GE 103 Art Appreciation Revised Module 2023 PDF

**REVISED MODULE IN GE 103 -- ART APPRECIATION** **[PRELIMINARIES:]** **Course Title:** Art Appreciation **Course Number:** GE 103 **Course Description:** This course includes a broad series of lessons and activities that offer a variety of modalities for ultimate student engagement and content...

**REVISED MODULE IN GE 103 -- ART APPRECIATION** **[PRELIMINARIES:]** **Course Title:** Art Appreciation **Course Number:** GE 103 **Course Description:** This course includes a broad series of lessons and activities that offer a variety of modalities for ultimate student engagement and content retention. Each unit contains a series of lessons that include introduction of content, virtual demonstration of that content, and repeated opportunity to practice that content. **Total Learning Time:** 18 weeks **Pre-requisites: N/A** **MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTIONS AND DEFINITIONS** OVERVIEW This module gives a basic understanding of how art is defined and the different ways it functions in societies and cultures. It covers the following topics: - - - - - - - - OBJECTIVES Upon successful completion of this module, you should be able to: - - - - - - - - **Indicative Content** Module 1: Introduction to Art Appreciation  This module gives a basic understanding of how art is defined and the different ways it functions in societies and cultures. It covers the following topics: What is Art? Form and Content Aesthetics Subjective and Objective Perspectives Artistic Roles Artistic Categories Artistic Styles Ideas of Perception and Visual Awareness **Disscussion:** [What is an Art] How would you define 'art'? For many people art is a specific thing; a painting, sculpture or photograph, a dance, a poem or a play. It is all of these things, and more. They are mediums of artistic expression. Webster's New Collegiate dictionary defines art as "The conscious use of skill and creative imagination especially in the production of aesthetic objects." Yet art is much more than a medium, or words on a page. It is the expression of our experience. Joseph Brodsky hints at a definition of art in his poem "New Life": "Ultimately, one's unbound curiosity about these empty zones, about these objectless vistas, is what art seems to be all about." Art is uniquely human and tied directly to culture. It takes the ordinary and makes it extraordinary. It asks questions about who we are, what we value, the meaning of beauty and the human condition. As an expressive medium it allows us to experience sublime joy, deep sorrow, confusion and clarity. It tests our strengths, vulnerabilities and resolve. It gives voice to ideas and feelings, connects us to the past, reflects the present and anticipates the future. Along these lines, art history, combined with anthropology and literature, are three main sources in observing, recording and interpreting our human past. Visual art is a rich and complex subject whose definition is in flux as the culture around it changes. Because of this, how we define art is in essence a question of agreement. In this respect, we can look again to the dictionary's definition for an understanding of exactly what to look for when we proclaim something as 'art'. FORM & CONTENT Two basic considerations we need to be acquainted with are form: the physical and visible characteristics inherent in works of art, and content: the meaning we derive from them. Formal distinctions include a work's size, medium (painting, drawing, sculpture or other kind of work) and descriptions of compositional elements such as the lines, shapes and colors involved. Issues of content include any visual clues that provide an understanding of what the art tells us. Sometimes an artwork's content is vague or hidden and needs more information than is present in the work itself. Ultimately these two terms are roped together in the climb to understand what art has to offer us. As we examine art from different time periods, styles and cultures, the issues of form and content will apply to all of them. We'll explore form and content further in Modules 3 and 4 AESTHETICS Aesthetics is the philosophical argument about the nature of beauty. It's an idea central to any exploration of art. Aesthetics deals with notions of taste, cultural conventions -- ideas of art being 'good' and 'bad' based on specific cultural information and beliefs and the judgments we make based on our perceptions. As deep as visual art is embedded in the fabric of our lives, it still is the source of controversy and irony. It thrives on common experience yet contradicts ideas of ourselves. Art is part of the culture it's created in, but can reflect many cultures at once. From where you and I stand today art has become probably more complex than ever in its use of imagery, mediums and meanings. We need a way to access the visual information of our society, of past cultures, and cultures not known to us to have a way to understand what we are looking at. SUBJECTIVE & OBJECTIVE PERSPECTIVES The first level in approaching art is learning to LOOK at it. In future discussions we will spend more time in pure observation than you probably have done before. Generally, we tend to look at art in terms of \"liking\" it FIRST, and \"looking\" at it later. From this perspective, the subjective (knowledge residing in the emotions and thoughts of the viewer) almost completely dominates our way of looking at art. In the arts, it's especially important to begin to develop an informed or objective opinion rather than just an instinctual reaction. An objective view is one that focuses on the object's physical characteristics as the main source of information. This does not mean that you will remove or invalidate your subjective feelings about a work, in fact you will find that the more informed you become, the moreartwork will affect you emotionally and intellectually. It does mean that you will learn alternative ways to approach art, ways that allow you to find clues to meaning and to understand how art reflects and affects our lives. It's complex, but the satisfaction of looking at art comes from exploring the work to find meaning, not shying away from it simply because we may not understand it. ARTISTIC ROLES Visual artists and the works they produce perform specific roles. These roles vary between cultures. We can examine some general areas to see the diversity they offer -- and perhaps come up with some new ones of our own. *Description* A traditional role of visual art is to ***describe*** our self and our surroundings. Some of the earliest artworks [[discovered (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/lascaux/index.php) are drawings and paintings of humans and wild animals on walls deep within prehistoric caves. One particular image is a [[hand (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/chauvet/en/owpt12.htm) print: a universal symbol of human communication. *Portraits* Portraits, landscapes and still life are common examples of description. Portraits capture the accuracy of physical characteristics but the very best also transfer a sense of an individual's unique personality. For thousands of years this role was reserved for images of those in positions of power, influence and authority. The portrait not only signifies who they are, but also solidifies class structure by presenting only the highest-ranking members of a society. The portrait bust of Egyptian *Queen Nefertiti,* dated to around 1300 BCE, exemplifies beauty and royalty. M1\_Image1\_BustofNefertiti.jpeg Egyptian, *Bust of Nefertiti*, painted sandstone, c. 1370 BCE, Neues Museum, Berlin.\ Licensed under Creative Commons and GNU. The full-length *Imperial Portrait of Chinese Emperor Xianfeng* below not only shows realism in the likeness of the emperor, it exalts in the patterns and colors of his robe and the throne behind him.  *Imperial Portrait of Emperor Xianfeng*, China, c. 1855. Palace Museum, Bejing.\ Licensed under Creative Commons.  *Landscapes* Landscapes -- by themselves -- give us detailed information about our natural and human made surroundings; things like location, architecture, time of day, year or season plus other physical information such as geological elements and the plants and animals within a particular region. In many western cultures, the more realistic the rendering of a scene the closer to our idea of the 'truth' it becomes. In the 15^th^ century German artist Albrecht Durer creates vivid works that show a keen sense of observation. His *Young Hare *from 1495 is uncanny in its realism and sense of animation.   M1\_Image3\_YoungHare.jpeg Albrecht Durer, *Young Hare*, c. 1505, gouache and watercolor on paper. Albertina Museum, Vienna.\ Image in the public domain. *Scientific Illustration*  Out of this striving for accuracy and documentation developed the art of ***scientific illustration***. The traditional mediums of painting and drawing are still used to record much of the world around us. Linda Berkley's *Merino Ram* uses a layered approach to record in great detail the physical anatomy of the head of the great sheep.  *Merino Ram*, composite drawing, colored pencil, acrylic on Canson paper, 2009. Linda Berkley, Illustrator.\                Used by permission of the artist *Enhancing our World* Enhancing the world of our everyday lives is another role art plays. This role is more ***utilitarian*** than others. It includes textiles and product design, [[decorative (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carolus_-Private_Collection_-_detail_naaldkant.jpg) embellishments to the [[items (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1979.206.385) we use everyday and all the aesthetic considerations that create a more comfortable, expressive environment  *Narratives: How Artists Tell Their Stories* Artists can combine representation with more complex elements and situational compositions to bring a narrative component into art. Using ***subject matter*** -- the objects and figures that inhabit a work of art \-- as a vehicle for communicating stories and other cultural expressions is another traditional function of visual art. The narrative tradition is strong in many cultures throughout the world. They become a means to perpetuate knowledge, morals and ethics, and can signify historical contexts within specific cultures. Narrative takes many forms; the spoken or written word, music, dance and visual art are the mediums most often used. Many times one is used in conjunction with another. In his [[Migration Series (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.phillipscollection.org/migration_series/index.cfm) Jacob Lawrence paints stark, direct images that communicate the realities of the African American experience in their struggle to escape the repression of the South and overcome the difficulties of adjusting to the big cities in the North. In contrast, photographers used the camera lens to document examples of segregation in the United States. Here the image on film tells its poignant story about inequalities based on race. M1\_Image5\_WaterCooler.jpeg*Man Drinking at a Water Cooler in the Street Car Terminal, *Russell Lee, Oklahoma City, 1939.