General Chemistry Lesson 1-7 PDF

GENERAL CHEMISTRY CALORIFIC VALUES - amount of heat LESSON 1 – FUELS produced by the unit volume of a substance by FUELS - any substance that may be complete combustion. combusted to produce energy in the form of...

GENERAL CHEMISTRY CALORIFIC VALUES - amount of heat LESSON 1 – FUELS produced by the unit volume of a substance by FUELS - any substance that may be complete combustion. combusted to produce energy in the form of - directly proportional to its efficiency. heat or work. - measured either as gross calorific - considered valuable if it ignites easily value or net calorific value. at a low temperature. Gross Calorific Value (GCV)- assumes all COMBUSTION - chemical reaction between a vapor produced during the combustion fuel and an oxidizer. process is fully condensed. Characteristics and Classifications of a Net calorific value (NCV)- assumes the water Good Fuel: leaves with the combustion products without - It should have a high calorific value fully being condensed. - Its moisture content should be low so that its heating value should be high. LESSON 2 – BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL - An ideal fuel should have a moderate STRUCTURES ignition temperature. CRYSTAL STRUCTURES - It should not produce harmful 2 CATEGORIES OF SOLIDS: products like CO2, SO2, H2S, and Crystalline Solid other poisonous gases. - has rigid and long-range order. - It should have a low content of non- - its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy combustible matter in ash or clinker. specific positions. - It should be controllable. - Has a true properties of solids (very - It should not give any offensive odor. specific). - It should have a moderate velocity of - Ex: Ice combustion. Amorphous Solid Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways: - absence of a well-defined - solid, liquid, and gaseous. arrangement. - natural and manufactured. - long-range molecular order can be NATURAL AND MANUFACTURED FUELS: observed. Solid- mainly classified into natural and Atomic Hard-Sphere Model manufactured fuels. - spheres representing nearest- Liquid- classified into natural or crude oil, and neighbor atoms touch one another. Artificial or manufactured oils. - Atoms or ions (described as Gaseous- occur in nature. crystalline structures) are thought of - being manufactured from solid and as being solid spheres having well- liquid fuels. defined diameters. PETROLEUM - basic natural fuel. Lattice- used in the context of crystal - composed of various hydrocarbons structure. together with small amounts of organic - a three-dimensional array of points compounds containing oxygen coinciding with atom positions or sphere nitrogen and sulfur. centers. Natural gas- associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from wells dug in the UNIT CELL oil-bearing regions. - basic structural (repeating) unit of a crystalline solid. Lattice Point- it is an atom, ion, or molecule - patterns produced by scattering, or that denotes each sphere. diffraction are used to deduce the TYPES OF UNIT CELL particle arrangement in the solid - Simple cubic lattice. - Tetragonal X-ray- a form of electromagnetic radiation. - Orthorhombic Max von Laue- German Physicist - Rhombohedral - In 1912, he recommended that - Monoclinic the lattice should be able to diffract X-rays. - Triclinic Scattering of X-rays- a process in which the - Hexagonal atoms in the crystal absorb some of the incoming radiation and then reemit it. FACE-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL A beam of X-rays- directed at a mounted STRUCTURE crystal. - Crystal structure with atoms. White “L”- a shadow of the sample holder and - located at each of the corners and the shield (Chang & Goldsby, 2017). center of all the cube faces. Protein- X-ray diffraction pattern of crystalline 2 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A lysozyme. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE: X-ray Diffraction Technique- gives the most - Coordination Number (for metals)- accurate method for determining bond lengths each atom has the same number of and bond angles. nearest-neighbor or touching atoms. Electron-Density Contour Map- tells us the - Atomic Packing Factor- the sum of relative electron densities at various locations the sphere volumes of all atoms within in a molecule. a unit cell divided by the unit cell volume. TYPES OF CRYSTALS IONIC CRYSTALS BODY-CENTERED CUBIC CRYSTAL - most ionic crystals have high melting STRUCTURE points which is an indication of the - located at all eight corners and a strong cohesive forces holding the single atom at the center of the cube. ions together. Polonium- a metalloid or a semi-metal is the Lattice Energy- a measure of the stability of only simple-cubic element that has a relatively ionic crystals low atomic packing factor. 