Financial Statement Analysis PDF

lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis Financial statement analysis and managerial accounting (Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial State...

lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis Financial statement analysis and managerial accounting (Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS FUNDAMENTALS OF ACCOUNTING: A USERS’ PERSPECTIVE The annual report: a fundamental document An annual report is a nancial document to report on company's acvies throughout the past year, which is bigger than the nancial statements and can go up to 600 pages or more – usually the more complex the company is, the more pages the annual report is composed of. If the company is listed, the company has to publish the annual report, since there might be people who want to know everything about the company or want to join the company; on the other hand, if the company is a familyowned business, there is no need to publish the annual report. Annual reports are intended to give shareholders (that are the owners of the company) and other interested people informaon about the company's acvies and nancial performance. Most jurisdicons require companies to prepare and disclose annual reports, and many require the annual report to be led at the company's registry. The minimum content of the nancial report depends on the legal status of the company, and it’s disciplined by the regulaons in place where the legal enty is located. The voluntary disclosure of nancial informaon in listed companies mainly is determined by nancial communicaon choices or taccs. For listed companies the annual report includes specicaon of: – Financial result highlight – – – – – – Governance and ownership structure Discussion and analysis of recent economic events Financial Statements (Consolidated and separate enty parent company) • Balance sheet (or Statement of Financial Posion) – shows the nancial posion on a given day • Income statement – shows the economic performance over a given period • Statement of cash ows – shows the nancial performance over a given period Footnotes to explain elements of nancial statements The report of independent auditors Statement of management responsibility for preparaon of nancial statements The main items of the annual report are: – Management report to the board of directors (address the board of directors in order to know what the business is about) – – – – Financial statements (numbers) Notes to the consolidated nancial statements (the notes are important to know where the nancial statements, that is the numbers, come from) Other disclosures Independent auditor’s report The notes to the consolidated nancial statements are actually given because the number that come from the nancial statements cannot be created out of the blue, but there are instuonal frameworks that needs to be followed. The OIC (Organismo Italiano di Contabilità) is the accountancy body that is composed by professionals who work in the world of accounng and sets rules, which means that they formulate the accounng principles that apply, and especially sets standards in Italy for small naonal businesses. Standards are accounng principles that 1 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi apply, and they are needed in order to compare one company to another, otherwise the comparison would not be possible. But in order to compare companies at an internaonal level there is another instuon of seng, which is called IASB (Internaonal Accounng Standards Board), and is an independent, private-sector body that develops and approves IFRSs (so the accounng principle that it issues in order to assure comparability is called IFRS (Internaonal Financial Reporng Standard)). Another item of the annual report is the auditor’s report: the independent auditors are individuals who inspect and verify the accuracy of a company's nancial records, so the auditor’s report is a compliance report, and it’s important to note that the company is in charge of paying for the auditor’s report. Public companies are required to use a public accounng rm for the conduct of an audit of their nancial statements. At the end of the auding process the auding rm (or the independent auditor) issues an auding report an opinion on the quality of nancial measurement. THE THREE MAIN FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND THEIR LINKS – Balance Sheet – – Income Statement Statement of Cash Flows The three main nancial statements and their links: the Balance Sheet The main components of the Balance Sheet are: – Assets - economic resources of the rm that can be turned into cash – – Liabilies - economic obligaons of the rm which will use cash Owners’ Equity - the residual interest in, or remaining claims against, the rm’s assets aer deducng liabilies (rights of the owners). Generally, it reects the amount of capital the owners invested plus any prot that the company generates that is subsequently reinvested in the company So, Assets and Liabilies are the elements that we record and recognize, while the equity is the dierence between them. Owner’s equity is composed of Share Capital and Retained Earnings and is the result of their sum. The three main nancial statements and their links: the Income Statement The main components of the Income Statement are: – Revenues - gross increases in Equity – Expenses - gross decreases in Equity – Net