\ Photo from the National Archives and in the public domain *Spirit, Myth and Fantasy* Tied to the idea of narrative, another artistic role is the exploration of other worlds beyond our physical one. This world is in many ways richer than our own and includes the world of spirit, myth, fantasy and the imagination; areas particularly suited for the visual artist. We can see how art gives a rich and varied treatment to these ideas. Artist Michael Spafford has spent his career presenting classical Greek [[myths (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.sedersgallery.com/Artists/028/28_Spafford.htm) through painting, drawing and printmaking. His spare, abstract style uses high contrast images to strong dramatic effect. A [[Smiling Figure (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1979.206.1211)* *from ancient Mexico portrays a god of dance, music and joy. A third example, Hieronymus Bosch's painting the [[Temptation of Saint Anthony (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/bosch/tempt-ant/), gives the subject matter both spiritual and bizarre significance in the way they are presented. ** **His creative imagination takes the subject of temptation and raises it to the realm of the fantastic. There is an entire module devoted to the idea of the *other world *later in this course. ARTISTIC CATEGORIES\ Visual arts are generally divided into categories that make distinctions based on the context of the work. For example, Leonardo da Vinci's '*Mona Lisa' *would not fall into the same category as, say, a graphic poster for a rock concert. Some artworks can be placed in more than one category. Here are the main categories: *Fine Art*  This category includes drawings, paintings, sculptures, photographs and, in the last decade, new media that are in museum collections and sold through commercial art galleries. Fine art has a distinction of being some of the finest examples of our human artistic heritage. Here is where you will find Leonardo Da Vinci's *Mona Lisa *(below), also ancient sculpture, such as the Gandhara figure from India (also below), and stunning [ceramics[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.mfa.org/search/collections?keyword=ceramics&objecttype=14&images=1) from different cultures and time periods.   *Mona Lisa*, Leonardo Da Vincic. 1503-19. Oil on poplar. 30" x 21". The Louvre, Paris\ Image licensed through Creative Commons M1\_Image7\_GanharaFigure.jpeg *Stucco Ganhara figure*, India, 4^th^--5^th^ century CE. Victoria & Albert Museum, London.\ Licensed through* GNU* *Popular Culture* This category contains the many products and images we are exposed to every day. In the industrialized world, this includes posters, graffiti, advertising, popular music, television and digital imagery, magazines, books and movies (as distinguished from *film*, which we'll examine in a different context later in the course). Also included are cars, celebrity status and all the ideas and attitudes that help define the contemporary period of a particular culture.           Handbills posted on telephone poles or the sides of buildings are graphic, colorful and informative, but they also provide a street level texture to the urban environment most of us live in. Public murals serve this same function. They put an aesthetic stamp on an otherwise bland and industrialized landscape.  *Street handbills*. Image by Christopher Gildow\ Licensed through Creative Commons M1\_Image9\_PublicMural.jpeg  *Public Mural*, Seattle. Image by Christopher Gildow\ Licensed through Creative Commons *Craft* Craft is a category of art that shows a high degree of skilled workmanship in its production. Craft works are normally associated with utilitarian purposes, but can be aesthetic works in themselves, often highly decorated. The Mexican ceramic vessel below is an example. Handmade furniture and glassware, fine metalworking and leather goods are other examples of craft.  *Ceramic bowl*, Mexico. Date unknown. Painted clay. Anahuacalli Museum, Mexico City.\ Licensed through GNU and Creative Commons. ARTISTIC STYLES *Style* The search for truth is not exclusive to representational art. From viewing many of the examples so far you can see how individual artists use different styles to communicate their ideas. **Style** refers to a particular kind of appearance in works of art. It's a characteristic of an individual artist or a collective relationship based on an idea, culture or artistic movement. Following is a list and description of the most common styles in art: *Naturalistic Style* **Naturalistic **style uses recognizable images with a high level of accuracy in their depiction. Naturalism also includes the idealized object: one that is modified to achieve a kind of perfection within the bounds of aesthetics and form. ** **William Sydney Mount's painting [The Bone Player[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/the-bone-player-33207) gives accuracy in its representation and a sense of character to the figure, from his ragged-edged hat to the button missing from his vest. Mount treats the musician's portrait with a sensitive hand, more idealized by his handsome features and soft smile. Note: click the image for a larger view. *Abstract Style* **Abstract** style is based on a recognizable object but which is then manipulated by distortion, scale issues or other artistic devices. Abstraction can be created by exaggerating form, simplifying shapes or the use of strong colors. Let's look at three landscapes below with varying degrees of abstraction in them to see how this style can be so effective. In the first one, Marsden Hartley uses abstraction to give the spare *"Landscape, New Mexico"* a sense of energy. Through the rounded forms and gesture in treatment we can discern hills, clouds, a road and some trees or bushes. M1\_Image11\_Landscape.jpeg   *Landscape, New Mexico, Marsden Hartley, *about 1916. Pastel on paper. The Brooklyn Museum, New York.\ Image in the public domain[[\  (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/70581/Landscape_New_Mexico/set/24799fb10829864239a2d3e0e4d74621?referring-q=marsden+hartley) Georgia O'Keeffe's [Birch and Pine Trees \-- Pink[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.colby.edu/academics_cs/museum/collection/viewimage.cfm?id=1419088) employs abstraction to turn the painting into a tree-filled landscape dominated by a spray of orange paint suggesting a branch of birch leaves at the top left. Vasily Kandinsky's [Landscape with Red Spots, No. 2[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/collection-online/show-full/piece/?search=Vasily%20Kandinsky&page=1&f=People&cr=6) goes further into abstraction, releasing color from its descriptive function and vastly simplifying forms. The rendering of a town at the lower left is reduced to blocky areas of paint and a black triangular shape of hill in the background. In all three of these, the artists manipulate and distort the 'real' landscape as a vehicle for emotion. It's important to note the definition of 'abstract' is relative to cultural perspective. That is, different cultures develop traditional forms and styles of art they understand within the context of their own culture (see 'Cultural Styles' below), and which are difficult for other cultures to understand. So what may be 'abstract' to one could be more 'realistic' in style to another. For example, the Roman bust of Sappho below looks very real from a western European aesthetic perspective. Under the same perspective, the African mask would be called 'abstract'.  Roman bust of Sappho.  Capitoline Museum, Rome.\ Image in the public domain. M1\_Image13\_AfricanMask.jpeg African mask photo by Cezary.\ Image in the public domain. Yet to the African culture that produced the mask it would appear more realistic. In addition, the African mask shares some formal attributes with the Tlingit '*Groundhog Mask'* (below under 'Cultural styles') from Canada's west coast. It's very possible these two cultures would see the Roman bust as the 'abstract' one. So it's important that we understand artworks from cultures other than our own in the context in which they were originally created. Questions of abstraction can also emerge from something as simple as our distance from an artwork. View and read about [Fanny/Fingerpainting[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.nga.gov/fcgi-bin/tinfo_f?object=69637) by the artist Chuck Close. At first glance it is a highly realistic portrait of the artist's grandmother-in law. You can zoom it in to see how the painting dissolves into a grid of individual fingerprints, a process that renders the surface very abstract. With this in mind, we can see how any work of art is essentially made of smaller abstract parts that, when seen together, make up a coherent whole. **Non-objective** imagery has no relation to the 'real' world -- that is -- the work of art is based solely upon itself. In this way the non-objective style is completely different than abstract, and it's important to make the distinction between the two. This style rose from the modern art movement in Europe, Russia and the United States during the first half of the 20^th^ century. Pergusa Three[ (Links to an external site.)] by American artist Frank Stella uses organic and geometric shapes and strong color set against a heavy black background to create a vivid image.  More than with other styles, issues of content are associated with a non-objective work's formal structure.  *Cultural Styles* Cultural styles refer to distinctive characteristics in artworks throughout a particular society or culture. Some main elements of cultural styles are recurring*** ***[[***motifs*** (Links to an external site.)]](http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/motif)***,*** created in the same way by many artists.  Cultural styles are formed over hundreds or even thousands of years and help define cultural identity. We can find evidence of this by comparing two masks; one from Alaska and the other from Canada. The  Yup\'ik[ (Links to an external site.)] dance mask from Alaska is quite stylized with oval and rounded forms divided by wide bands in strong relief. The painted areas outline or follow shapes. Carved objects are attached to the mask and give an upward movement to the whole artwork while the face itself carries an animated expression. By comparison, a '*Groundhog Mask'* from the Tlingit culture in coastal northwestern Canada exhibits similar forms and many of the same motifs. The mouths of each mask are particularly similar to each other. Groundhog's visage takes on human -- like characteristics just as the Yup'ik mask takes the form of a bird. This cultural style ranges from western Alaska to northern Canada.   *Ground Hog Mask,*Tlingit, c. 19^th^ century. Carved and painted wood, animal hair.\ Collection the Burke Museum, University of Washington, Seattle. Used by permission. Celtic art from Great Britain and Ireland shows a cultural style that's been identified for thousands of years. Its highly refined organic motifs include spirals, plant forms and [zoomorphism[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoomorphism). Intricate and decorative, the Celtic style adapted to include early book illustration. The *Book of Kells* is considered the pinnacle of this cultural style.  M1\_Image15\_BookOfKells.jpeg  Page from the *Book of Kells*, around 800 CE. Trinity College, Dublin.\ Image in the public domain. IDEAS OF PERCEPTION & VISUAL AWARENESS Images from media and the environment around us -- dominate our perception. Our eyes literally navigate us through a visual landscape all our lives, and we all make decisions based on *how* and* what* we see.  Separating the subjective and objective ways we see helps us become more visually aware of our surroundings.  