2 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC OF IONIC CRYSTALS HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PLACKED CRYSTAL - composed of charged species. STRUCTURE - anions and cations are generally quite - top and bottom faces of the unit cell different in size. consist of six atoms. Radii of the atoms- helpful in understanding - form regular hexagons and surround a the structure and stability of these single atom in the center. compounds. COVALENT CRYSTALS X-RAY DIFFRACTION BY CRYSTALS - exists when atoms are held together in - refers to the scattering of X-rays by the an extensive three-dimensional units of a crystalline solid. network altogether by covalent bonds. Structure of Graphite- the distance between - Potassium successive layers is 335 pm (Chang & Goldsby, - Titanium 2017). - Manganese Graphite- considered as a good conductor of Seawaters- the source of some metal ions. electricity. Manganese Nodules- it is the cover of the vast - layers of graphite can slide one areas of the ocean floor. another, that’s why it is slippery to the - combinations of rock on the sea touch and is effective as a lubricant. bottom. - used in pencils and ribbons made for - composed of concentric layers of iron computer printers and typewriters. and manganese hydroxides around a Polarity- exists in 𝑆𝑖 − 𝑂 bond. core. MOLECULAR CRYSTALS Metallurgical Processes- separating metals - lattice points are occupied by from their ores and compounding alloys. molecules that have van der Waals Alloy- solid solution either of two or more forces and/or hydrogen bonding. metals. - Molecules are packed together as 3 PRINCIPLE STEPS IN THE RECOVERY OF A closely as their size and shape allow. METAL FROM ITS ORE: METALLIC CRYSTALS PREPARATION OF THE ORE - has the simplest structure. - the desired mineral is separated from - every lattice point is occupied by an waste materials that is usually clay atom of the same metal. and silicate minerals which are - usually very dense. collectively called the gangue. AMORPHOUS SOLIDS Flotation- very useful process for carrying out - lack a regular three-dimensional this separation. arrangement of atoms. Ferromagnetic- metals are strongly attracted Glass- refers to an optically transparent fusion to magnets. product of inorganic materials. Amalgam- an alloy of mercury with another - cooled to a rigid state without metal or metal. crystallizing. PRODUCTION OF METALS LESSON 3- METALS - metals in their combined forms always OCCURRENCE OF METALS have positive oxidation numbers, the ORE production of a free metal is a - mineral deposit concentrated enough reduction process. to allow economical recovery of a Pyrometallurgy- metallurgical processes that desired metal. are carried out at high temperatures. - deposit in Earth’s crust of one or more Chemical Reduction- a reducing agent that valuable minerals. separates a less electropositive metal from its MOST ABUNDANT METALS THAT EXIST AS compound at high temperatures. MINERALS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST: Electrolytic Reduction- suitable for very - Aluminum electropositive metals. - Iron The Metallurgy of Iron- involves the chemical - Calcium reduction of the minerals by carbon in a blast - Magnesium furnace. - Sodium Blast Furnace- a blast of hot air is forced up - can be applied to certain elements the furnace from the bottom. that are semiconductors. Slag- a mixture of calcium silicate and calcium Conductors aluminate that remains molten at the furnace Band- molecular orbitals that are so closely temperature. spaced on the energy scale. Pig Iron/Cast Iron- iron extracted in this way Valence Band- made up of closely spaced contains many impurities, and it is granular and filled energy levels. brittle. Conduction Band- set of closely spaced - has a relatively low melting point (about empty levels. 1180°𝐶). Semiconductors- normally are not Steel- an iron alloy that contains from 0.03 to conductors, but will conduct electricity at 1.4 percent carbon. elevated temperatures. Oxidation Process- conversion of iron to steel. Doping- process by which adding a small Basic Oxygen Process- methods used in amount of certain impurities to the element. steelmaking. Donor Impurities- impurities that provide Cementite- iron and carbon in steel combine conduction electrons. to form iron carbide. N-Type Semiconductors- solids containing Tempering- it is the heating of steel and then donor impurities. cooling it rapidly to give it the desired mechanical properties. PERIODIC TRENDS IN METALLIC PROPERTIES PURIFICATION OF METALS - metallic character of metals increases 3 COMMON PROCEDURES: in just the opposite directions. - Distillation - low electronegativities of metals Mond Process- named after Ludwig Mond, a results to the formation of cations and British chemist of German origin. almost have positive oxidation -well-known method of fractional numbers distillation. Beryllium- form a covalent compounds. Electrolysis - The more electropositive metals Magnesium- also form a covalent compounds. are removed by an electrolysis process in which the impure copper acts as the anode