Income = Revenues – Expenses or net increase or decrease in the Equity • If Net Income > 0 there is a Prot • If Net Income < 0 there is a Loss The three main nancial statements and their links: the Statement of Cash Flow The main components of the Statement of Cash Flow are: – Cash inows - correspond to cash receipts (+) – Cash oulows - correspond to cash payments (-) These are the three most important nancial statements, and they are telling a story to the users of these nancial statements. They describe the nancial performance of a company, so they describe its: – Protability: a company is protable when its revenues are higher than expenses, but it is also a way to broaden its Equity (if the company is protable, it can feed its Retained Earnings and consequently its Equity) 2 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi – Credibility: the higher is the dierence between the assets and the liabilies, the more solid the company is and there is a strong link between protability and credibility because the more protable the company is, the more solid it can become, and being soldi for a company means that it is able to meet long-term obligaons. The liquidity producon of a company tells whether the company has enough cash (not assets) to be able to meet the long-term obligaons (liquidity is about “pure cash”) and it is associated with protability because revenues sooner or later will become cash inows and expenses will become cash oulows, and we say “sooner or later” because of the accrual principle, which is an accounng concept that requires transacons to be recorded in the me period in which they occur, regardless of when the actual cash ows for the transacon are received. So, according to the accrual system revenues are recognized only when the services or the goods are delivered. The statements are not always forced into a framework, but actually there are frameworks, formats that especially for listed companies are recurring. So, the framework, that is to say how we present assets and liabilies (etc.), the revenues and the expenses, the cash inows and the cash oulows is more or less informave. The Balance Sheet presentaon Before investing in any company, an investor can use the balance sheet to examine the following: – can the rm meet its nancial obligations? – how much money has already been invested in this company? – is the company overly indebted? – what kind of assets has the company purchased with its nancing? Typically, the balance sheet is represented in 2 secons, even though in the UK the Balance Sheet is typically organized into 1 secon, so there is a list of assets and liabilies that combines. However, we will see a balance sheet represented in 2 secons and there are 2 criteria to classify assets and liabilies: the rst criterium is liquidity, that is to say how fast the assets can be liquidated and when the liability is due, while the second one is the acvity-related criterium 1- Liquidity: the criterium is related to the fact that there are assets and liabilies that can be liquidated within the year and others that cannot, therefore they are divided into: • Short Term or Current: assets that can be liquidated (=concerted into cash) in the short term (in operang cycle), typically one year and liabilies that are due within the operang cycle or within the year → Short Term Assets: Account Receivable, Inventory → Short Term Liabilies: Account Payable, Wages Payable, Interest Payable and all the payables within the year • Long Term or Non-Current: assets that are liquidated beyond the operang cycle and liabilies that are due beyond the operang cycle → Long Term Assets: Notes Receivable, Property, Plant and Equipment → Long Term Liabilies: Notes Payable, Loans, Bonds 2- Acvity-related: this criterion refers to the fact that there are assets and liabilies that are related to the core business and others that are not (nancing and invesng) • Related to the operang cycle – Operang • Nonrelated to operang cycle – Non Operang → Invesng acvity → Financing acvity 3 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi The rst criterium of presenng assets and liabilies in the Balance Sheet, that is liquidity, is the criterium that is used to check the synchronizaon of the duraon of the assets and the duraon of the liabilies, because the assets are supposed to generate cash and the liabilies are supposed to absorb cash, so we want to see whether with the generaon of cash (which is implicit) into the assets the company is able to cover the obligaons and these mings are in some way synchronized. But there is also another way of looking at the assets and the liabilies of a company, which is the acvity – related criterium, according to which assets and liabilies are spied not based on the duraon but based on the link that they have with pure operaons (core business). The Income Statement presentaon Before invesng in any company, an investor can use the income statement to examine the following: – how much are sales? – what kind of expenses the company pays? – how is interesng the economic result compared with competors? – is the operang income posive? The typical presentaon of the income statement is a single secon with mulple steps. Steps are intermediate results, and they are like paragraphs in the overall chapter that describes how the prot is generated. This is how a typical consolidated income statement is organized: 1. The rst step calculates the gross prot, which tells what the dierence between the revenues and the cost of goods sold is. 2. 