appropriately to discrimination in society. The shift has the healing effect of normalizing one’s gay feelings and desires. A second goal of gay-affirmative psychotherapy is to mitigate the damages of cultural oppression by enhancing the psychotherapists’ ability to make diagnostic distinctions between individual psychopathology, maladaptive adjustments to stigma, and the interaction between the two. Third, it helps gay clients understand that while they are not responsible for the effects of stigma, they nevertheless bear a responsibility, however unfair, to resolve those conflicts. Lesson Proper for Week 2 Completion requirements Gender is used to describe the characteristics of women and men that are socially constructed, while sex refers to those that are biologically determined. People are born female or male, but learn to be girls and boys who grow into women and men. Gender is a word that is used to talk about how people express masculine (traits most people think of as male) or feminine (traits most people think of as female) traits. It is commonly used for a person's sex (male or female) but this word only means someone's biology (body parts In English, the four genders of noun are masculine, feminine, common, and neuter.  Masculine nouns refer to words for a male figure or male member of a species (i.e. man, boy, actor, horse, etc.)  Feminine nouns refer to female figures or female members of a species (i.e. woman, girl, actress, mare, etc.) Gender roles in society means how we're expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing. Gender is an important consideration in development. It is a way of looking at how social norms and power structures impact on the lives and opportunities available to different groups of men and women. Globally, more women than men live in poverty Sex and gender are terms that are often used interchangeably but they are in fact two different concepts, even though for many people their sex and gender are the same. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEX AND GENDER? The difference between sex and gender is that sex is a biological concept based on biological characteristics such as difference in genitalia in male and female. Gender on the other hand primarily deals with personal, societal and cultural perceptions of sexuality. There has been a lot of talk in recent months and years about gender and sex, particularly with the modern, progressive world in which we now live, where flexible ideas of gender and identity are beginning to flourish around the world. Human beings are no longer bound by such binary concepts as male-female, masculine-feminine, or man-woman. Centuries and millennia of social tradition and scientific belief are now being challenged by these ideas, which makes it all the more important to understand the difference. For a very long time, the words “gender” and “sex” were used interchangeably, but that is not only no longer the case, but also nowhere close to the truth. So… for those who want to progress with the times and embrace the full spectrum of human identity, a common question arises: what is the difference between sex and gender? Sex vs gender The term sex refers to biological characteristics, namely chromosomes, internal and external sex organs, and the hormonal activities within the body. Essentially, when we use the term sex, what we are really commenting on is “male” vs. “female”, scientifically speaking. The sex of an individual is based on genetics, making it much more difficult to change. For those who need a quick recap on human genetics, males and females both possess 46 chromosomes, as well as two sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, whereas males possess 1 X chromosome and 1 Y chromosome. It is this Y chromosome in males that causes the testes to form (as the Y chromosome is dominant). This difference in chromosomes also causes the variation in hormones that are found within the body. Females, for example, have much higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, which stimulate the body to develop primary and secondary sex characteristics (breasts, menstruation, etc.). Males, on the other hand, have much higher levels of testosterone than females, which help their body to develop and maintain male sexual characteristics (deep voice, body hair, muscle size and strength, etc) alongside sperm production. These genetically controlled factors result in the physiological and biological differences between the sexes, but that isn’t where the story ends. Although many people look at sex as “natural” and a fundamental difference between men and women, there is actually quite a bit of gray area in between, making this issue far from a dichotomy between “male and female”. Due to the endlessly unpredictable nature of life, some women are born with a Y-chromosome, and men can have 2 or even 3 X chromosomes. Intersex humans have sexual characteristics of both men and women, and this includes a number of more specific conditions, including hermaphroditism. In reality, however, males and females have a lot in common. Every major system of their bodies functions in very similar ways, so much so that health guidelines, disease prevention and care, and even organ transplants are guided under an umbrella of shared guidelines. Gender fluid people do not identify themselves as having a fixed gender. While not subscribing to conventional gender distinctions, they identify with neither, both or a combination of masculine and feminine gender identities. To summarize, many people believe that “Sex” is determined by nature, whereas “Gender” is determined by nurture, but even that is too binary a classification. Sex does impact gender, but neither of these qualities in a person is a definition. These concepts help us understand who a person is, not what they are, which allows the opportunity for personal choice and change. Neither of these words is a definition, but rather a description, and should be treated accordingly. Gender identity On the image, you can see that gender identity has the rainbow symbol next to it, and that the unicorn is thinking about the symbol. This is because gender identity is inside us; it’s how we feel about our own gender. We may have been taught that male and female are the only gender identities. This is the ‘binary’ view of gender. But actually, there are many different understandings of gender. If you don’t identify exclusively with being a male or a female, and instead feel like you fit somewhere between the two, you might identify with being ‘non-binary’. Many cultures have broader ideas around gender than just ‘male’ or ‘female’, and have done so for a very long time. Check out the two-spirit people in Native America, bakla in the Philippines and fa'afafine in Samoa. How much do you feel like a man, a woman, or something else? This is your gender identity. This is a spectrum, because you could feel a little like a man, a lot like a woman, and maybe also a bit like something else. Or you could feel like none of these. Gender expression You can see that the green dots that symbolize ‘gender expression’ are outside the unicorn (i.e. not in its thoughts). This is because your gender expression is what’s visible about your gender to other people. How much do other people read you as masculine, feminine, a bit of both, something else, or perhaps nothing at all? This could depend on how you dress, walk, talk or act, or on your body shape. Some of your gender expression – like your haircut, clothing or makeup – could change from day to day. Sex assigned at birth When you were born, the doctor or midwife assigned you a sex based on your body’s physical characteristics. This is a fixed category that may be different from how your gender self-identity develops as you grow. Does your birth certificate say you’re male, female, or intersex or other? Most people are assigned ‘male’ or ‘female’ when they’re born, based on their external genitalia. Some people might be classified as ‘intersex’ (or something else) when their sex characteristics, chromosomes or hormones are a bit ambiguous and don’t fit neatly into what we designate as ‘male’ or ‘female’. Physical attraction refers to the characteristics of a person that might make you physically or sexually attracted to them. Physical attraction can come from a variety of factors, including someone’s gender identity, gender expression, or the sex they were assigned at birth. Emotional attraction relates to the characteristics of a person that might make you emotionally or romantically attracted to them. This can also come from a variety of factors, including gender identity, gender expression, or the sex they were assigned at birth. Both physical and emotional attraction can also come from a lot of other places, like someone’s personality or even the things you have in common. Some people might be attracted to the same gender as them (gay people and lesbians), and others might be attracted to people of the opposite gender to themselves (straight people). Attraction is presented as a spectrum because some people (like bisexual or pansexual people) are attracted to multiple genders, and could be attracted to different genders in different ways, or to one gender more than another. Many people find that these labels don’t fully explain their attractions. Some of these people might call themselves ‘queer’. Thinking of attraction as a spectrum allows us to fully explore our attractions without boxing them into a category that might not feel quite right. Some people don’t feel any kind of physical attraction to other people, and that’s called being asexual. Similarly, aromantic describes those who don’t feel emotional attraction to people. How do all these concepts overlap?  While the sex you were assigned at birth is a fixed category, your gender identity and gender expression could be a much more fluid combination of masculine/feminine and other genders. Some people, known as cisgender people, have a gender identity that matches the sex they were assigned at birth. Transgender people have a gender identity that is different from the sex they were assigned at birth. Hopefully, the Gender Unicorn helps to make things a little less confusing. Just remember: no matter what your gender identity is, or who you’re attracted to, you are enough, exactly as you are. You don’t have to fit a neat label. You can just be you. Our society has a set of ideas about how we expect men and women to dress, behave, and present themselves. How do gender stereotypes affect people? A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or group — even though it’s overly simplified and not always accurate. Stereotypes about gender can cause unequal and unfair treatment because of a person’s gender. This is called sexism. There are four basic kinds of gender stereotypes:  Personality traits — For example, women are often expected to be accommodating and emotional, while men are usually expected to be self-confident and aggressive.  Domestic behaviors — For example, some people expect that women will take care of the children, cook, and clean the home, while men take care of finances, work on the car, and do the home repairs.  Occupations — Some people are quick to assume that teachers and nurses are women, and that pilots, doctors, and engineers are men.  Physical appearance — For example, women are expected to be thin and graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular. Men and women are also expected to dress and groom in ways that are stereotypical to their gender (men wearing pants and short hairstyles, women wearing dresses and make-up. Hyper femininity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed to be feminine. Hyperfeminine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be feminine. This may include being passive, naive, sexually inexperienced, soft, flirtatious, graceful, nurturing, and accepting. Hypermasculinity is the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed to be masculine. Hyper-masculine folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be masculine. They believe they’re supposed to compete with other men and dominate feminine folks by being aggressive, worldly, sexually experienced, insensitive, physically imposing, ambitious, and demanding. These exaggerated gender stereotypes can make relationships between people difficult. Hyperfeminine folks are more likely to endure physical and emotional abuse from their partners. Hypermasculine folks are more likely to be physically and emotionally abusive to their partners. Sex and Gender Roles A person’s gender role refers to the