ALKALI METALS and pure copper acts as the cathode in a - most electropositive or the least sulfuric acid solution electronegative elements. Zone Refining - a metal rod containing a few - have a body-centered crystal structure impurities is drawn through an electrical with low packing efficiency. heating coil that melts the metal - Known for its low melting point and soft enough to be sliced with a knife. BAND THEORY OF ELECTRICAL Lithium- lightest known metal. CONDUCTIVITY Band Theory SODIUM AND POTASSIUM - states that delocalized electrons move - essential elements of living matter. freely through “bands” formed by Electrolysis- a process where metallic overlapping molecular orbitals. sodium is ideally obtained from molten - model used to study metallic bonding. sodium chloride. Sodium Chloride- typical ionic - usually prepared from bauxite with compound. silica iron oxides, and titanium oxide. - a brittle solid with a high melting point Anhydrous Aluminum Oxide/Corundum- (801°𝐶). reduced to aluminum by the Hall process - conducts electricity in the molten (named after Charles Martin Hall, an state and in aqueous solution. American inventor). Sodium Carbonate- used in all kinds of Transition Metal- typically has industrial processes. incompletely filled d subshells or readily Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium gives rise to ions with incompletely filled d Hydroxide- prepared by the electrolysis of subshells. aqueous 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐶𝑙 solutions. General Physical Properties Sodium chloride- ionic compound that - Most of the transition metals have can be electrolyzed to form sodium metal a close-packed structure in which and chlorine. each atom has a coordination Sodium Nitrate- decomposes with the number of 12. evolution of oxygen at about 500°C. Chemistry of Iron Potassium Nitrate- prepared beginning - After aluminum, iron is the most with the “reaction”. abundant metal in Earth’s crust. Alkaline Earth Metals- considerably less Chemistry of Copper electropositive and less reactive than the - Copper, a rare element that is alkali metals. found in nature in the uncombined. -The oxidation number in combined - The reddish-brown metal is form is almost always +2. obtained by roasting the ore to give Magnesium- the sixth most plentiful Cu2S and then metallic copper. element in Earth’s crust. Seawater- a good source of magnesium. LESSON 4 - POLYMERS Milk of Magnesia- white solid suspension Polymer – A molecular compound that can used to treat acid indigestion. be distinguished by a high molar mass. Calcium- about 3.4% by mass in the Synthetic polymers – man-made Earth’s crust. polymers, were first developed in the early - found in limestone, calcite, chalk, and 20th century. It remarkably transformed our marble. world as different materials can be created Calcium Hydroxide/Slaked Lime- with properties that are ideal for different commonly known as slaked lime or applications. hydrated lime. Natural polymers – Have been around - produced by the reaction between since life itself began. (Examples of natural quicklime and water. polymers: cellulose, starch, other complex Lime- one of the oldest materials known to carbohydrates.) mankind. Natural rubber – A polymer obtained from Quicklime- produced by the thermal rubber trees and even the code for life itself. - DNA is a natural polymer decomposition of calcium carbonate. Monomers – the small molecules that are Aluminum- the most abundant metal and used for synthesizing polymers. the third most plentiful element in Earth’s - Simple repeating units. crust. Polymers – Can be created from a COMMON POLYMERIC MATERIALS combination of two or more different Polyethylene (LDPE)– Translucent if not monomers. pigmented. Homopolymer – If a polymer is made up of - Soft and flexible only one type of monomer. Polyethylene (HDPE) – Similar to LDPE. Teflon or polytetrafluoroethylene and - More rigid, tougher. polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – other Polyvinyl chloride – Variable. Not rigid if homopolymer that are synthesized by the not softened. radical mechanism. Polystyrene - Variable. “crystal” - Belongs to a family of polymers - “expandable” called the fluorocarbons. Polypropylene – Opaque, very tough, good Synthetic polymers – can be made from weatherability. many different starting materials which Polyethylene terephthalate – Transparent, usually come from crude oil (raw material). strong, shatter-resistant. Macromolecules – the molecules in polymers are gigantic and because of their MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND DEGREE OF size, they are often referred to as POLYMERIZATION macromolecules. - Polymers with very long chains have - The backbone of each of a carbon- extremely large molecular weights. chain polymer is a string of carbon - During the polymerization process, atoms. not all polymer chains will grow to - The atoms are bound together by the same length. covalent interatomic