3. 4. 5. However, when a company sells a product, it has to endure high adversing and promoonal costs to keep the business alive The second step consists in calculang the contribuon margin: once you subtract the adversing and promoonal costs from the gross prot, you obtain the contribuon margin, which contributes to cover all the other overheads The third step shows the operang result (operang prot), obtained by subtracng all the overheads from the contribuon margin. The operang income is the company’s earnings from its core operaons aer it has deducted its cost of goods sold and its operang expenses. Operang income does not include interest expenses or other nancing costs Then, as a fourth step, you have to consider the impact of nancing and funding decisions (for example the interest expense), and if you subtract these expenses from the operang prot, you come to the prot before tax Eventually, by detracng the income tax expense from the prot before tax, you obtain the nal prot for the period The number of steps depends on the narraves: if the company wants to organize your income statement with more details, it breaks it up in more steps and vice versa. The Statement of Cash Flow presentaon Before investing in any company, an investor can use the cash ow statement to examine the following: – is this company able to pay interests, debts, dividends? – is this company able to generate cash for nancing new investments? – how has the management used the cash generated by the company? In the cash ow statement, there are: – (+) cash inows, which correspond to cash receipts – (-) cash outows, which correspond to cash payments and these items explain why there is a change in cash balance over a period of time. Cash ows are classied according to three reasons why the cash balance might change: 4 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi – – – Cash ow from operations: cash inows and outows concerned with ordinary activities of the organization (related to the core business); you want this cash ow to be positive. Examples of cash ow from operations: • Collections from customers (+) • Cash payments to suppliers (-) • Cash payments to employees (-) • Tax payments (-) Cash ow from investing: cash inows and outows concerned with transactions to acquire or to dispose of long-lived assets; you expect this cash ow to be negative, because you expect a company to invest continuously. Examples of cash ow from investing: • Collections from sales of PPE or any long-term assets (+) • Payments on purchases of PPE or any long-term assets (-) Cash ow from nancing: cash inows and outows concerned with transactions to get cash or to repay debts. Examples of cash ow from nancing: • Borrowings of cash from creditors (+) • Issuance of debt securities (+) • Issuance of equity (+) • Repayments of loans (-) • Payments of dividends (-) and by summing these three cash ows together, what we obtain is the net cash ow. MAIN ASSETS EVALUATION PRINCIPLES We zoomed into the nancial statements: the framework is the annual report and now we look at the numbers. When we look at the numbers we have these evaluaon principles, so criteria, methods that are used to determine the value of Assets, Liabilies, and therefore the Equity. 1- The fundamental rules in assets evaluaon – Accounng Standards represent a set of concepts and techniques that are used to idenfy, measure and communicate nancial informaon about an economic unit to various users. – In parcular, IFRSs are designed as a common global language for business aairs, so that company accounts are understandable and comparable across internaonal boundaries. – Nevertheless, managers can exercise the so-called accounng discreon, that is the ability to make a judgment, a choice or a responsible decision, which ulmately impacts on the Financial Statements presentaon. – Therefore, it is important to be aware of which are some of the main valuaon issues that companies face during their day-by-day operaons. – General principles applicable to the asset evaluaon disnguish between: • Monetary assets, carry a xed value in terms of currency units. They are stated as a xed value in monetary terms even when macroeconomic factors such as inaon decrease the purchasing power of the currency. → Cash → Bank deposits → Trade receivables → Other receivables meant for selement through cash → Investments in debt capital markets instruments • Non-monetary assets, conversely speaking, non-monetary assets are those that do not have a value determinable in exact money terms. 