way a community defines what it is to be a woman or a man. Each community expects women and men to look, think, feel, and act in certain ways, simply because they are women or men. In most communities, for example, women are expected to prepare food, gather water and fuel, and care for their children and partner. Men, however, are often expected to work outside the home to provide for their families and parents in old age, and to defend their families from harm. Unlike the physical differences between men and women, gender roles are created by the community. Some activities, like washing and ironing clothing, are considered ‘women’s work’ in many communities. But others vary from place to place—depending on a community’s traditions, laws, and religions. Gender roles can even vary within communities, based on how much education a person has, her social status, or her age. For example, in some communities’ women of a certain class are expected to do domestic work, while other women have more choice about the work they do. In most communities, women and men are expected to dress differently, and to do different work. This is part of their gender role. How gender roles are learned Gender roles are passed down from adults to children. From the time children are very young, parents and others treat girls and boys differently—sometimes without realizing they do so. Children watch their elders closely, noticing how they behave, how they treat each other, and what their roles are in the community. As children grow up, they accept these roles because they want to please their parents and other respected adults, and because these people have more authority in the community. These roles also help children know who they are and what is expected of them. As the world changes, gender roles also change. Many young people want to live differently from their parents or grandparents. It can be difficult to change, but as women and men struggle to redefine their gender roles, they can also improve their sexual health. When gender roles cause harm Fulfilling the roles expected by the community can be satisfying and can give a woman a sense of belonging and success. But these roles can also limit a woman’s choices, and sometimes make her feel less valued than a man. When this happens, everyone—the woman herself, her family, and her community—suffers. In most communities, women are expected to be wives and mothers. Many women like this role because it can be very satisfying and it gives them status in the community. Other women would prefer to follow their own interests but their families and communities do not give them this choice. If she is expected to have many children, a woman may have less chance to learn new skills or go to school. Most of her time and energy will be spent taking care of others’ needs. Or, if a woman is unable to have children, her community may value her less than other women. Most communities value men’s work more than women’s work. For example, a woman may work all day—and then cook, clean, and care for her children at night. But because her husband’s work is considered more important, she is careful about his rest—not her own. Her children will grow up thinking men’s work is more important, and value women less. Women are often considered more emotional than men, and they are freer to express these emotions with others. Men, however, are often taught that showing emotions like fear, sadness, or tenderness is ‘unmanly’, so they hide these feelings. Or they express their feelings in angry or violent ways that are more acceptable for men. When men are unable to show their feelings, children may feel more distant from their fathers, and men are less able to get support from others for their problems. Women are often discouraged from speaking—or forbidden to attend or speak—at community meetings. This means the community only hears about what men think—for example, how they view a problem and their solutions for it. Since women have much knowledge and experience, the whole community suffers when they cannot discuss problems and offer suggestions for change. Sexual Orientation. It is the pattern of sexual and emotional attraction based on the gender of one's preferred partners. Now let's address gender and sexual orientation. Gender, gender identity, and gender role are conceptually independent of sexual orientation. However, many assume they are closely related. Heterosexuality has been assumed to be a critical part of masculinity and femininity. Masculine men are attracted to women and feminine women are attracted to men. Along with this perception, two beliefs about homosexuality exist. Some believe that gay men can't be masculine and lesbian women can't be feminine. These beliefs imply that homosexuality is associated with a failure to fill traditional gender roles. These negative stereotypes, which hold that people fall into distinct genders, with natural roles, and are presumed to be heterosexual, are referred to as heteronormativity, and merely fuel homophobia. THE DIFFERENCE OF SEX, GENDER AND GENDER ROLES Gender is developed through the interaction of its biological and psychosocial components. The genetic and anatomical sex is the biological aspect, and the assigned gender and gender identity are the psychosocial aspects. Because these dimensions are learned together they seem to be natural. For example, if a person looks like a girl, biologically, believes she should be feminine, culturally, feels as if she is a girl, psychologically, and acts like a girl, socially, then her gender identity and role are congruent with her anatomical sex. But what if these dimensions were incongruent? This results in gender variations. Gender variations are deviations from the two normal genders emphasized by most cultures. Individuals who are gender variant cannot or choose not to conform to societal gender norms associated with their biological sex. They are also known as gender identity disorder or gender dysphoria. However, what makes a person a man or woman goes beyond simple anatomy. Children are socialized in gender roles through several very subtle processes: Manipulation is when parents treat boys and girls differently. They treat a daughter gently and tell her she is pretty. They treat a son roughly and advise him that big boys do not cry. Channeling is when children's attention is directed to specific objects. Toys, for example, are differentiated by sex. Dolls are considered appropriate for girls, and cars for boys. Verbal appellation is when parents use different words with boys and girls to describe the same behavior. A boy who pushes others may be described as "active," whereas a girl who does the same is usually called "aggressive.” Activity exposure is the type of activities boys and girls are encouraged to be exposed to and imitate. For example, boys are discouraged from imitating their mothers, whereas girls are encouraged to be "mother's little helper." Lesson Proper for Week 3 Completion requirements Sexual orientation identity development focuses on the development of people who are attracted to the same sex. Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex come out at some point in their lives. Coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization emerges that one is sexually and emotionally attracted to members of one's own sex. This is often described as an internal coming out and can occur in childhood or at puberty, but sometimes as late as age 40 or older. The second phase involves a decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues, while the third phase involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes they do not inform their own families. Sexuality is about your sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions and behaviors towards other people. You can find other people physically, sexually or emotionally attractive, and all those things are a part of your sexuality. Sexuality is diverse and personal, and it is an important part of who you are. Sexual identity is how one thinks of oneself in terms of to whom one is romantically or sexually attracted. Sexual identity may also refer to sexual orientation identity, which is when people identify or dis-identify with a sexual orientation or choose not to identify with a sexual orientation. Sexual identity and sexual behavior are closely related to sexual orientation, but they are distinguished, with identity referring to an individual's conception of themselves, behavior referring to actual sexual acts performed by the individual, and sexual orientation referring to romantic or sexual attractions toward persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, to both sexes or more than one gender, or to no one. Adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years. In general terms, “sex” refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the genitalia and genetic differences. “Gender” is more difficult to define, but it can refer to the role of a male or female in society, known as a gender role, or an individual's concept of themselves, or gender identity. Social and Historical Context of Singlehood. During the 1970s, several social factors converged to create a new and more positive recognition of singlehood: more women in higher education, expanding career and job opportunities for women, and increased availability and acceptable of birth control. Singles / Never Married Persons Social and Historical Context of Singlehood Most cultures, past and present, have viewed adulthood as synonymous with being married and having children, and being single as a transitional stage that preceded these significant and expected adult roles. Different historical and cultural contexts have significantly affected the propensity, desire, and ability to marry, as well as opportunities and circumstances inside and outside of marriage. Yet historically, as now, a significant minority of the population remained single. How the never married have been viewed has also varied with time and place. For example, in the early New England states, social and economic sanctions were placed upon women and men who did not marry. At the same time, between 1780 and 1920 in parts of the United States and Europe, singlehood was often seen as a respectable alternative to marriage for women, if these women were willing to devote their lives to the service of others (Chambers-Schiller 1984). Between 1880 and 1930, a bachelor subculture emerged in the United States. Although never married men during this period had more freedom than never married women, they were generally viewed as social outcasts or societal threats (Chudacoff 1999). During the 1970s, several social factors converged to create a new and more positive recognition of singlehood: more women in higher education, expanding career and job opportunities for women, and increased availability and acceptable of birth control. These societal changes provided women with greater freedom and independence and contributed to a shift in attitudes about the desirability and necessity of marriage. Subsequent scholarship is greatly indebted to the pioneering work of people like Margaret Adams (1978), Marie Edwards and Eleanor Hoover (1974), and, perhaps best known, Peter Stein (1975, 1976, 1981), for examining singlehood as a meaningful and multidimensional lifestyle in its own right and the social factors that brought about this new recognition. Although singlehood is less stigmatized today than in the past, being part of a married heterosexual couple remains the typical and expected lifestyle choice and, therefore, the status of being never married remains somewhat ambiguous or marginalized. Never married individuals are seen as violating societal expectations for "appropriate" gender role behavior. Even the term never married is structured as a negative. For those who remain single, it is difficult to locate positive role models to support and validate their singlehood choice or circumstance. Further, the perception of singlehood tends to differ by age or stage of life. Being single is a normative and expected social role in youth and early adulthood. However, with increased age, the likelihood of marrying diminishes, and the meaning of singlehood often changes as it is seen as a less expected but more permanent state. The never married in later life are subject to stereotypes that portray older adults in general, as well as those associated with individuals who have failed to marry (Rubinstein 1987). In Anglo-American culture, the terms spinster and old maid for women, and confirmed bachelor for men, may have become