Scientifically, the process of seeing is the result of light passing through the lens in our eye, then concentrating it on the retina at the back of the eye. The retina has nerve cells that act like sponges, soaking up the information and sending it to the visual cortex of our brain. Here the light is converted to an image that we can perceive -- the 'truth' -- as we understand it to be. We are exposed to so much visual information every day, especially with the advent of mass media, that it's hard to process all of it into specific meaning. Being visually aware is more complicated than just the physical act of seeing because our perceptions are influenced by exterior factors, including our own prejudices, desires and ideas about what the 'truth' really is. Moreover, cultural ties to perception are many. For example, let's look at two images that share one particular element; that of raised arms, and see how we perceive each one according to what we know about them. [[*Standing Bather with Raised Arms* (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.flickr.com/photos/zebrawatcher/370930497/), 1930, Aristide Maillol, Marble\ Photo by Flickr User: zebrawatcher\ License through Creative Commons Touchdown Jesus[[\  (Links to an external site.)](https://secure.flickr.com/photos/92298310@N00/286255720)[*Touchdown Jesus* (Links to an external site.)](http://www.flickr.com/photos/danimal0416/82041617/)], Monroe, Ohio\ Photo by Flickr User: danieljohnsonjr\ License through Creative Commons Art is a resource for questioning our perceptions about how objects and ideas present themselves. The Belgian artist [Rene Magritte[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte) used his easel as a soapbox to confront the viewer with confounding visual information. Click the hyperlink to watch a short video where Magritte considers language and [perception[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.sfmoma.org/explore/multimedia/videos/246). As was mentioned at the beginning of this module, there is a difference between *looking* and *seeing*. To look is to glance back and forth, aware of surface qualities in the things that come into our line of sight. To see is more about comprehending. After all, when we say "I see" we really mean that we understand. Seeing goes beyond appearances. So, as we confront the huge amounts of visual information coming at us we start to make choices about what we keep and what we edit out. We concentrate on that which has the most meaning for us: a street sign that helps us get home, a view of the mountains that lets us enjoy a part of nature's spectacle, or the computer screen that allows us to gather information, whether it's reading the content in this course or catching up on the day's news or emails. Our gaze becomes more specific, and with that comes specific meaning. At this point what we see becomes part of what we know. It's when we stop to contemplate what we see -- the view of the mountain mentioned above, a portrait or simple visual composition that catches our eye -- that we make reference to an ***aesthetic perception***. That is, when something is considered for its visual properties alone, and their relation to our ideas of what is beautiful, as a vehicle for meaning. No matter how visually aware we are, visual clues alone hinder our ability to fully comprehend what we see. Words, either spoken or read as text, help fill in the blanks to understanding. They provide a ***context***; a historical background, religious function or other cultural significance to the art we are looking at. We ask others for information about it, or find it ourselves, to help understand the meaning. In a museum or gallery it may be wall text that provides this link, or a source text, website or someone knowledgeable about the art. Now that we have a basic understanding of what art is, the cultural roles it plays and the different categories and styles it can belong to we can begin to explore more specific physical and conceptual issues surrounding it. Let's start with the next module. **MODULE 2 - THE PROCESS OF ART** OVERVIEW This module explores the artistic process and the art industry surrounding it: from individual artists turning ideas into works of art to collaborative creative projects, public art and the viewer. It covers the following topics: - - - - OBJECTIVES Upon successful completion of this module, you should be able to: - - - - **Disscussion:** **THE ARTISTIC PROCESS**  How many times have you looked at a work of art and wondered "how did they *do* that"? Some think of the artist as a solitary being, misunderstood by society, toiling away in the studio to create a masterpiece, and yes, there *is* something fantastic about a singular creative act becoming a work of art. The reality is that artists rely on a support network that includes family, friends, peers, industries, business and, in essence, the whole society they live in. For example, an artist may need only a piece of paper and pencil to create an extraordinary [drawing[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=427&handle=li), but depends on a supplier in order to acquire those two simple tools. Whole industries surround art making, and artists rely on many different materials in order to realize their work, from the pencil and paper mentioned above to the painter's canvas, paints and brushes, the sculptor's wood, stone and tools and the photographer's film, digital camera and software or chemicals used to manipulate an image. From the Kusama exhibition, part of Fairchild\'s 2009 Knight Arts Challenge project to expose new audiences to contemporary art by exhibiting large-scale outdoor sculpture on its grounds. Date: 28 November 2009, 05:27 Source: [Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden](http://www.flickr.com/photos/knightfoundation/5987571457/) Author: [Knight Foundation[\ ]](http://www.flickr.com/people/9133668@N08)This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license. After the artwork is finished there are other support networks in place to help exhibit, market, move, store and comment on it. Commercial art galleries are a relatively recent innovation, springing up in Europe and America during the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. As these societies concentrated their populations in cities and formed a middle class, there was a need for businesses to provide works of art for sale to a population that began to have more spare time and some discretionary income. As art became more affordable, the gallery became a place to focus solely on buying and selling, and, in the process, making art a commodity. Museums have a different role in the world of visual art. Their primary function is in the form of a cultural repository -- a place for viewing, researching and conserving the very best examples of artistic cultural heritage. Museums contain collections that can reflect a particular culture or that of many, giving all of us the chance to see some of the great [art[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.louvre.fr/llv/commun/home.jsp?bmLocale=en) humanity has to offer. The role of the critic commenting on art is another function in the process. Critics offer insight into art's meaning and make judgments determining 'good' or 'bad' art based on the intellectual, aesthetic and cultural standards they reflect. We will take a closer look at the role of the critic when we explore meaning in another module. In this way, museums, galleries and critics have become gatekeepers in helping to determine what is considered art within a culture like our own. **THE INDIVIDUAL ARTIST** Inasmuch as we have seen art as a community or collaborative effort, many artists work alone in studios, dedicated to the singular idea of creating art through their own expressive means and vision. In the creative process itself there are usually many steps between an initial idea and the finished work of art. M2\_Image3\_Casson.jpeg\ Alfred J. Casson, 1943, Ontario Society of Artists, Black and White Photography\ This [Canadian[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Canada) work is in the [public domain[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/public_domain) in Canada because its copyright has expired Artists will use sketches and preliminary drawings to get a more accurate image of what they want the finished work to look like. Even then they'll create more complex trial pieces before they ultimately decide on how it will look. View and read about some of the [sketches[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.pbs.org/treasuresoftheworld/guernica/glevel_1/2_process.html) for Picasso's masterpiece [Guernica[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/Images/110images/sl24_images/guernica_details/guernica_all.jpg) from 1937 to see how the process unfolds. Artists many times will make different [versions[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/monet/poplars-epte/) of an artwork, each time giving it a slightly different look. Some artists employ assistants or staff to run the everyday administration of the studio; maintaining supplies, helping with set up and lighting, managing the calendar and all the things that can keep an artist away from the creative time they need in order to work.  *Fulcrum*, Richard Serra, 1987\ Source: en:User:Solipsist[ (Links to an external site.)] (Andrew Dunn)\ This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license Some artists don't actually make their own works. They hire people with specialized skills to do it for them under the artist's direction. Fabricators and technicians are needed when a work of art's [size[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2007/serra/flash.html), weight or other limitations make it impossible for the artist to create it alone. For example, the size of the sculpture *Fulcrum *(see above) by Richard Serra necessitates additional staff be employed in the creative process. Glass artist Dale Chihuly employs many assistants to create and install his [glass forms[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.chihuly.com/). M2\_Image5\_Chihuly.jpeg Glass art by Dale Chihuly at an extensive exhibition in Kew Gardens, London, in 2005\ Date: 16 July 2005, Author: [Patche99z[\  (Links to an external site.)]](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Patche99z)This work is in the public domain **ARTISTIC TRAINING METHODS & CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS**  For centuries craftsmen have formed associations that preserve and teach the 'secrets' of their trade to apprentices in order to perpetuate the knowledge and skill of their craft. In general, the training of artists has historically meant working as an apprentice with an established artist. The Middle Ages in Europe saw the formation of guilds that included goldsmiths, glassmakers, stonemasons, medical practitioners and artists, and were generally supported by a king or the state, with local representatives overseeing the quality of their production. In many traditional cultures, apprenticeship is still how the artist learns their craft, skills and expressions specific to that culture. Some nations actually choose which artists have learned their skill to such a degree that they are allowed and encouraged to teach others. An example would be artists considered [National Treasures (Links to an external site.)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_National_Treasures_of_Japan) in Japan. In the developed nations, where education is more available and considered more important that experience, art schools have developed. The model for these schools is the French Royal Academy founded by Louis XIV in the 17^th^ century. In the 19^th^ century, the ***Victorians*** first introduced art to the grade schools, thinking that teaching the work of the masters would increase morality and that teaching hand-eye coordination would make better employees for the Industrial Revolution. These ideas still resonate, and are one of the reasons art is considered important to children's education. A recent [New York Times (Links to an external site.)](http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/21/technology/21nerds.html?