bonds. SEVERAL WAYS OF DEFINING AVERAGE Hydrocarbon ethylene – A gas at ambient MOLECULAR WEIGHT temperature and pressure. - The number-average molecular Vinyl chloride monomer – a slight variant weight Mn is obtained by dividing of that for ethylene. the chains into a series of size ranges and then determining the MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS number fraction of chains within Linear – the repeat units are joined together each size range end to end in single chains. Degree of polymerization – An alternative Branched – the chain packing efficiency is way of expressing average chain size of a reduced with the formation of side polymer. branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer density, - As molecular weight of a polymer Crosslinked – Adjacent linear chains are increases, its melting or softening joined one to another at various positions temperature also increases. by covalent bonds. - For polymers with molecular - Achieved either during synthesis or weights on the order of 100g/mol, by a nonreversible chemical will usually exist as liquids as room reaction. temperature. - Often accomplished by additive - With molecular weights between atoms or molecules that are 10,000 and several million g/mol covalently bonded to the chains. exist as solid. (high polymers) Network – Multifunctional monomers Thermoplastic (thermoplastic polymers) forming three or more active covalent – soften upon heating and later liquefy, then bonds. it hardens when cooled.  - This process is reversible and can Difference between nanotechnology and be repeated. conventional technology Thermosetting polymers – are network Nanotechnology - The bottom-up polymers, they do not soften upon heating approach is favored and they become permanently hard during Conventional technology – Use top0down their formation. approach - Excessive heating temperatures will Top-down – Starting from large pieces of cause severance of these crosslink material and producing the expected bonds and polymer degradation. structure by mechanical or chemical Copolymer – composed of two repeat methods. units. Bottom-up – atoms or molecules are used as building blocks to produce SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF nanoparticles, nanotubes, or nanorods. COPOLYMERS - Referred to as zero-one-, or two- Random – two different random units are dimensional nanostructures. randomly dispersed along the chain. Nanotubes and nanorods – referred to as Alternating – Two repeat units alternate one-dimensional nanoparticles, chain positions. nanoparticles, and fullerenes. Block – Identical repeat units are clustered Nanoplates – in particular graphenes, in blocks along the chain. could be considered as two-dimensional Graft – Homopolymer side branches of one nanoparticles. type may be grafted to homopolymer main Formation of nanorods and plates chains that are composed of a different - The influence of surface energy is to repeat unit. be considered. - If is important for nonspherical - In crystalline state, the atomic nanostructures especially in arrangement in polymer materials anistrophic (noncubic) structures. are more complex as compared to - 2nd possibility of obtaining nanorods metals and ceramics. and nanotubes is related to layered Polymer crystallinity – the packing of structures, where the crystal molecular chains to produce an ordered structure is built from layers held atomic array. together with van der waals forces. Polymer molecules – often partially The dangling bonds – need additional crystalline (semicrystalline). energy. Amorphous region – the result of any chain Imogolite – The most important compound disorder or misalignment. in this context with an ideal composition of Al2SiO3(OH). LESSON 5 - ENGINEERED - Its structure is characterized by NANOMATERIALS aluminum, silicon, oxygen and OH- Nanomaterials – has attractive properties ions arranged in rings. and amazing technological possibilities. - Materials where the sizes of the Formation of carbon nanotubes individual building blocks are less - Graphite crystallizes in a layered than 100 nm hexagonal structure. - Four basic types: Metals, ceramics, - Only three out of the four valences polymers, composites. of the carbon atom are saturated. - The fourth electron of the atoms remains unbound and become  delocalized across the hexagonal - Have relatively low densities. atomic sheets of carbon. - Depending on the orientation of the - Graphite is an isulator. hexagonal units in the graphene Graphene – single layers of graphite. plane (i.e., tube wall) with the tube - Denominated as an infinitely axis, the nanotube may behave extended, two-dimensional electrically as either a metal or a aromatic compound. semiconductor. Fullerenes – three-dimensional aromatics. - They are excellent electric field - It consists of a combination of emitters. hexagons and pentagons. Graphene – Newest member of C36 – smallest stable fullerene. nanocarbons. C20 – fullerene with the least number