outdated, yet their stereotypical meanings persist. Single women particularly may be seen in a negative light, perhaps because expectations remain strong that women will fulfil the nurturing and caring roles most often associated with being married—that of wife, mother, grandmother, and care provider for other family members. Peter Stein (1981) identifies four categories of never married based upon attitudes toward this single status—voluntary/temporary singles, voluntary/stable singles, involuntary/temporary singles, and involuntary/stable singles. Although individuals can move between and among these categories over their lifetime, whether singlehood is perceived as a choice or circumstance, or is seen as temporary or permanent, can influence one's satisfaction with being single, and one's overall well-being. The voluntary and stable singles tend to be single by choice and generally satisfied with their decision. This category includes those who have a lifestyle that precludes traditional heterosexual marriage, such as members of religious orders, as well as gay and lesbian single adults. It is difficult to obtain accurate statistics, but the evidence suggests that gays and lesbians comprise between 4 and 6 percent of adults in the United States, Canada, and other Western countries. Research finds that long-term relationships are common among this population, particularly among lesbians. However, regardless of their commitment to a significant partner, these relationships are outside the boundaries of traditional heterosexual marriage, and these individuals are, by societal definition, never married. The involuntary and stable singles tend to be dissatisfied with their singlehood, but feel it is permanent. This group includes many well-educated, professionally successful women for whom finding a suitable mate is often a problem of demographics—a lack of older, single, well-educated men. This category tends to be the most difficult for successful adjustment to permanent singlehood. Stein's foundational work highlights the diversity that exists within the never married population, as well as the importance of choice in remaining single for life satisfaction. Research supports this diversity. Many never married individuals make a positive and conscious choice to remain single (O'Brien 1991), while others look upon their singlehood as less desirable, resulting from circumstances beyond their control (Austrom 1984). The former group tends to be more satisfied with being single than the latter. Stein (1976) identifies push and pull factors—pushes away from marriage and pulls toward singlehood. For individuals who feel that marriage restricts self-realization and limits involvement with other relationships and that singlehood affords greater freedom of choice and autonomy, permanent singlehood is often seen as the marital status of choice. Barbara Simon's (1987) study of older single women finds that most of these women had declined marriage proposals, typically because of their fear of becoming subordinate to a husband. The salience of these pushes and pulls varies by factors such as age, financial well-being, sexual orientation, as well as the strength and availability of supportive ties to family and friends. Sexual and Reproductive Anatomy Male Reproductive System What is reproductive and sexual anatomy? Reproductive and sexual anatomy includes your genitals and your internal sex and reproductive organs. Everyone’s reproductive and sexual anatomy looks a little different. What parts of our bodies are sexual? Reproductive and sexual anatomy (also known as sex anatomy) includes the sex organs on the outside of your body and the sex and reproductive organs on the inside of your body. Some examples of sex organs are the vulva (which includes your vagina) and penis. Reproductive organs include things like the uterus and testicles. That being said, any part of your body can be sexual. You might have heard that your brain is your most important sex organ. That's because it controls your sexual response — how your body reacts to arousal, sex, or masturbation. It’s also where your sexual fantasies and identities are. You can also think of your skin as one big sex organ, with its millions of sensitive nerves. Parts of your body that when touched make you feel aroused are called "erogenous zones." Not everyone has the same erogenous zones, but common ones are breasts and nipples, the anus, neck, lips, mouth, tongue, back, fingers and toes, hands, feet, earlobes, and inner thighs. You get the idea: Any part of your body can be considered sexual depending on how it makes you feel. Does everyone have the same sexual anatomy? Everyone's sexual anatomy is a little bit different. Most people have either a penis and scrotum or a vulva, but each person’s genitals are uniquely their own. When you were born, your doctor probably assigned you a sex male or female based on your sex anatomy. But that doesn’t necessarily say anything about your gender identity. Some people’s assigned sex and gender identity are pretty much the same, or in line with each other. These people are called cisgender. Other people feel that the sex they were assigned at birth doesn’t match their gender identity. So, for example, a person could be born with a penis, but identify as female. These people often call themselves transgender or trans. Other people have sex anatomies that don’t fit the typical definition of female or male. They may be described as intersex. There are lots of different combinations of body parts and hormones that fall under the intersex umbrella. Being intersex doesn’t necessarily have any connection with a person’s gender identity. What is the difference between external anatomy and internal anatomy? The external anatomy includes both the dorsal and ventral sides, forelimbs and powerful hind limbs for swimming. The head contains dorsal eyes for sight and tympanic membranes for hearing. The internal anatomy can be divided into body systems. Anatomy (Greek anatomē, 'dissection') is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long- term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X- ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body. It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet. The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood. What