_r=3&scp=1&sq=making+it+all+compute&st=nyt) article by Steve Lohr explains how this notion has carried into the realm of high technology and the digital arts. A woman quoted in the article says that a proficiency in digital animation is an asset less for technical skills than for what she learned about analytic thinking. Like most skilled professions and trades, artists spend many years learning and applying their knowledge, techniques and creativity. Art schools are found in most colleges and universities, with degree programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. There are independent art schools offering two and four year programs in traditional studio arts, graphic arts and design. The degree earned by students usually ends with a culminating exhibition and directs them towards becoming exhibiting artists, graphic designers or teachers. Such degrees also consider the marketing and sales practices of art in contemporary culture. Click the hyperlink to view some of the different [art schools (Links to an external site.)](http://www.artschools.com/).  Artist \"Bill\" Schultz often conducted outdoor classes for his students, taking advantage of the local scenery.\ Date: 29 January 2011, Author: [Ed62624 (Links to an external site.)](http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ed62624&action=edit&redlink=1)\ This photograph is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Many artists learn their craft on their own through practice, study and experimentation. Whether they come from art schools or not, it takes a strong desire to practice and become an artist today. There are no longer the historical opportunities to work under church, state or cultural sponsorships. Instead the artist is driven to sell their work in some other venue, from a craft fair to a big New York City gallery (New York City is the official center of art and culture in the United States). There are very few communities that can support the selling of art on a large scale, as it is generally considered a luxury item often linked to wealth and power. This is a modern reflection of the original role of the art gallery. What is required to become an artist? Skill is one of the hallmarks that we often value in a work of art. Becoming skilled means a continual repetition of a craft or procedure until it becomes second nature. Talent is certainly another consideration, but talent alone does not necessarily produce good art. Like any endeavor, becoming an artist takes determination, patience, skill, a strong mental attitude and years of practice. Creativity is another element necessary to become an artist. What exactly *is *creativity? It's linked to imagination and the ability to transcend traditional ways of thinking, with an exaggerated use of alternatives, ideas and techniques to invent new forms and avenues of expression. The music composer [Leo Ornstein (Links to an external site.)](http://poonhill.com/leo_ornstein.html) described creativity this way:  "*Once you've heard what you've created you can't explain how it's done. But you look at it and say 'there's the evidence'*". Creativity is used in [traditional (Links to an external site.)](http://www.thecityreview.com/s06samerin.html) art forms as well as more innovative ones. It's what an artist uses to take something ordinary and make it extraordinary. Creativity can be a double-edged sword in that it's one thing that artists are most criticized for, especially in the arena of buying and selling art. In general the buying public tends to want things they recognize, rather than artwork that challenges or requires thinking. This dichotomy is illustrated by a poem by English writer Robert Graves, "Epitaph on an Unfortunate Artist": *He found a formula for drawing comic rabbits* *This formula for drawing comic rabbits paid,* *So in the end he could not change the tragic habits* *This formula for drawing comic rabbits made.* The ability to give visual expression is really what art is all about. It can range from creating pieces just for beauty's sake (aesthetics) or for social, political or spiritual meaning. To fully appreciate the artist and their voice we need to consider that if we value expression we must value a multitude of voices, some of which contradict our own values and ideas. The artistic process culminates in a form of human expression that reaches all of us at some level. **ART AS A SOCIAL ACTIVITY**  Some of the grandest works of art are made not by a single person but by many people. Pyramids in Egypt and Mexico are massive structures, built by hundreds of laborers under the direction of designers and engineers. Egyptian pyramids are tombs for individual royalty, while those in Mexico function as spiritual altars dedicated to gods or [celestial (Links to an external site.)](http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/teot2/hd_teot2.htm) objects. They are typically placed at a prominent site and give definition to the surrounding landscape. Their construction is the cumulative effort of many people, and they become spectacular works of art without the signature of a single artist. A more contemporary example of art making as a community effort is the AIDS Memorial [Quilt (Links to an external site.)](http://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/health_tools/AIDS_retrospective_slideshow/corbis_rm_photo_of_AIDS_quilt_on_mall.jpg) Project. Begun in 1987, the project memorializes the thousands of lives lost to the disease through the creation of quilts by families and friends. Blocks of individual quilts are sewn together to form larger sections, virtually joining people together to share their grief and celebrate the lives of those lost. The project is evidence of the beauty and visual spectacle of a huge community artwork. Today there are over 40,000 individual blocks. The quilt project is ongoing, growing in size, and exhibited throughout the world. Many artists collaborate with non-artists in arrangements designed to produce work for a specific place. Public art is a good example of this. The process usually begins with a select panel of the public and private figures involved in the project who call for submissions of creative ideas surrounding a particular topic or theme, then a review of the ideas submitted and the artist's selection.  Funding sources for these projects vary from private donations to the use of public tax dollars or a combination of the two. Many states have "1% for Art" laws on the books which stipulate that one percent of the cost of any public construction project be used for artwork to be placed on the site. After the selection process the artist will commence on an intense collaboration with architects, engineers, public administrators and others connected with the project, ultimately resulting in the installation of a public artwork. Because of its complexity this process needs to be expertly managed. Other countries have similar programs. All of them allow individual artists and collaborative teams the chance to put a definitive creative stamp on public spaces. You can view Flemish artist Arne Quinze's public art work *The Sequence *below. M2\_Image1\_TheSequence.jpg *The Sequence, *Arne Quinze, 2008. Wood. Installed at the Flemish Parliament Building, Brussels.\ This photograph has been released into the public domain. Public art projects can be subject to controversy. It's not easy for everyone to agree on what constitutes 'good' or 'bad' art, or at least what is appropriate for a public space. The issue takes on a more complex perspective when public money is involved in its funding. Time, resources, a space to work in, a supportive family and public, a culture that respects skill and values creativity and expression: all of these are useful for the artist to thrive. What does an artist give back to society? They give voice to speak of those things that language cannot describe, and an experience that pays attention to aesthetics and an interest in the world. They give expression to what it is to be human in all its positive and negative forms. **MODULE 3 - ARTISTIC ELEMENTS** OVERVIEW Just as spoken language is based on fundamental letters, sounds and grammar, visual art is based on elements and principles that, when used together, create works that communicate ideas and meaning to the viewer. We can refer to them as the building blocks of ***composition*** in visual art. A composition is the organized layout of an image or object according to the rules of design. The best way to understand the elements and principles is to study them within a variety of artworks. In this module you will begin to learn the "language of art" through a structured approach to terms and examples used to describe and analyze any work of art. The basis of this language is the *artistic elements*-- the irreducible and abstract ingredients that generate creative form. This module includes the exploration of the following artistic elements: - - - - - - - - OBJECTIVES Upon successful completion of this module, you should be able to: - - - - Discussion **DEFINITIONS & QUALITIES OF LINE** Essentially, when you put two or more points together you create a line. A line can be lyrically defined as a point in motion. There are many different types of lines, all characterized by their length being greater than their width. Lines can be static or dynamic depending on how the artist chooses to use them. They help determine the motion, direction and energy in a work of art. We see line all around us in our daily lives; telephone wires, tree branches, jet contrails and winding roads are just a few examples.  Look at the photograph below to see how line is part of natural and constructed environments.  Photo by Chris Kotsiopoulos\ Used by permission In Chris Kotsiopoulos's digital image of a lightning storm we can see many different lines. Certainly the jagged, meandering lines of the lightning itself dominate the image, followed by the straight lines of the light standards, the pillars holding up the overpass on the right and the guard rails attached to its side. There are more subtle lines too, like the gently arced line at the top of the image and the shadows cast by the poles and the standing figure in the middle.  Lines are even implied by falling water droplets in the foreground. The [Nazca lines (Links to an external site.)](http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/700) in the arid coastal plains of Peru date to nearly 500 BCE were scratched into the rocky soil, depicting animals on an incredible scale, so large that they are best viewed from the air. Let's look at how the different kinds of line are made. Diego Velazquez's '*Las Meninas'* from 1656, ostensibly a portrait of the Infanta Margarita, the daughter of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana of Spain, offers a sumptuous amount of artistic genius; its shear size (almost ten feet square), painterly style of naturalism, lighting effects and the enigmatic figures placed throughout the canvas --including the artist himself -- is one of the great paintings in western art history. Let's examine it (below) to uncover how Velazquez uses basic elements and principles of art to achieve such a masterpiece. M3\_Image3\_LasMeninas.jpeg  Diego Velazquez, *Las Meninas*, 1656, oil on canvas, 125.2" x 108.7"\ Prado, Madrid. Licensed under [Creative Commons (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) **Actual lines **are those that are physically present. The edge of the wooden stretcher bar at the left of 'Las Meninas' is an actual line, as are the picture frames in the background, and the linear decorative elements on the some of the figure's dresses. How many other actual lines can you find in the painting? **Implied lines **are those created by visually connecting two or more areas together. The space between the Infanta Margarita -- the blonde central figure in the composition -- and the 'meninas', or maids of honor, to the left and right of her, are implied lines. Both set up a diagonal relationship that implies movement. By visually connecting the space between the heads of all the figures in the painting we have a sense of jagged motion that keeps the lower part of the composition in motion, balanced against the darker, more static upper areas of the painting. Implied lines can also be created when two areas of different colors or tones come together. Can you identify more implied lines in the painting? Where? Implied lines are found in three-dimensional artworks too. The sculpture of the *Laocoon *below*, *a figure from Greek and Roman mythology, is, along with his sons, being strangled by sea snakes sent by the goddess Athena as wrath against his warnings to the Trojans not to accept the Trojan horse. The sculpture sets implied lines in motion as the figures writhe in agony against the snakes.   