of - A single-atomic-layer of graphite carbons. composed of hexagonally bonded carbon atoms. - Nanotubes are formed by wrapping - These bonds are extremely strong, graphene layers yet flexible. - The multiwall nanotubes consist of Micromechanical exfoliation – adhesive- a series of coiled graphene layers. tape method. Nanocarbons – A class of recently - Peeling apart a piece of graphite, discovered materials. layer by layer using plastic adhesive - Three nanocarbons that belongs to tape until only a single layer of these class: fullerenes, carbon carbon remained. nanotubes, graphene. TWO CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAPHENE Fullerene – material composed of C60 Perfect order found in its sheets where no molecules. atomic defects such as vacancies exist. - Known as buckminsterfullerne Relates to the nature of unbonded - Used to denote the class of electrons; at room temperature, they move materials that are composed of this faster than conducting electrons in ordinary type of molecule. metals and semiconducting materials. Fullerite – In the solid state, the C60 units Graphene – Could be labeled the ultimate from a crystalline structure and pack material. together in a face-centered cubic array. Endohedral fullerenes – Compound which LESSON 6 - THE CHEMISTRY OF THE involve atoms or group of atoms that are ATMOSPHERE enclosed within the cage of carbon atoms. Atmosphere – A protective blanket. Exohedral fuleerenes – Other compounds, - Protects life on Earth from the atoms, ions, or cluster of atoms are hostile environment of outer space. attached to the outside of the fullerene - 3 billion years ago, Earth’s shell. atmosphere consisted mainly of Carbon nanotubes – Another molecular ammonia, methane, and water. form of carbon. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun - Its structure consist of a single probably penetrated the atmosphere, sheet of graphite (graphene). rendering the surface of Earth sterile. - Single-walled carbon nanotube Photosynthesis – Used energy from the sun Multi-walled carbon nanotubes – consists to break down carbon dioxide to obtain of concentric cylinders. carbon. Nanotubes – extremely strong and stiff and - Oxygen – Major by-product of relatively ductile. photosynthesis. Photodecomposition of water vapor in - The temperature decreases with the UV light – Another important source of increasing altitude. oxygen. Thermosphere/ionosphere– Uppermost layer. - Today, our atmosphere consists - The rise of temperature is the result mainly of oxygen and nitrogen of the bombardment of molecular gases. oxygen, nitrogen, and atomic Molecular nitrogen – A very stable species by energetic particles. molecule. AIR POLLUTANTS AND TREATMENT Biological and industrial nitrogen fixation Pollutant – A substance present in greater – conversion of molecular nitrogen into than natural concentration as a result of nitrogen compounds, atmospheric nitrogen human activity that has a net detrimental gas is converted into nitrated and other effect. compounds. Contaminants – Not classified as Lightning – Another important mechanism pollutants unless they have detrimental for producing nitrates from nitrogen. effect. Denitrification – reverses nitrogen fixation Source – The logical place to eliminate to complete the cycle. pollution. Receptor – Anything that is affected by the - Atmospheric oxygen is removed pollutant. through respiration and various Oxides of Carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen are industrial processes (mostly important constituents of the atmosphere. combustion) - Carbon dioxide is the most Photosynthesis – Major mechanism by abundant. It is a natural which molecular oxygen is regenerated atmospheric constituent. from carbon dioxide and water. - The increase in atmospheric carbon LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE dioxide may cause atmospheric Troposphere – The most active region. warning, the “greenhouse effect. - It contains 80% of the total mass of air and all of the atmosphere’s water Two most serious nitrogen oxide air vapor. pollutants – Nitric oxide and nitrogen - The thinnest layer (10km) dioxide. - Temperature decreases almost Photochemical processes – can convert to linearly with increasing altitude in NO to NO2. this region. Nitrogen dioxide – significant in Stratosphere – Above the troposphere. atmospheric chemistry because of its - Consists of nitrogen, oxygen, and photochemical dissociation ozone. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) – a reaction product of - The temperature rises with altitude. the combustion of sulfur-containing fuels - The warming effect is the result of such as high-sulfur coal. Exothermic reactions triggered by Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) – Conveted from UV radiation. sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere. Ozone – Serves to prevent harmful UV rays - Predominant contributor to acid from reaching the Earth’s surface. precipitation. Mesosphere – Above the stratosphere. - Concentration of ozone and other Methane – Most abundant hydrocarbon in gases is low. the atmosphere.  - Released from underground sources Ionizing wet scrubbers – It place an as natural gas and produced by electrical charge on particles upstream fermentation of organic matter. from a wet scrubber. - Least reactive atmospheric - Larger particles and some gaseous hydrocarbons. contaminants are removed by - Produced by diffuse sources. scrubbing action. Photochemical smog – produced by the - Smaller particles tend to induce presence of NO under conditions of opposite charges in water droplets temperature inversion low humidity, and in the scrubber. sunlight. Particles – aggregates of a few molecules to THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER pieces of dust readily visible to the naked Water – It has various distinctive properties eye. that are fundamental to life. Condensation nuclei – very small particles. Few special characteristics of water: - Serve as bodies for atmospheric - Tendency to form hydrogen bonds water vapor to condense upon. - Polar character Aerosols – Colloidal-sized particles in the - Capability to hydrate metal ions atmosphere. H2O – chemical formula of water. Dispersion aerosols – Particles formed by Capability to hydrogen bond formation – grinding up bulk matter. another characteristic of the water Condensation aerosols - particles formed molecule. from chemical reactions of gases. Hydrogen bonds – special type of bonds Sedimentation – simplest means of that can form between the hydrogen in one particulate matter removal. water molecule and the oxygen in another - A phenomenon that occurs water molecule. continuously in nature. - Also described as an electrostatic Gravitational settling of particles – It is attraction between a hydrogen enhanced by increased particle size. atom. - Occurs spontaneously by Intermolecular force – force that occurs coagulation. between molecules. Inertial mechanisms – effective for particle At standard temperature and pressure, removal. water is a liquid with a temperature 25C and PARTICLE FILTRATION pressure of 1 atm. Fabric filters – consist of fabrics that allow - Water has a high boiling point of the passage of gas but retain particulate 100C matter. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF WATER - Used to collect dust in bags Excellent solvent – Transport of nutrients contained in structures called and waste products. baghouses. Highest dielectric constant of any Scrubbers – A venturi scrubber passes gas common liquid – High solubility of ionic through a device which leads the gas substances and their ionization in solution. stream through a converging section, Higher surface tension than any other throat, and diverging section. liquid – Controlling factor in physiology - Injection of the scrubbing liquid at Transparent to visible and longer- right angles to incoming gas breaks wavelength fraction of ultraviolet light – the liquid into very small droplets. Colorless, allowing light required for Venturis – May serve as quenchers to cool photosynthesis. exhaust gas. Maximum density as a liquid at 4C – Ice Interflow – When droplets move laterally floats just below the ground surface. Higher heat of evaporation than any other Infiltration or percolation – When droplets material – Determines transfer of heat and move vertically through the soils to form water molecules between the atmosphere groundwater. and bodies of water. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BODIES OF Higher latent heat of fusion than any WATER other liquid except ammonia – Surface water – Occurs primarily in Temperature stabilized at the freezing point streams, lakes, andreservoirs. of water. Wetlands – Are flooded areas in which the Higher heat capacity than any other liquid water is shallow enough to enable growth of except ammonia – stabilization of bottom-rooted plants. temperatures of organisms and Estuaries – Arms of the ocean into which geographical regions. streams flow. CLASSIFICATION OF WATER BY SOURCE THERMAL STRATIFICATION Potable water – safe for drinking. Epilimnion (A surface layer) is heated by Non-potable water – contaminated with solar radiation and, because of its lower pollutants. density, floats upon the bottom layer, or Surface water – Most convenient source for hypolimnion. human activities. Metalimnion or thermocline – The shear- - Can be found in lakes, rivers, and plane, or layer between epilimnion and streams. hypolimnion. Groundwater – less convenient to access. CONCENTRATION UNITES IN AQUEOUS - Fresh water found in underground SOLUTIONS reservoirs. Solvent – Capable of dissolving one or more - Also known as Aquifers. pure substances. THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE Solute – Anything that dissolves in a - A cycle that includes all of the water solvent. present on and in the Earth. Solution – A homogenous mixture of a TWO DISTINCT PROCESSES FOR THE solvent and one or more solutes. TRANSFER OF WATER TO THE EARTH’S Aqueous solution – Solution which water is ATMOSPHERE the solvent. Evaporation – Conversion of liquid water to Concentration – Ratio of the amount of water vapor. solute to the amount of solution. Transpiration – Water is emitted from Weight percent, P – Used to express plants through the stomata. approximate concentrations of commercial - Stomata – small opening on the chemicals or of solid concentrations of underside of the leaves. sludges. Evapotranspiration – used to describe the Molarity, M – concentration unit expressed combined losses of water due to by the number of moles of solute present in transpiration and evaporation. 