is the difference between external anatomy and internal anatomy? The external anatomy includes both the dorsal and ventral sides, forelimbs and powerful hind limbs for swimming. The head contains dorsal eyes for sight and tympanic membranes for hearing. The internal anatomy can be divided into body systems Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology. Marcello Malpighi, the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring. Lesson Proper for Week 4 Completion requirements Contraception is also known as birth control and/or fertility control. It is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy. Birth control or contraception has been emerged and used in ancient times, however the effectiveness of it only became available in the 20th century. There are still culture that limit and demoralized the used of birth control because they consider it as religiously and politically undesirable. In today’s generation, teenage pregnancies are at greater risk of poor outcomes and in response to the widespread issue, the World Health Organization and United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provide guidance on the safety of birth control methods among women with specific medical conditions. Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control decreases the rate of unwanted pregnancies in this age group. TYPES OF CONTRACEPTION 1. Natural Contraception – a type of birth control that depends the observations on woman’s body through monitoring and recording different fertility signals during menstrual cycle. 2. Artificial Contraception – it is a commonly used contraception in today’s generation in order to prevent contraception of a woman. The use of contraception solely depends on the individuals health status, age, sexual activity and/or the number of partners. Condoms Patch Vaginal ring Pills Illustration of IUD Implant PREGNANCY AND CHILD BIRTH INFERTILITY Pregnancy or also called gestation or the act of carrying young in the uterus. Pregnancy occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg after it’s released from the ovary during ovulation. The fertilized egg then travels down into the uterus, where implantation occurs. A successful implantation results in pregnancy. PREGNANCY STAGES a. First Trimester (weeks 1 to 12) - The fetus begins developing their brain, spinal cord, and organs. The baby’s heart will also begin to beat. During the first trimester, the probability of a miscarriage is relatively high, that’s why the woman should be extra careful in everything that she do. b. Second Trimester (weeks 13 to 27) - During the second trimester of pregnancy, your healthcare provider will likely perform an anatomy scan ultrasound. This test checks the fetus’s body for any developmental abnormalities. The test results can also reveal the sex of your baby, if you wish to find out before the baby is born. You’ll probably begin to feel your baby move, kick, and punch inside of your uterus. After 23 weeks, a baby in utero is considered “viable.” This means that it could survive living outside of your womb. Babies born this early often have serious medical issues. Your baby has a much better chance of being born healthy the longer you are able to carry the pregnancy. c. Third Trimester (weeks 28 to 40) - During the third trimester, your weight gain will accelerate, and you may feel more tired. Your baby can now sense light as well as open and close their eyes. Their bones are also formed. As labor approaches, you may feel pelvic discomfort, and your feet may swell. Contractions that don’t lead to labor, known as Braxton-Hicks contractions, may start to occur in the weeks before you deliver. Infertility - means not being able to become pregnant after a year of trying. If a woman can get pregnant but keeps having miscarriages or stillbirths, that's also called infertility. Infertility is fairly common. After one year of having unprotected sex, about 15 percent of couples are unable to get pregnant. Pregnancy Stages BECOMING A PARENT One of the most important decisions you will ever make is whether or not to become a parent. The challenges of pregnancy and parenthood can be exciting and rewarding when they are approached with thoughtful decision-making and preparation. Here are some of the factors that you need to take consideration if and when to become pregnant and to become parents:  Health Status - Physical health is very important during pregnancy when the baby is developing. Talk with your health care provider to determine if your medical condition may affect your pregnancy, or if your pregnancy may affect your health.   Financial Circumstances - It is important to consider your ability to provide for the basic needs of your family. These needs include health care, good food, safe housing, clothing, education, transportation and recreation.  Emotional Considerations - A parent's emotional maturity affects the quality of parenting a child will receive. You need to be able to nurture, love, and support your child.  Career Goals – Factors to consider are travel, required overtime, flexibility of scheduling work hours, child care and leave of absence with or without pay.  Support network - The challenges of parenting can be more easily met and the joys enhanced, when you have the strength and support of your partner, family and friends. Having and caring for a child will affect these relationships. Old patterns change and new patterns emerge. Think and talk about how a child will affect your relationships.  