Laocoon Group, Roman copy of Greek original, Vatican Museum, Rome.\ Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen and licensed under [Creative Commons (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) **Straight or classic lines **provide structure to a composition. They can be oriented to the horizontal, vertical or diagonal axis of a surface. Straight lines are by nature visually stable, while still giving direction to a composition. In the 'Las Meninas', you can see them in the canvas supports on the left, the wall supports and doorways on the right, and in the background in matrices on the wall spaces between the framed pictures. Moreover, the small horizontal lines created in the stair edges in the background help anchor the entire visual design of the painting. M3\_Image5\_StraightLines.jpeg Straight lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) **Expressive lines **are curved, adding an organic, more dynamic character to a work of art. Expressive lines are often rounded and follow undetermined paths. In 'Las Meninas' you can see them in the aprons on the girls' dresses and in the dog's folded hind leg and coat pattern. Look again at the *Laocoon* to see expressive lines in the figures' flailing limbs and the sinuous form of the snakes. Indeed, the sculpture seems to be made up of nothing but expressive lines, shapes and forms.  Organic lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) There are other kinds of line that encompass the characteristics of those above yet, taken together, help create additional artistic elements and richer, more varied compositions. Refer to the images and examples below to become familiar with these types of line. **Outline, or contour line **is the simplest of these. They create a path around the edge of a shape. In fact, outlines define shapes. M3\_Image7\_Outline.jpeg Outline, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) **Cross contour lines **follow paths across a shape to delineate differences in surface features. They give flat shapes a sense of form (the illusion of three dimensions), and can also be used to create shading.  Cross Contour, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) **Hatch lines **are repeated at short intervals in generally one direction. They give shading and visual texture to the surface of an object. M3\_Image8\_HatchLines.jpeg Hatch, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) **Cross-hatch lines **provide additional tone and texture. They can be oriented in any direction. Multiple layers of cross-hatch lines can give rich and varied shading to objects by manipulating the pressure of the drawing tool to create a large range of values.  Cross Hatch, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en)   **Line quality **is that sense of character embedded in the way a line presents itself. Certain lines have qualities that distinguish them from others. Hard-edged, jagged lines have a staccato visual movement while organic, flowing lines create a more comfortable feeling. Meandering lines can be either geometric or expressive, and you can see in the examples how their indeterminate paths animate a surface to different degrees.   M3\_Image10\_ALline.jpeg   A Line, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License (Links to an external site.)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en)   Although line as a visual element generally plays a supporting role in visual art, there are wonderful examples in which line carries a strong cultural significance as the primary subject matter. **Calligraphic lines **use quickness and gesture, more akin to paint strokes, to imbue an artwork with a fluid, lyrical character. To see this unique line quality, view the work of Chinese poet and artist [Dong Qichang (Links to an external site.)](http://www.chinapage.com/calligraphy/dongqichang/dufupoem.html)'s '*Du Fu's Poem'*, dating from the Ming dynasty (1555-1637). A more geometric example from the [Koran (Links to an external site.)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kufi_-_D_Va_style.jpg), created in the Arabic calligraphic style, dates from the 9^th^ century. Both these examples show how artists use line as both a form of writing and a visual art form. American artist Mark Tobey (1890-1976) was influenced by Oriental calligraphy, adapting its form to the act of pure painting within a modern abstract style described as [white writing (Links to an external site.)](http://hirshhorn.si.edu/dynamic/collection_images/full/72.294.JPG).   SHAPES: POSITIVE, NEGATIVE & PLANAR ISSUES A shape is defined as an enclosed area in two dimensions. By definition shapes are always implied and flat in nature. They can be created in many ways, the simplest by enclosing an area with an outline. They can also be made by surrounding an area with other shapes or the placement of different textures next to each other -- for instance, the shape of an island surrounded by water. Because they are more complex than lines, shapes do much of the heavy lifting in arranging compositions. The abstract examples below give us an idea of how shapes are made.  Shapes, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) Referring back to Velazquez's 'Las Meninas', it is fundamentally an arrangement of shapes; organic and hard-edged, light, dark and mid-toned, that solidifies the composition within the larger shape of the canvas. Looking at it this way, we can view any work of art, whether two or three-dimensional, realistic, abstract or non-objective, in terms of shapes alone.  **Positive / Negative Shapes and Figure / Ground Relationships** Shapes animate figure-ground relationships. We visually determine ***positive*** shapes (the figure) and ***negative*** shapes (the ground). One way to understand this is to open your hand and spread your fingers apart. Your hand is the positive shape, and the space around it becomes the negative shape. You can also see this in the example above. The shape formed by the black outline becomes positive because it's enclosed. The area around it is negative. The same visual arrangement goes with the gray circle and the purple square. But identifying positive and negative shapes can get tricky in a more complex composition. For instance, the four blue rectangles on the left have edges that touch each other, thus creating a solid white shape in the center. The four green rectangles on the right don't actually connect yet still give us an implied shape in the center. Which would you say is the positive shape? What about the red circles surrounding the gray star shape? Remember that a positive shape is one that is distinguished from the background. In 'Las Meninas' the figures become the positive shapes because they are lit dramatically and hold our attention against the dark background. What about the dark figure standing in the doorway? Here the dark shape becomes the positive one, surrounded by a white background. Our eyes always return to this figure as an anchor to the painting's entire composition. In three dimensions, positive shapes are those that make up the actual work.  The negative shapes are the empty spaces around, and sometimes permeating through the work itself. The ***Laocoon ***is a good example of this. A modern work that uses shapes to a dramatic effect is Alberto Giacometti's '*Reclining Woman Who Dreams' *from 1929. In an abstract style the artist weaves positive and negative shapes together, the result is a [dreamy[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://hirshhorn.si.edu/visit/collection_object.asp?key=32&subkey=7613), floating sensation radiating from the sculpture.  **Plane** A ***plane*** is defined as any surface area in space. In two-dimensional art, the picture plane is the flat surface an image is created upon; a piece of paper, stretched canvas, wood panel, etc. A shape's orientation within the picture plane creates a visually implied plane, inferring direction and depth in relation to the viewer. The graphic below shows three examples. M3\_Image12\_Planes.jpeg Shape Planes, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) Traditionally the picture plane has been likened to a window the viewer looks through to a scene beyond, the artist constructing a believable image showing implied depth and planar relationships.'*Landscape with the Fall of Icarus'* , painted by Pieter Breughel the Elder in 1558 (below) presents us with the tragic ending to the Greek myth involving Icarus, son of Daedalus, who, trying to escape from the island of Crete with wings of wax, flies too close to the sun and falls to earth. Breughel shows us an idyllic landscape with farmers tilling their fields, each terraced row a different plane of earth, and shepherds tending their flocks of sheep in the foreground. He depicts the livestock in positions that infer they are moving in different directions in relation to the 'window' of the picture plane. We look further to see a gradual recession to the sea and a middle ground dominated by a ship under sail. The curves of the billowing sails imply two or three different planes. The background of the painting shows the illusion of deep space, the massive cliffs now small in relation to the foreground, and the distant ship near the center as smaller and lighter in tone. In the grandeur of the scene Icarus falls into the sea unnoticed just off shore to the lower right, only his legs still above water. The artist's use of planar description is related to the idea of space and how it's depicted in two dimensions. We will look at the element of space just ahead.  Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, Peter Breughel the Elder, 1558\ Musee des Beaux-arts, Brussels\ Licensed under [Creative Common](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) MASS  Mass, or ***form***, refers to a shape or three-dimensional *volume* that has or gives the illusion of having weight, density or bulk. Notice the distinction between two and three- dimensional objects: a shape is by definition flat, but takes on the illusion of mass through shading with the elements of value or color. In three dimensions a mass is an actual object that takes up space. Eugene Delaplanche's sculpture '*Eve After the Fall' *from 1869 (below) epitomizes the characteristics of three-dimensional mass. Carved from stone with exaggerated physicality to appear bigger than life, the work stands heavily against the space around it. Delaplanche balances the massive sculpture by his treatment of the subject matter. Eve sits, her body turned on two diagonal planes, one rising, the other descending, her right hip being the meeting point of the two. She rests her head in her hand as she agonizes over the consequences of what she's just done, the forbidden apple at her feet as the serpent slinks away to her left.  