5 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi The value assets that are non-monetary change or uctuate a lot over me and whose cash converbility is limited. Therefore, these assets are not that liquid. Examples include property, plant & equipment, intangible assets (including goodwill), equity shares (some companies treat shares issued in foreign currency as monetary assets due to the absence of clear-cut direcves), and Inventories. A non-monetary asset like plant & machinery can see its value decline as the technology becomes obsolete. Its value depends upon certain factors such as changes in technology, supply-demand factors, etc. These factors are not relevant when it comes to the valuaon of monetary assets. The evaluaon rules are dierent for monetary (fair value) o non-monetary assets (cost), but assets that can either be Monetary or Non-Monetary depending on circumstances. • Prepayments or advance payments can either be monetary or non-monetary, based on a contract with a third party (the party to which payment was made). If as per the contract, the pre-paid amount is non-refundable (which it usually is) or if there is no contract and the probability of geng the amount back is very low, then it should be treated as a nonmonetary asset. • Investments in preference shares shall be treated as monetary assets if there is a clause in the contract, by virtue of which, the redempon of preference shares has to be undertaken by the issuing enty aer a certain me in the future. Otherwise, investments in preference shares will be treated as assets that are non-monetary. 2- Accounts receivable and allowance for bad debts – Accounts receivable are the amounts owed to a company by customers as a result of delivering goods or services and extending credit in the ordinary course of business and they are also known as trade receivables or simply receivables. They are valued at their net realizable value (what is used to value accounts receivable is the value for the sale that have not been collected yet, so revenues that have not been collected yet). – Uncollecble accounts (bad debts) are receivables determined to be uncollecble because debtors are unable or unwilling to pay their debts. They need to be deducted from accounts receivable gross. There are two basic ways to record uncollecble: • Specic write-o method : the receivables not paid are wrien o when they are recognized as uncollecble (example, in case of bankruptcy) → The specic write-o method assumes that all sales are fully collecble unl proved otherwise (gross value equals the net realizable value of accounts receivable) • Allowance method: it esmates the poron of accounts receivable that are expected not to be collected → When an account is idened as uncollecble, that account is removed from the books and an expense is recorded and this method, which is used by companies that rarely experience bad debts, is called allowance method → The allowance method esmates the amount of uncollecble accounts to be matched to the related revenues and it allows to recognize bad debts during the proper period, before specic uncollecble accounts are idened in a subsequent period, thus improving the matching of revenues and expenses → The allowance method has two basic elements:  An esmate of the amounts that will ulmately be uncollecble 6 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi  A contra account, Allowance for Uncollecble Accounts, which contains the esmate and is deducted from Accounts Receivable → The allowance method is based on historical experience and the assumpon that the current year is similar to prior years → The allowance is quaned directly as percentage of ending account receivable (somemes dierenated based on the age of the overdue) or indirectly as a percentage of credit sales 3- Inventory evaluaon and cost of goods sold – Inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value, which is the esmated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the esmated costs of compleon and the esmated costs necessary to make the sale – The cost of inventories includes all costs of purchase, costs of conversion (direct labour and producon overhead) and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present locaon and condion – Under the IFRS the cost of inventories is assigned by: • Specic idencaon of cost for items of inventory that are not ordinarily interchangeable • The rst-in, rst-out or weighted average cost formula for items that are ordinarily interchangeable (generally large quanes of individually insignicant items) – When inventories are sold, the carrying amount of those inventories is recognised as an expense in the period in which the related revenue is recognised – The amount of any write-down of inventories to net realisable value and all losses of inventories are recognised as an expense in the period the write-down or loss occurs 4- Fixed assets (tangible and intangible), depreciaon and amorzaon – There are two main categories of xed assets: • Tangible xed assets, including PPE (property, plants and equipment), land, etc. – everything that is long lived, which means that ... and that it will generate cash ow beyond the current accounng period • Intangible assets, which have no physical form (like trademarks, patents, copyrights, ….) – According to the cost principle, acquired xed assets should be recorded at their actual cost, also called historical cost – Remember that the cost of any asset, including xed assets, is the sum of all the costs incurred to bring the asset to its intended use – For xed assets, therefore, the typical items included in the cost are: • Purchase price • Applicable taxes • Purchase commission • Legal fees • Transportaon charges • Insurance while the asset is in transit • Installaon costs • Cost for tesng the asset before it is used, etc. – At the end of the accounng period, rm record an expense related to the fact that during the same period they have used xed assets, so they contributed to the revenue earned. – Depreciaon is the process of allocang the cost of a xed asset over the years of its useful life, that is over the years that the asset was used • Depreciaon is an expense and a decrease in the