1 liter of solution. Precipitation - Water is released from the REACTION OF ACIDS AND BASES IN atmosphere. WATER Rain – The most common of which in Acid – A compound that releases hydrogen temperate climate. ions in aqueous solutions. Surface runoff, overland flow, or direct Hydrogen atom – electrically neutral and runoff – When droplets either run over the consists of one electron and one proton. ground into streams and rivers. Strong acid – No HCl molecules remain in Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – The solution because they dissociate amount of oxygen utilized when the organic completely in water. matter in a given volume of water is Hydronium ion (H3O+) – Formed when degraded biologically. each HCl molecule donates a proton to an Carbon dioxide – Produced by respiratory H2O molecule. processes in water and sediments. Weak acid – an acid that dissociates only to a small extent in aqueous solution. SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS IN WATER Base – Compound that releases hydroxide Point sources – Domestic and industrial ions in aqueous solution. wastes, usually collected by a network of Strong bases – Bases that dissociate pipes. completely in water. Municipal sewage – Domestic sewage Equilibrium reaction – one that proceeds Nonpoint sources - Urban and agricultural in both directions to continually form both runoff. products and reactants. Conjugate acid – ion donates a proton WATER POLLUTANTS Ocean acidification – The lowering of pH in Oxygen-demanding material – Anything our ocean due to the atmospheric carbon that can be oxidized in the receiving water. dioxide. Consumption of dissolved oxygen – poses Acidic precipitation – Acid rain a threat to fish and higher forms of aquatic Acid neutralizing capacity – The capacity life. of a lake or other body of water to resist a Nutrients – Required for the growth of all decrease in pH. living things. - Too much nutrient can cause large AQUATIC LIFE growth of algae. Biota – The living organisms in an aquatic Pathogenic organisms – When found in ecosystem. wastewater, it includes bacteria, viruses, Can be classified as: and protozoa. Autotrophic – Organisms that use solar or Suspended solids (SS) - organic and chemical energy to fix elements from simple to complex life molecules. inorganic particles that are carried by Algae - most important autotrophic aquatic wastewater into a receiving water. organisms. Sediment – Includes eroded soil particles. - They are producers that utilize solar Colloidal particles – Do not settle readily, energy. cause the turbidity found in surface waters. Heterotrophic - Organisms that use the Pesticides - Chemicals used to regulate organic substances produced by and control various types of pests of weeds. autotrophic organisms as energy sources. MAJOR TYPES OF PESTICIDES Decomposers or reducers - subclass of Herbicides – Used to kill unwanted plants. heterotrophic organisms. Insecticides - Used to kill insects. - Consists of bacteria and fungi. Fungicides - Used to control the growth of Productivity – The ability of a body of water fungi. to produce living material. Eutrophication – Condition where excessive productivity results in decay. Pharmaceutical and personal care Dissolved oxygen (DO) - Frequently products (PPCP’s) – class off compounds considered as the key substance in that are applied externally or ingested. determining the extent and kind of life in a Metabolic excretion – Another source of body or water. PPCP’s in the environment. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) – DISTINCTIVE LAYERS OF A TYPICAL SOIL Class of chemicals known as endocrine Horizon – The top layer of soil. disrupters. - product of complex interactions - Include the polychlorinated between processes that develop biphenyls. during weathering. Polychlorinated Biphenyls – Commonly Biological process – Bacterial decay of used pesticides. residual plant biomass. Other organic chemicals – Includes Transpiration – The water in a plant hydrocarbons from combustion process. evaporates into the atmosphere from the Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons – The plant’s leaves. hydrocarbons formed during combustion that include chemicals such as methane, THE INORGANIC AND ORGANIC MATTER benzene, and a class of compounds. IN SOIL Toxic