M3\_Image14\_Eve.jpeg Eugene Delaplanche, *Eve after the Fall, *1869. Marble, Musee d'Orsay, Paris\ Photo by Rama and licensed under [Creative Commons[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Creative_Commons) Although actual mass and form are physical attributes to any three-dimensional work of art, they are manifested differently depending on the culture they are produced in. For example, traditional western European culture is known for its realistic styles, represented by Delaplanche's '*Eve after the Fall'*. In contrast, look at the figurative sculpture from the Cameroon culture in Africa below to see how stylistic changes make a difference in the form. The sculpture is carved from wood, generally more available to the artist in sub-Saharan Africa than is marble. Moreover, the Cameroon figure stands upright and frontal to the viewer, and is carved without the amount of descriptive detail seen in Delaplanche's work, yet the unknown African artist still gives the figure an astonishing amount of dramatic character that energizes the space around it. SPACE Space is the empty area surrounding real or implied objects. Humans categorize space: there is outer space, that limitless void we enter beyond our sky; inner space, which resides in people's minds and imaginations, and personal space, the important but intangible area that surrounds each individual and which is violated if someone else gets too close. Pictorial space is flat, and the digital realm resides in cyberspace. Art responds to all of these kinds of space. Clearly artists are as concerned with space in their works as they are with, say, color or form. There are many ways for the artist to present ideas of space. Remember that many cultures traditionally use pictorial space as a window to view realistic subject matter through, and through the subject matter they present ideas, narratives and symbolic content. The innovation of ***linear perspective, ***an implied geometric pictorial construct dating from 15^th^ century Europe, affords us the accurate illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat surface, and appears to recede into the distance through the use of a ***horizon line*** and ***vanishing points***. See how perspective is set up in the schematic examples below:    One Point Perspective, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) ***One-point perspective*** occurs when the receding lines appear to converge at a single point on the horizon and used when the flat front of an object is facing the viewer. Note: Perspective can be used to show the relative size and recession into space of any object, but is most effective with hard-edged three-dimensional objects such as buildings. A classic Renaissance artwork using one point perspective is Leonardo da Vinci's *'The Last Supper'* from 1498. Da Vinci composes the work by locating the vanishing point directly behind the head of Christ, thus drawing the viewer's attention to the center. His arms mirror the receding wall lines, and, if we follow them as lines, would converge at the same vanishing point. M3\_Image17\_Leonardo.jpeg Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498. Fresco\ Santa Maria della Grazie. Licensed under [Creative Commons[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Reuse_of_PD-Art_photographs) ***Two-point perspective ***occurs when the vertical edge of a cube is facing the viewer, exposing two sides that recede into the distance, one to each vanishing point.    Two Point Perspective, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) View Gustave Caillebotte's [\'Paris Street, Rainy Weather\'[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.gustavcaillebotte.org/Paris-Street--Rainy-Weather-1877-large.html)' from 1877 to see how two-point perspective is used to give an accurate view to an urban scene.  The artist's composition, however, is more complex than just his use of perspective. The figures are deliberately placed to direct the viewer's eye from the front right of the picture to the building's front edge on the left, which, like a ship's bow, acts as a cleaver to plunge both sides toward the horizon. In the midst of this visual recession a lamp post stands firmly in the middle to arrest our gaze from going right out the back of the painting. Caillebotte includes the little metal arm at the top right of the post to direct us again along a horizontal path, now keeping us from traveling off the top of the canvas. As relatively spare as the left side of the work is, the artist crams the right side with hard-edged and organic shapes and forms in a complex play of positive and negative space. Three-point perspective is used when an artist wants to project a "bird's eye view", that is, when the projection lines recede to two points on the horizon and a third either far above or below the horizon line. In this case the parallel lines that make up the sides of an object are not parallel to the edge of the ground the artist is working on (paper, canvas, etc). M3\_Image19\_3pt.jpeg Three-point perspective (with vanishing points above and below the horizon line shown at the same time).\ Design by Shazz, licensed under [Creative Commons[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Creative_Commons) The perspective system is a cultural convention well suited to a traditional western European idea of the 'truth', that is, an accurate, clear rendition of observed reality. Even after the invention of linear perspective, many cultures traditionally use a flatter pictorial space, relying on overlapped shapes or size differences in forms to indicate this same truth of observation. Examine the miniature painting of the *'Third Court of the Topkapi Palace' *from 14^th^ century Turkey to contrast its pictorial space with that of linear perspective. It's composed from a number of different vantage points (as opposed to vanishing points), all very flat to the picture plane. While the overall image is seen from above, the figures and trees appear as cutouts, seeming to float in mid air. Notice the towers on the far left and right are sideways to the picture plane. As 'incorrect' as it looks, the painting gives a detailed description of the landscape and structures on the palace grounds.  Third Court of the Topkapi Palace, from the Hunername, 1548\ Ottoman miniature paintingTopkapi Museum, Instanbul.\ Used under [Creative Commons[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) license  After nearly five hundred years using linear perspective, western ideas about how space is depicted accurately in two dimensions went through a revolution at the beginning of the 20^th^ century. A young Spanish artist, Pablo [Picasso[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.picasso.com/), moved to Paris, then western culture's capital of art, and largely reinvented pictorial space with the invention of [Cubism[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/c/cubism.html), ushered in dramatically by his painting [Les Demoiselles d\'Avignon[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.moma.org/collection/object.php?object_id=79766) in 1907. He was influenced in part by the chiseled forms, angular surfaces and disproportion of African sculpture (refer back to the *'Male Figure' *from Cameroon) and mask-like faces of early Iberian artworks. Picasso, his friend Georges Braque and a handful of other artists struggled to develop a new space that relied on, ironically, the flatness of the picture plane to carry and animate traditional subject matter including figures, still life and landscape. Cubist pictures, and eventually sculptures, became amalgams of different points of view, light sources and planar constructs. It was as if they were presenting their subject matter in many ways at once, all the while shifting foreground, middle ground and background so the viewer is not sure where one starts and the other ends. In an interview, the artist explained cubism this way: "The problem is now to pass, to go around the object, and give a plastic expression to the result. All of this is my struggle to break with the two-dimensional aspect\*"(from Alexander Liberman, *An Artist in His Studio, 1960, page 113*). Public and critical reaction to cubism was understandably negative, but the artists' experiments with spatial relationships reverberated with others and became -- along with new ways of using color -- a driving force in the development of a modern art movement that based itself on the flatness of the picture plane. Instead of a window to look into, the flat surface becomes a ground on which to construct formal arrangements of shapes, colors and compositions. For another perspective on this idea, refer back to module one's discussion of 'abstraction'. You can see the radical changes cubism made in George Braque's landscape '*La Roche Guyon' *from 1909. The trees, houses, castle and surrounding rocks comprise almost a single complex form, stair-stepping up the canvas to mimic the distant hill at the top, all of it struggling upwards and leaning to the right within a shallow pictorial space. M3\_Image21\_Braque.jpeg George Braque *'Castle at La Roche Guyon' *1909 Oil on canvas\ Stedelijk van Abbe Museum, Eindhoven, Netherlands.\ Licensed through [GNU[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License) and [Creative Common[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Creative_Commons) As the cubist style developed, its forms became even flatter. Juan Gris's *'The Sunblind'* from 1914 splays the still life it represents across the canvas.  Collage elements like newspaper reinforce pictorial flatness.  Juan Gris, *The Sunblind*, 1914, Gouache, collage, chalk and charcoal on canvas.\ Tate Gallery, London\ Image licensed under [[*GNU Free Documentation License* (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.fsf.org/licensing/licenses/fdl.html) It's not so difficult to understand the importance of this new idea of space when placed in the context of comparable advances in science surrounding the turn of the 19^th^ century. The Wright Brothers took to the air with powered flight in 1903, the same year Marie Curie won the first of two Nobel prizes for her pioneering work in radiation. Sigmund Freud's new ideas on the inner spaces of the mind and its effect on behavior were published in 1902, and Albert Einstien's calculations on relativity, the idea that space and time are intertwined, first appeared in 1905. Each of these discoveries added to human understanding and realligned the way we look at ourselves and our world. Indeed, Picasso, speaking of his struggle to define cubism, said "Even Einstien did not know it either! The condition of discovery is outside ourselves; but the terrifying thing is that despite all this, we can only find what we know" (from *Picasso on Art, A Selection of Views* by Dore Ashton, (Souchere, 1960, page 15). Three-dimensional space doesn't undergo this fundemental transformation. It remains a visual tug between positive and negative spaces. Sculptors influenced by cubism do, however, develop new forms to fill this space; abstract and non-objective works that chanllenge us to see them on their own terms. Constantin Brancusi, a Romanian sculptor living in Paris, became a leading artist to champion the new forms of modern art. His sculpture '[Bird in Space[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/modern_art/bird_in_space/objectView.aspx?&OID=210006973&collID=21&vw=0)' is an elegant example of how abstraction and formal arrangement combine to symbolize the new movement. The photograph of Brancusi's studio below gives further evidence of sculpture's debt to cubism and the struggle 'to go around the object, to give it plastic expression'. M3\_Image23\_Edward.jpeg Edward Steichen, Brancusi's studio, 1920. Metropolitan Museum, New York\ This photograph is in the public domain. Now that we've established line, shape, spatial relationships and mass, we can turn our attention to surface qualities and their importance in works of art. Value (or tone), color and texture are the elements used to do this.  