asset value 7 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi • If, at the end of a given accounng period, the net book value of a xed asset is higher than the recoverable value of the asset, rms are required to “impair” the asset, which means to record for an extraordinary loss of value (expense) • Remember that the cost is always the highest value at which an asset can be evaluated. This means that we cannot record a value higher than the cost we paid to acquire the asset (unless the revaluaon model is used) – Amorzaon: intangible assets are rights or claims to expected benets that tend to be contractual in nature rather than physical in nature. Examples are patents, copyrights, and franchises. The accounng for intangibles is much like that of tangible assets • Acquision costs of intangibles may be: the cost of purchase, the fair value in a contribuon in kind, the capitalized cost in case of capitalizaon of operang expenses • Intangibles are amorzed using the straight-line method • Firms measure the depreciaon based on: → Depreciable cost → Esmated useful life • Depreciable cost in most cases corresponds to the total cost of the asset (see before). When it is expected that some money from the sale of the asset at the end of its useful life will be gained, the depreciable cost equals the historical cost - (minus) the residual value • The esmated useful life is an esmate of how long the assets will be useful: this can be expressed in years, units of output or other measures • There are dierent methods to allocate the depreciable value to the periods of the asset’s useful life. The most common in pracce are: → Straight-line method → Units-of-producon method → Declining balance method (accelerated depreciaon) 5- Take home – Non-monetary and monetary assets have dierent evaluaon criteria: cost based and fair value based – Accounts receivables are valued at their net realizable value – Inventories are evaluated at the lower of cost (FIFO; LIFO; weighted average, specic idencaon) or market price – Fixed assets (tangible and intangible) are evaluated, respecvely, at their depreciated or amorzed cost INTRODUCTION TO CONSOLIDATION 1- Intercorporate investment and consolidaon – When an investor has control over an investee company (over 50% ownership), it must prepare consolidated nancial statements – The investor company is called the parent (buying company) – The investee company is called the subsidiary (target company) – Although both companies remain separate legal enes, the nancial posion and earnings reports of the parent are combined with those of the subsidiary, but since the parent company controls the subsidiary, it is required to produce consolidated statements 2- Acquision – Assume two separate companies: • Company A: Assets of $650 million and Liabilies of $200 million 8 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi – – • Company B: Assets of $400 million and Liabilies of $187 million This means that the book value of Equity of company A of $450 million and the book value of Equity of company B of $213 million Company A purchases all of the outstanding stock of company B (B gives shares and A pays money to the shareholder of B) for $213 million in cash The journal entry on the books of A (in millions) will report an increase in Investment in B and a decrease in Cash for the same amount of 213, so the acquision is reported as an investment (payment in cash) of company A in company B However, when we look at the consolidated account, we have to combine the assets and the liabilies of B into A: aer the acquision B will stay as a legal enty as it is, because B is sll exisng, but A will have a reducon in cash ($213 millions are gone to the shareholders of B) and there will be an investment in B 3- Consolidated nancial statements Now the company has to prepare consolidated nancial statements because now there is just one shareholder, that is all the shareholders of A, who want to know the whole “story”, so A + B, that means we have to combine the nancial statements into a consolidated one. How do we combine A + B? In combining the amounts on the balance sheet, A must eliminate its investment account and the stockholders’ equity of B, which eliminates double-counng of the investment in B: Aer the acquision A connues to use the equity method during the period and to prepare consolidated statements, P must eliminate: • Its investment account and the Shareholder’s Equity of the subsidiary on the consolidated balance sheet • Intercompany revenues and expenses on the income statement • Other intercompany transacons 4- Price not equal to book value Let’s now assume that all the acquired assets and liabilies are shown at their fair market value, so if the purchase price is more than the fair market value of the net asset, goodwill must be shown on the consolidated statement – When the acquiring company pays more than the book value of the acquired company’s net assets, consolidaon requires a two-step adjustment: 1. All acquired assets and liabilies are shown at their fair market value (FMV) 2. If the purchase price > FMV of the net assets, goodwill must be shown on the consolidated balance sheet 9 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi – Goodwill is the excess of the cost of an acquired company over the sum of the FMV of its idenable assets less the liabilies 5- Accounng for goodwill – In the previous example, assume that: • A acquired a 100% interest in B for $253 million rather than $213 million • A building with a book value of $20 million had a FMV of $35 million – The tabulaon of the consolidated balance sheet is shown in the next exhibit – Goodwill = Price paid - Equity book value – FMV adjustments $253 million - $213 million- ($35 million-$20 million) = $25 million One addional element about this conversaon about purchasing, acquiring and accounng for goodwill refers to the possibility of A not buying 100% of B (As we assumed), but only a (relevant) poron of it, so a will control B but there will be a residual part which will remains in the hands of the shareholder of B. If this is happening, once we consolidate A + B, there is an item, called “minority interests” or “interest of the non-controlling company” that needs to be idened and disclosed in some way. Just to see how it is disclosed: In the Balance Sheet, in the Equity secon we have total Equity aributable to the shareholder of the parent company and non-controlling interest, so basically the Equity is split in two components: the Equity aributable to the parent company and the Equity aributable to the shareholder of B who is sll there. As a result, there are two ways of looking at this company: A + B (total, regardless of who is owning this company) or just looking at what is owned by the parent company and what is owned by the former shareholder of B. And the same thing happens with Revenues and Expenses. 10 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi When we started talking about goodwill, we said that company A was invesng in B (this is in the rst place an investment of A in B, so we have to consolidate A + B), but this is not the only situaon when a company can invest in the so-called intercorporate investment; a company can invest in nancial investment. OWNERSHIP OF MORE THAN 50% (Equity Investment) The one that we have analyzed was an equity investment of A into B and this equity investment was because we had a situaon of merges and acquision, which means that company A in a very clear way wants to buy at least 50% of Equity since it wants to control B: so, it buys the equity and liquidates the shareholders of B (possibly all of them) and if this happens it means that A controls B and it represents this in the statement through the process of consolidaon (one single legal enty regardless the accounng disncon – “as if it were a single company”). OWNERSHIP BETWEEN 20% AND 50% (Financial Investment) If we buy Equity (which is not M&A, but acquision), we may end up saying “I’d like to work together with another company”, but if company A buys also the Equity of B (some, not all), then the aliaon gets a lile more ght (because the representave of the Board of Director of a will have to be present in the shareholding meeng of B): this aliaon is what is very roughly dened as operang when A owns from 20% to 50% of the shares of B (it has power to inuence the decisions of B) and it is called aliaon. A is saying that it has an investment in B: how do we represent this power of inuence, this investment? Does this investment need to be reported as cost or at fair value? With Equity we have this doubt because this Equity (company B) may also be listed on the market and so the shares of B may go up or down, and so the queson is: do we have to match the market price in this case (because this is nancial investment, it is dierent from PPE because they are not traded every day). For this specic situaon we may want to match the market price because these are idenable items, so we have to nd some ruled that needs to be followed to say that we want to match the market price. The rules that we are given are that if we nd ourselves in this situaon, instead of looking at the lisng we use the so-called Equity Method, which in a very simple way says that we need to look at the investment in B and if this is to be reported at the end of the year, we have to make an adjustment: the investment in B increases (because the company reports prots) and decreases (because the company pays dividends). And if we have to report this in the company that owns a percentage of the other company (from 20% to 50%), we must report the % of the prot and deduct the % of the dividends. So, any change in the Equity of B gets replicated in A proporonally. OWNERSHIP OF LESS THAN 20% If company A doesn’t want to have a 20% but invests just to generate a return (less than 20%), so it is sure that it won’t exert any inuence. Available for sale or trading securies: the dierence is the intent, so available for sale means that the intenon is to keep, while trading the idea is to do it for business. In both cases the way we report on the Balance Sheet is mark to market, which means that at the end of the year we must check which is the current lisng on the stock and report that amount on the Balance Sheet. We record this increase or decrease in the Balance Sheet under the “investment” secon, but we also have to record it in the Income Statement as “unrealized gain or loss”, under “other comprehensive income”. 6- Take home – When an investor has control over an investee company (over 50% ownership), it must prepare consolidated nancial statements. – Although both companies remain separate legal enes, the nancial posion and earnings reports of the parent are combined with those of the subsidiary. 