metals – Heavy metals that enter Inorganic components of soil aquatic environments. - The formation of inorganic colloids Nanoparticles – Particles that have a from the inorganic soil components dimension less than 100 nm. are produced from the weathering of parent rocks and minerals WATER TREATMENT Inorganic soil colloids – plays a role in the Factors that might adversely affect the detoxification of substances. intended use of a water supply source: Organic matter in soil Physical – correlate to the characteristic of - Mostly determines soil productivity. water for domestic use. Oxalate in soils – Dissolves minerals. Chemical – Includes the identification of its - The build-up of organic matter in components and their concentrations. soil is greatly influenced by Microbiological – May be significant in temperature and by the availability modifying the physical and chemical of oxygen. characteristics of water. MAJOR CLASSES OF ORGANIC Radiological – Must be considered in areas COMPOUNDS IN SOIL where the water may have come in contact Humus – Most abundant organic with radioactive substances. component. Aluminum sulfate and calcium hydroxide Fats, resins, and waxes – Lipids – They are flocculating agents. extractable by organic solvents. Chlorination – Disinfecting the water. Saccharides – Major food source for soil - Accomplished by adding chlorine microorganisms. gas, sodium hypochlorite, or N-containing organics - Provide nitrogen calcium hypochlorite. for soil fertility. Residual chlorine – Chlorine-containing Phosphorous compounds – Sources of chemicals that remain in the water after the plant phosphate. chlorination step. Fluoridation – The addition of fluoride to Humic and fulvic acids - Base-soluble strengthen teeth enamel and reduce fraction. number of cavities. - An organic material that remains in Ozonation – Ozone is used to disinfect the acidified solution. water supplies. Humin – An insoluble fraction. - The residue left when bacteria and THE SOIL CHEMISTRY fungi biodegrade plant material. The soil solution – The aqueous portion of Zinc - is present as the result of isomorphic soil that contains dissolved matter from the substitution for Mg, Fe, and Mn in oxides. chemical and biochemical processes in soil. FERTILIZERS - Transports chemical species to and - Organic fertilizers such as manure from soil particles. must undergo biodegradation to Exchange capacity – The extent to which a release the simple inorganic unit mass of soil can exchange a mass of a species. certain ion of interest. Ammonium nitrate – A common solid Sorption – The attachment of a chemical to nitrogen fertilizer which has 33.5% nitrogen. either the mineral or organic portions of soil Eutrophication – The excessive growth of particles. algae in water body which is caused by the Macronutrients - Elements that occur in nutrients in fertilizers. substantial levels in plant biomass and Livestock production – Generates fluids. significant amounts of environmental Acid soils – May still contain an appreciable pollutants. level of calcium. Herbicides – The most common chemicals that affects soil and organisms. - Organic nitrogen content in soil is Soil – The receptor of many hazardous over 90%, which is usually the wastes. product of the biodegradation of - A fragile resource that can be lost by dead plants and animals. erosion. - Nitrogen is an essential component Black carbon – Material in the ash left over of proteins and other living from burning of crop residues. conditions. Desertification – The process associated Orthophosphate – Most available to plants with drought and loss of fertility by which at pH values near neutrality. soil becomes unable to grow significant Potassium – It activates some enzymes, amounts of plant life. and it is also essential for some Deforestation – loss of forests. carbohydrate transformations. Soil erosion – Loss of soil by the action of both water and wind. MICRONUTRIENTS IN SOIL Water – Primary source of erosion. - Essential plant micronutrients Soil conservation – The preservation of soil includes: boron, chlorine, copper, from erosion. iron, manganese, molybdenum (for Agroforestry – Alternative in sustainable nitrogen fixation), and zinc. agriculture in which crops are grown in Iron and manganese – Occurs in a number strips between rows of trees. of soil minerals. Soil restoration – Restore soil productivity Sodium and chlorine – Occurs naturally in through the application of restoration soil and are transported as atmospheric ecology. particulate matter. Agriculture – Science of living organisms Boron - substituted isomorphically for Si in applied to human needs. some micas. Biomimetics – Humans attempt to mimic Copper - isomorphically substituted for natural life systems. other elements in feldspars. Biopesticides – Pesticides that come from Molybdenum - occurs as molybdenite natural resources. Vanadium - is isomorphically substituted - Lower toxicity than conventional for Fe or Al in oxides. pesticides.