VALUE Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a shape in relation to another. The value scale, bounded on one end by pure white and on the other by black, and in between a series of progressively darker shades of grey, gives an artist the tools to make these transformations. The value scale below shows the standard variations in tones. Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, those on the darker end are low-keyed. Value Scale, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en)  In two dimensions, the use of value gives a shape the illusion of mass and lends an entire composition a sense of light and shadow. The two examples below show the effect value has on changing a shape to a form. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | M3\_Image25\_2Dnovalue.jpeg |  | | 2D Form, 11 July 2012, Creator: | | | Oliver Harrison\ | 3D Form, 11 July 2012, Creator: | | Licensed under a [Creative | Oliver Harrison\ | | Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic | Licensed under a [Creative | | License](http://creativecommons.o | Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic | | rg/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) | License](http://creativecommons.o | | | rg/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+   This same technique brings to life what begins as a simple line drawing of a young man's head in Michelangelo's [Head of a Youth and a Right Hand [ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_image.aspx?image=com14442b.jpg&retpage=22653) from 1508. Shading is created with line (refer to our discussion of* line* earlier in this module) or tones created with a pencil. Artists vary the tones by the amount of resistance they use between the pencil and the paper they're drawing on. A drawing pencil's leads vary in hardness, each one giving a different tone than another. Washes of ink or color create values determined by the amount of water the medium is dissolved into.  The use of ***high contrast, ***placing lighter areas of value against much darker ones, creates a dramatic effect, while ***low contrast ***gives more subtle results. These differences in effect are evident in 'Guiditta and Oloferne' by the Italian painter Caravaggio, and Robert Adams' photograph [Untitled, Denver[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.masters-of-photography.com/A/adamsr/adamsr_newworld2_full.html) from 1970-74. Caravaggio uses a high contrast palette to an already dramatic scene to increase the visual tension for the viewer, while Adams deliberately makes use of low contrast to underscore the drabness of the landscape surrounding the figure on the bicycle. M3\_Image27\_Caravaggio.jpeg Caravaggio, *Guiditta Decapitates Oloferne, *1598, oil on canvas\ National Gallery of Italian Art, Rome\ This work is in the public domain COLOR Color is the most complex artistic element because of the combinations and variations inherent in its use.  Humans respond to color combinations differently, and artists study and use color in part to give desired direction to their work. Color is fundamental to many forms of art. Its relevance, use and function in a given work depend on the medium of that work. While some concepts dealing with color are broadly applicable across media, others are not. The full ***spectrum*** of colors is contained in white light. Humans perceive colors from the light reflected off objects. A red object, for example, looks red because it reflects the red part of the spectrum. It would be a different color under a different light. Color theory first appeared in the 17^th^ century when English mathematician and scientist Sir Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be divided into a spectrum by passing it through a prism. The study of color in art and design often starts with *color theory*. Color theory splits up colors into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary. The basic tool used is a color wheel, developed by Isaac Newton in 1666. A more complex model known as the [color tree[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://dba.med.sc.edu/price/irf/Adobe_tg/models/munsell.html), created by Albert Munsell, shows the spectrum made up of sets of tints and shades on connected planes. There are a number of approaches to organizing colors into meaningful relationships. Most systems differ in structure only.  **Traditional Model** Traditional color theory is a qualitative attempt to organize colors and their relationships. It is based on Newton\'s color wheel, and continues to be the most common system used by artists.  Blue Yellow Red Color Wheel\ Released under the [GNU Free Documentation License[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License) **Traditional color theory** uses the same principles as subtractive color mixing (see below) but prefers different primary colors. - - - - **Color Mixing** A more quantifiable approach to color theory is to think about color as the result of light reflecting off a surface. Understood in this way, color can be represented as a ratio of amounts of primary color mixed together. **Additive color theory** is used when different colored lights are being ***projected* **on top of each other. Projected media produce color by projecting light onto a reflective surface. Where subtractive mixing creates the impression of color by selectively absorbing part of the spectrum, additive mixing produces color by selective projection of part of the spectrum. Common applications of additive color theory are theater lighting and television screens. RGB color is based on additive color theory. - - - White is created by the confluence of the three primary colors, while black represents the absence of all color. The lightness or darkness of a color is determined by the intensity/density of its various parts. For instance: a middle-toned gray could be produced by projecting a red, a blue and a green light at the same point with 50% intensity. M3\_Image29\_AdditiveColor.jpeg\ Additive Color Representation\ This image is in the public domain.\ The primaries are red, green and blue. White is the confluence of all the primary colors; black is the absence of color.   **Subtractive color theory** (\"process color\") is used when a single light source is being ***reflected*** by different colors laid one on top of the other. Color is produced when parts of the external light source\'s spectrum are absorbed by the material and not reflected back to the viewer\'s eye. For example, a painter brushes blue paint onto a canvas. The chemical composition of the paint allows all of the colors in the spectrum to be absorbed except blue, which is reflected from the paint's surface.  Subtractive color works as the reverse of additive color theory. Common applications of subtractive color theory are used in the visual arts, color printing and processing photographic positives and negatives. The primary colors are red, yellow, and blue. - - ·       Black is mixed using the three primary colors, while white represents the absence of all colors. Note: because of impurities in subtractive color, a true black is impossible to create through the mixture of primaries. Because of this the result is closer to brown. Similar to additive color theory, lightness and darkness of a color is determined by its intensity and density.  Subtractive Color Mixing\ Released under the [GNU Free Documentation License[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License)\ The primaries are blue, yellow and red **Color Attributes** There are many attributes to color. Each one has an effect on how we perceive it. - - - - **Color Interactions** Beyond creating a mixing hierarchy, color theory also provides tools for understanding how colors work together. **Monochrome**\ The simplest color interaction is monochrome. This is the use of variations of a single hue. The advantage of using a monochromatic color scheme is that you get a high level of unity throughout the artwork because all the tones relate to one another. See this in Mark Tansey's [\'Derrida Queries de Man\'](http://www.artchive.com/artchive/T/tansey/derrida.jpg.html) from 1990. **Analogous Color**\ Analogous colors are similar to one another. As their name implies, analogous colors can be found ***next*** to one another on any 12-part color wheel: M3\_Image31\_Analagous.jpeg Analogous Color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) You can see the effect of analogous colors in Paul Cezanne's oil painting 'Auvers Panoromic View[ (Links to an external site.)]'. **Color Temperature** Colors are perceived to have*** temperatures*** associated with them. The color wheel is divided into ***warm*** and ***cool*** colors. Warm colors range from yellow to red, while cool colors range from yellow-green to violet.  You can achieve complex results using just a few colors when you pair them in warm and cool sets.  Warm cool color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en)   **Complementary Colors**\ Complementary colors are found directly ***opposite*** one another on a color wheel. Here are some examples: - - - M3\_Image33\_CompColors.jpeg Complementary Color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) Blue and orange are complements. When placed near each other, complements create a visual tension. This color scheme is desirable when a dramatic effect is needed using only two colors. The painting [Untitled[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://www.imamuseum.org/art/collections/artist/haring-keith) by Keith Haring is an example. You can click the painting to create a larger image. A **split complementary** color scheme uses one color plus the two colors on each side of the first color's complement on the color wheel.  Like the use of complements, a split complement creates visual tension but includes the variety of a third color.  Split Complementary Color, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en)  **Color Subtraction **refers to a visual phenomenon where the appearance of one color will lessen its presence in a nearby color. For instance, orange (red + yellow) on a red background will appear more like yellow. Don't confuse color subtraction with the *subtractive color system *mentioned earlier in this module. Color subtraction uses specific hues within a color scheme for a certain visual effect. **Simultaneous Contrast** Neutrals on a colored background will appear tinted toward that color\'s complement, because the eye attempts to create a balance. (Grey on a red background will appear more greenish, for example.) In other words, the color will shift *away* from the surrounding color. Also, non-dominant colors will appear tinted towards the complement of the dominant color. Color interaction affect values, as well. Colors appear darker on or near lighter colors, and lighter on or near darker colors. Complementary colors will look more intense on or near each other than they will on or near grays (refer back to the Keith Haring example above to see this effect). M3\_Image35\_SimCon.jpeg Simultaneous Contrast, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison\ Licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en) TEXTURE Texture is the* tactile*sense we get from the surface of a shape or volume. Smooth, rough, velvety and prickly are examples of texture. Texture comes in two forms: - - An artwork can include many different visual textures and still feel smooth to the touch. Robert Rauschenberg's mixed media print [Skyway[ (Links to an external site.)]](http://dallasmuseumofart.org:8080/emuseum/media/view/Objects/5270952/732?t:state:flow=29e5fd8e-fe73-4577-8a88-6a6e8da89d98) includes rough and smooth visual textures that add layers of perception and animate the work, drawing attention to specific areas within it. A self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh below swirls with actual textures created with brushstrokes loaded with paint. The artist fixes his gaze sternly at the viewer, his spiky red beard and flowing hair rendered so texturally you want to reach out and touch them.  *Self Portrait,* Vincent van Gogh, 1889, oil on canvas Musee d\'Orsay, Paris.\ Photograph by Flickr user clairity[ (Links to an external site.)] (Sharon Moilerus)\ Photo shared via Creative Commons License Joan Stuart Ross's mixed media work *On the Spokes *(below) incorporates both actual and visual textures. A strong radial composition is enhanced with over one hundred raised paper blocks containing bits of images and text. The surface in relief provides actual texture while our eyes are treated to a complex array of visual textures created by staccato rhythms of colors and patterns. M3\_Image37\_Spokes.jpeg Joan Stuart Ross, *On The Spokes*, 2009, mixed media.\ Used with permission of the artist. Photographs can hold lots of examples of visual texture. A grainy film exposure adds to this effect. Louis Daguerre's early photograph of his studio below shows many objects with textures jumbled across the smooth photographic paper. These, along with the strong contrast in dark and light tones, enrich the photograph with a sense of drama not necessarily inherent to the objects themselves.  Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre, *Still Life in the Artist's Studio, *1837\ Photograph is in the public domain **MODULE 4 - ARTISTIC PRINCIPLES** OVERVIEW This module explores the artistic principles \-- the means by which the elements in a work of art are arranged and orchestrated. They include: - - - - - - - OBJECTIVES Upon successful completion of this module, you should be able to: - - - - **VISUAL BALANCE**  All works of art possess some form of visual balance -- a sense of weighted clarity created in a composition. The artist arranges balance to set the dynamics of a composition. A really good example is in the [work (Links to an external site.)](http://www.nationalgalleries.org/index.php/collection/online_az/4:322/results/0/717/) of Piet Mondrian, whose revolutionary paintings of the early 20^th^ century used non-objective balance instead of realistic subject matter to generate the visual power in his work. In the examples below you can see that where the white rectangle is placed makes a big difference in how the entire picture plane is activated. M4\_Image1\_balance.jpeg Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission. The example on the top left is weighted towards the top and the diagonal orientation of the white shape makes the whole area a sense of movement. The top middle example is weighted more towards the bottom, but still maintains a sense that the white shape is floating. On the top right, the white shape is nearly off the picture plane altogether, leaving most of the remaining area visually empty. This arrangement works if you want to have a feeling of loftiness or simply to direct the viewer's eyes to the top of the composition. The lower left example is perhaps the least dynamic, the white shape resting at the bottom, mimicking the horizontal bottom edge of the ground. The overall sense here is restful, heavy and without any dynamic character. The bottom middle composition is weighted decidedly towards the bottom right corner, but again, the diagonal orientation of the white shape leaves some sense of movement. Lastly, the lower right example places the white shape directly in the middle on a horizontal axis. This is visually the most stable, but lacks any sense of movement. Refer to these six diagrams when you are determining the visual weight of specific artworks. There are three basic forms of visual balance: - - -  Examples of Visual Balance\ Left: Symmetrical   Middle: Asymmetrical   Right: Radial\ Image by Christopher Gildow. Used with permission. **Symmetrical **balance is the most visually stable, and characterized by an exact -- or nearly exact - compositional design on either (or both) sides of the horizontal or vertical axis of the picture plane. Symmetrical compositions are usually dominated by a central anchoring element. There are many examples of symmetry in the natural world that reflect an aesthetic dimension. The Moon Jellyfish fits this description; ghostly lit against a black background, but absolute symmetry in its design. M4\_Image3\_Jellyfish.jpeg Moon Jellyfish, (detail), digital image by Luc Viator and licensed by [Creative Commons (Links to an external site.)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Creative_Commons) But symmetry's inherent stability can sometimes preclude a static quality. View the Tibetan [scroll painting (Links to an external site.)](http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/exhibits/dead/images/vajra.jpg) to see the implied movement of the central figure Vajrakilaya. The visual busyness of the shapes and patterns surrounding the figure are balanced by their compositional symmetry, and the wall of flame behind Vajrakilaya tilts to the right as the figure itself tilts to the left. Tibetan scroll paintings use the symmetry of the figure to symbolize their power and spiritual presence. Spiritual paintings from other cultures employ this same balance for similar reasons. Sano di Pietro's '*Madonna of Humility', *painted around 1440, is centrally positioned, holding the Christ child and forming a triangular design, her head the apex and her flowing gown making a broad base at the bottom of the picture. Their halos are visually reinforced with the heads of the angels and the arc of the frame.    Sano di Peitro, *Madonna of Humility, *c.1440, tempera and tooled gold and silver on panel.[***[\ Brooklyn Museum]*** (Links to an external site.)](http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Brooklyn_Museum)*,* New York\ Image is in the public domain The use of symmetry is evident in three-dimensional art too. A famous example is the *Gateway Arch* in St. Louis, Missouri (below). Commemorating the westward expansion of the United States, its stainless steel frame rises over 600 feet into the air before gently curving back to the ground. Another example is Richard Serra's *Tilted Spheres * (also below). The four massive slabs of steel show a concentric symmetry and take on an organic dimension as they curve around each other, appearing to almost hover above the ground. M4\_Image5\_arch.jpeg Eero Saarinen, *Gateway Arch*, 1963-65, stainless steel, 630' high. St. Louis, Missouri\ Image Licensed through Creative Commons   Richard Serra, *Tilted Spheres, *2002 -- 04, Cor-ten steel, 14' x 39' x 22'. Pearson International Airport, Toronto, Canada\ Image Licensed through Creative Commons   **Asymmetry **uses compositional elements that are offset from each other, creating a visually unstable balance. Asymmetrical visual balance is the most dynamic because it creates a more complex design construction. A graphic poster from the 1930's shows how offset positioning and strong contrasts can increase the visual effect of the entire composition. M4\_Image7\_Asymmetry.jpeg Poster from the Library of Congress archives\ Image is in the public domain Claude Monet's '*Still Life with Apples and Grapes'* from 1880 (below) uses asymmetry in its design to enliven an otherwise mundane arrangement. First, he sets the whole composition on the diagonal, cutting off the lower left corner with a dark triangle. The arrangement of fruit appears haphazard, but Monet purposely sets most of it on the top half of the canvas to achieve a lighter visual weight. He balances the darker basket of fruit with the white of the tablecloth, even placing a few smaller apples at the lower right to complete the composition. Monet and other [Impressionist (Links to an external site.)](http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/ij/impressionism.html) painters were influenced by Japanese woodcut prints, whose flat spatial areas and graphic color appealed to the artist's sense of design.  Claude Monet, *Still Life with Apples and Grapes*, 1880, oil on canvas.\ The Art Institute of Chicago. Licensed under Creative Commons One of the best-known Japanese print artists is [Ando Hiroshige (Links to an external site.)](http://www.hiroshige.org.uk/). You can see the design strength of asymmetry in his woodcut '*Shinagawa on the Tokaido'* (below),* *one of a series of works that explores the landscape around the Takaido road. You can view many of his works through the hyperlink above. M4\_Image9\_Hiroshige.jpeg  Hiroshige, *Shinagawa on the Tokaido, *ukiyo-e (Links to an external site.) print, after 1832\ Licensed under Creative Commons In Henry Moore's *'Reclining Figure' *the organic form of the abstracted figure, strong lighting and precarious balance obtained through asymmetry make the sculpture a powerful example in three-dimensions.  Henry Moore, *Reclining Figure, *1951. Painted bronze.\ Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Photo by Andrew Dunn and licensed under [Creative Commons (Links to an external site.)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Creative_Commons) **Radial balance **suggests movement from the center of a composition towards the outer edge - or vise versa. Many times radial balance is another form of symmetry, offering stability and a point of focus at the center of the composition. Buddhist [mandala (Links to an external site.)](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala) paintings offer this kind of balance almost exclusively. Similar to the scroll painting we viewed previously, the image radiates outward from a central spirit figure. In the example below there are six of these figures forming a star shape in the middle. Here we have absolute symmetry in the composition, yet still generating a feeling of movement by virtue of the concentric circles within a rectangular format. M4\_Image11\_Mandala.jpeg Tibetan Mandala of the Six Chakravartins, c. 1429-46\ Central Tibet (Ngor Monestary)\ Private Collection. Used with permission. Raphael's painting of Galatea, a sea nymph in Greek mythology, incorporates a double set of radial designs into one composition. The first is the swirl of figures at the bottom of the painting, the second being the four cherubs circulating at the top. The entire work is a current of figures, limbs and implied motion. Notice too the stabilizing classic triangle formed with Galatea's head at the apex and the other figures' positions inclined towards her. The cherub outstretched horizontally along the bottom of the composition completes the second circle.  Raphael, *Galatea, *fresco, 1512\ Villa Farnesina, Rome\ This artwork is in the public domain Within this discussion of visual balance, there is a relationship between the natural generation of organic systems and their ultimate form. Here is an example of the golden ratio in the form of a rectangle and the enclosed spiral generated by the ratios:   M4\_Image13\_GoldenRatio.jpeg\ Image from Wikipedia Commons and licensed through Creative Commons The natural world expresses radial balance, manifest through the golden ratio, in many of its structures, from galaxies to tree rings and waves generated from dropping a stone on the water's surface. You can see this organic radial structure in some natural systems by comparing the satellite image of hurricane Isabel and a telescopic image of spiral galaxy M51 below.   Images by the National Weather service and NASA\ Images are in the public domain.  A snail shell, unbeknownst to its inhabitant, is formed by this same universal ratio, and, in this case, takes on the green tint of its surroundings. M4\_Image15\_snail.jpeg Image by Christopher Gildow\ Used with permission. Environmental artist Robert Smithson created '*Spiral Jetty', *an earthwork of rock and soil, in 1970. The jetty extends nearly 1500 feet into the Great Salt Lake in Utah as a symbol of the interconnectedness of our selves to the re