11 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi – – – The preparaon of consolidated nancial statements entails the pooling of revenues and expenses, assets and liabilies of all legal enes belonging to the consolidaon perimeter. Homogeneity checks refer to: • Separate enes nancial statements closing dates • Accounng principles, if dierent re-statement is required • Currency adopted, if dierent the funconal currency conversion id required • Format of nancial statements. Intercompany transacons need to be eliminated. Typical accounng items that emerge in consolidaon are minority and goodwill interest. INVESTMENTS AND INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS Investments: an overview Shares: – Investor: enty that owns share of a corporaon – Investee: enty that issues the share Bonds – Investor: enty that owns the bonds of the corporaon – Debtor: enty that issues the bonds Categories of Financial Asset Investments – Financial Assets: Short-term or long-term • Trading: bonds or share • Held-to-maturity: only bonds because shares don’t have an expiraon date • Available-for-sale: bonds and shares – Investment in associates (and joint ventures): only shares – Investment in subsidiaries: only shares • Typically more than 50% ownership • Long-term investments and these categories are relevant because each one has got a dierent impact on accounng in a dierent to be presented in the Balance Sheet. TRADING SECURITIES – Short-term investments in marketable securies (because the intent is to speculate) – Next-most-liquid asset aer cash – Reported immediately aer cash and before receivables on the Balance Sheet – Reported at mark to market and we have unrealized gains or losses: • A gain has the same eect as a revenue, i.e., it will increase equity • Unrealized gain because the company may not yet have sold any securies HELD-TO-MATURITY BONDS – Reported at amorzed cost – Interest received semi-annually – Usually issued in $1,000 denominaons – Prices quoted as a percentage of par – Fluctuate with market interest rates • Market rate > face rate  discount 12 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11350337 Financial Statement Analysis and Managerial Accounng UCSC | Marna Marazzi • Market rate < face rate  premium BONDS – Major investors are nancial instuons – Investor intends to hold for < 1 year  available-for-sale – Investor intends to hold unl maturity  held-to-maturity – Traded on the open market (public companies) LITTLE WRAP UP If a company decides to make an investment in nancial assets, how do we dierenate a nancial asset, in which categories? There are 2 categories: the debt and the Equity. Both earn a return, but in case of Equity we don’t knew ex ante what the return will be, while if it a debt we can determine ex ante which will be the return. If we have Equity not only, we go to the shareholder meeng, but we exert a certain inuence, which can be small and limited or very high, so this idea that when a company invests in Equity can exert an inuence make the accountants think how to represent this inuence in the body of the statement. So, if we concentrate on Equity, we will have dierent ways of represenng the inuence going from very lile to very high: - Very high inuence (more than 50%): the way to represent the nancial investment into another company is M&A, and so consolidaon, which means that we put together all the categories of B with the homogeneous categories of the mother/parent company - Lighter inuence: the accounng method to present the investment in another company (called aliated) is called Equity method - Very lile inuence: in this case there are 2 alternaves, which are available-for-sale investment (make an investment without the intenon to sell it) and trading securies (make an investment with the specic intenon to sell it) and in these 2 cases the investment is reported in the nancial statement of the acquiring company using mark to market criterium (or fair value) If we talk about bonds or debt, we don’t have the same categories: if we think about bonds, we have trading, we have available-for-sale and because bonds also have deadlines, we can also say that we buy the bond and hold it unl maturity. In the case of purchase of a bond with the intent to hold it unl maturity the criterium used to represent this investment is amorzed cost. Who is making the decision of what is what? This decision is important since it has a good impact on the nance of the company, and CFO will probably make a proposal on how to classify the investments, but the Board of Directors is in charge of making this decision, and then there is an auditor who is in charge of checking this decision, because auditors know that this is a very sensible decision. MAIN LIABILITY EVALUATION PRINCIPLES Various type of liabilies The Conceptual Framework denes liability as Obligaons seled through oulow of resources embodying economic benet There are two kinds of liabilies: a. If short-term  current liability b. If long-term  non-current liability and this classicaon is based on the nancial criterium, that is to say when the obligaon that is underlying the liability is actually expiring or when the obligaon needs to be seled through the oulow of resources embodying economic benets (typically, but not necessarily cash ow). Current Liabilies of Known Amounts – Accounts payable (originated when somebody purchases something and doesn’t pay) 13 Downloaded by Chiara Davoli ([email protected])