Age - Age is a factor to consider, especially if you are a teenager or over the age of 35. Talk to your health care provider about how your age might affect your decision to become pregnant. Lesson Proper for Week 5 Completion requirements Sexual health is the state of physical, emotional, mental, and social wellbeing related to sexuality. It is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction, or infirmity. It is how we function biologically as well as the function of our behavior and our awareness and acceptance of our bodies. Our general health affects our sexual functioning and requires us to know and understand our bodies and feel comfortable with them, have a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, and requires us to know the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences free of coercion, discrimination, and violence. Sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected, and fulfilled to attain and maintain sexual health. However, this may contradict with societal and personal expectations. The spread of STDs is directly affected by social, economic, and behavioral factors. Such factors may cause serious obstacles to STD prevention due to their influence on social and sexual networks, access to and provision of care, willingness to seek care, and social norms regarding sex and sexuality. Sexually Transmitted Diseases STDs refer to more than 35 infectious organisms that are transmitted primarily through sexual activity. STD prevention is an essential primary care strategy for improving reproductive health. Despite their burdens, costs, and complications, and the fact that they are largely preventable, STDs remain a significant public health problem in the United States. This problem is largely unrecognized by the public, policymakers, and health care  professionals. STDs cause many harmful, often irreversible, and costly clinical complications, such as:  Reproductive health problems  Fetal and perinatal health problems  Cancer  Facilitation of the sexual transmission of HIV infection  Asymptomatic nature of STDs. The majority of STDs either do not produce any symptoms or signs, or they produce symptoms so mild that they are unnoticed; consequently, many infected persons do not know that they need medical care.  Gender disparities. Women suffer more frequent and more serious STD complications than men do. Among the most serious STD complications are pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy outside of the uterus), infertility, and chronic pelvic pain.  Age disparities. Young people ages 15 to 24 account for half of all new STDs, although they represent just 25% of the sexually experienced population. Adolescent females may have increased susceptibility to infection because of increased cervical ectopy.  Racial and ethnic disparities. Certain racial and ethnic groups (mainly African American, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native populations) have high rates of STDs, compared with rates for whites. Race and ethnicity in the United States are correlated with other determinants of health status, such as poverty, limited access to health care, fewer attempts to get medical treatment, and living in communities with high rates of STDs.  Poverty and marginalization. STDs disproportionately affect disadvantaged people and people in social networks where high-risk sexual behavior is common, and either access to care or health-seeking behavior is compromised.  Access to health care. Access to high-quality health care is essential for early detection, treatment, and behavior-change counseling for STDs. Groups with the highest rates of STDs are often the same groups for whom access to or use of health services is most limited.  Substance abuse. Many studies document the association of substance abuse with STDs. The introduction of new illicit substances into communities often can alter sexual behavior drastically in high-risk sexual networks, leading to the epidemic spread of STDs.  Sexuality and secrecy. Perhaps the most important social factors contributing to the spread of STDs in the United States are the stigma associated with STDs and the general discomfort of discussing intimate aspects of life, especially those related to sex. These social factors separate the United States from industrialized countries with low rates of STDs.  Sexual networks. Sexual networks refer to groups of people who can be considered “linked” by sequential or concurrent sexual partners. A person may have only 1 sex partner, but if that  partner is a member of a risky sexual network, then the person is at higher risk for STDs than a similar individual from a lower-risk network.  Each state must address system-level barriers to timely treatment of partners of persons infected with STDs, including the implementation of expedited partner therapy for the treatment of chlamydial and gonorrheal infections.  Enhanced data collection on demographic and behavioral variables, such as the sex of an infected person’s sex partner(s), is essential to understanding the epidemiology of STDs and to guiding prevention efforts.  Innovative communication strategies are critical for addressing issues of disparities, facilitating HPV vaccine uptake, and normalizing perceptions of sexual health and STD prevention, particularly as they help reduce health disparities.  It is necessary to coordinate STD prevention efforts with the health care delivery system to leverage new developments provided by health reform legislation.  blood  semen (including pre-cum)  vaginal fluid  anal mucous  breastmilk. Someone who has an undetectable viral load If a healthcare professional has confirmed that someone living with HIV has an undetectable viral load (meaning effective treatment has reduced the amount of virus in their blood so that it cannot be detected through a blood test) there is no risk of transmission. Someone who doesn’t have HIV You can only get HIV from someone who is already living with HIV. Touching someone who has HIV HIV can only be transmitted through specific bodily fluids so you can’t get HIV from touching someone, hugging them or shaking their hand. Kissing There is such a small amount of HIV in the saliva of a person living with HIV that the infection can’t be passed on from kissing. Sweat, tears, urine or feces of someone who has HIV HIV can’t be transmitted through sweat, tears, urine or feces. Mutual masturbation Mutual masturbation, fingering and hand-jobs can’t give you HIV. However, if you use sex toys make sure you use a new condom on them when switching between partners. Used condoms Air Coughs, sneezes or spit Food, drink and cooking utensils Outside of the body, HIV in semen can only survive for a very short amount of time. So, even if a condom had sperm from an HIV-positive person in it, it would not pose any risk. HIV can’t survive in air so you can’t get it from sharing a space with someone who is HIV- positive. There is only a trace of HIV in these bodily fluids so they can’t transmit HIV. HIV can’t be passed on through sharing food, drinks or cooking utensils, even if the person preparing your food is living with HIV. Someone who doesn’t have HIV Touching someone who has HIV Kissing Sweat, tears, urine or feces of someone who has HIV Mutual masturbation Used condoms Air Coughs, sneezes or spit Food, drink and cooking utensil \ Why Is Sexually Transmitted Disease Prevention Important? The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that there are approximately 20 million new STD infections each year—almost half of them among young people ages 15 to 24. The cost of STDs to the U.S. health care system is estimated to be as much as $16 billion annually. Because many cases of STDs go undiagnosed— and some common viral infections, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) and genital herpes, are not reported to CDC at all—the reported cases of chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis represent only a fraction of the true burden of STDs in the United States. Untreated STDs can lead to serious long-term health consequences, especially for adolescent girls and young women. CDC estimates that undiagnosed and untreated STDs cause at least 24,000 women in the United States each year to become infertile. Understanding Sexually Transmitted Diseases  Several factors contribute to the spread of STDs. STDs are acquired during unprotected sex with an infected partner. Biological factors that affect the spread and complications of STDs include:  Related Topic Areas Cancer Family Planning HIV Social, Economic, and Behavioral Factors The spread of STDs is directly affected by social, economic, and behavioral factors. Such factors may cause serious obstacles to STD prevention due to their influence on social and sexual networks, access to and provision of care, willingness to seek care, and social norms regarding sex and sexuality. Among certain vulnerable populations, historical experience with segregation and discrimination exacerbates the influence of these factor Emerging Issues in Sexually Transmitted Diseases There are several emerging issues in STD prevention:  Each state must address system-level barriers to timely treatment of partners of persons infected with STDs, including the implementation of expedited partner therapy for the treatment of chlamydial and gonorrheal infections.  Enhanced data collection on demographic and behavioral variables, such as the sex of an infected person’s sex partner(s), is essential to understanding the epidemiology of STDs and to guiding prevention efforts.  Innovative communication strategies are critical for addressing issues of disparities, facilitating HPV vaccine uptake, and normalizing perceptions of sexual health and STD prevention, particularly as they help reduce health disparities.  It is necessary to coordinate STD prevention efforts with the health care delivery system to leverage new developments provided by health reform legislation. Transmission through body fluids HIV may be transmitted through certain body fluids that are capable of containing high concentrations of HIV. These fluids include blood, semen, vaginal and rectal secretions, and breast milk. HIV is transmitted when fluids from a person who has measurable amounts of the virus in their body (HIV-positive) pass directly into the bloodstream or through the mucous membranes, cuts, or open sores of a person without HIV (HIV-negative). Amniotic and spinal cord fluids can also contain HIV and could pose a risk to healthcare personnel who are exposed to them. Other bodily fluids, such as tears and saliva, CANNOT spread the infection. There are lots of myths and misconceptions about how you can get HIV. Here we debunk those myths and give you the facts about how HIV is passed on… HIV can only be passed on from one person to another via the following bodily fluids: HIV infection occurs when infected bodily fluids get into your bloodstream in these ways: · unprotected sex (including sex toys) · from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding · injecting drugs with a needle that has infected blood in it · infected blood donations or organ transplants. You cannot get HIV from… You can only get HIV from someone who is already living with HIV. HIV can only be transmitted through specific bodily fluids so you can’t get HIV from touching someone, hugging them or shaking their hand. There is such a small amount of HIV in the saliva of a person living with HIV that the infection can’t be passed on from kissing. HIV can’t be transmitted through sweat, tears, urine or feces. Mutual masturbation, fingering and hand-jobs can’t give you HIV. However, if you use sex toys make sure you use a new condom on them when switching between partners. Outside of the body, HIV in semen can only survive for a very short amount of time. So, even if a condom had sperm from an HIV-positive person in it, it would not pose any risk. HIV can’t survive in air so you can’t get it from sharing a space with someone who is HIV- positive. There is only a trace of HIV in these bodily fluids so they can’t transmit HIV. HIV can’t be passed on through sharing food, drinks or cooking utensils, even if the person preparing your food is living with HIV. Toilet seats, tables, door handles, cutlery, sharing towels Water Insects Animals Neworsterilizedneedles Musicalinstruments Tattoos and piercings You can’t get HIV from any of these as it can only be transmitted through specific bodily fluids. HIV can’t survive in water, so you can’t get HIV from swimming pools, baths, shower areas, washing clothes or from drinking water. You can’t get HIV from insects. When an insect (such as a mosquito) bites you it sucks your blood only – it does not inject the blood of the last person it bit. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus, which means that the infection can only be passed between humans. New needles can’t infect someone because they haven’t been in contact with infected blood. If used needles are cleaned and sterilized they can’t transmit HIV either. HIV can’t survive on musical instruments. Even if it is an instrument that you play using your mouth, it can’t give you HIV. There is only a risk if the needle used by the professional has been used in the body of someone living with HIV and not sterilized afterwards. However, most practitioners are required by law to use new needles for each new client.