Forest Ecology & Urban Ecology Lecture Notes Fall 2024 PDF

Forest Ecology Outline: Ecology definitions Biomes review Eastern deciduous forest (a temperate forest) Forest ecology concepts: Biotic and abiotic factors, disturbance and succession Ecosystem services Boreal forest Trees in cities How do trees clean our air Tree canopy dispa...

Forest Ecology Outline: Ecology definitions Biomes review Eastern deciduous forest (a temperate forest) Forest ecology concepts: Biotic and abiotic factors, disturbance and succession Ecosystem services Boreal forest Trees in cities How do trees clean our air Tree canopy disparity How to identify plants and birds Ecology = study of the relationship between living things and their environment Ecological factors and plant distribution: vegetation is not randomly distributed around the globe distribution largely depends on climate within a biome, the species are distributed according to environmental gradients of light, temperature, moisture, soil nutrients, fire, competition, herbivory, human interference, etc. ………and biotic interactions (mutualisms, competition, parasitism, etc) Biomes and airmasses Geologic map shows bedrock types in the region. Bedrock influences soil characteristics. Ice sheet map shows the parts of the United States that were covered in ice during the most recent glaciation. Biomes in the region Eastern deciduous forest subregions Major tree taxa in the e. deciduous forest: Quercus oak Acer maple Betula birch Carya hickory Fraxinus ash Tilia basswood Liriodendron tulip tree Physiognomy (layering): Canopy: oaks, maples, etc. Understory: witch hazel, dogwood, hornbeam Shrub: mountain laurel, blueberry, huckleberry Herb: wildflowers, ferns, tree saplings Ground: mosses, fungi, leaf litter Ecological factors of the environment: A mosaic of interdependent and interacting physical and biological factors that determines the conditions of the habitat. Biotic ecological factors: (interactions between members of a community) competition organisms using same resources -/- commensalism one benefits other remains neutral +/0 mutualism both benefit +/+ (example: Mycorrhizas are mutualistic associations between soil fungi and plant roots) parasitism/predation one benefits one harmed +/- Important mutualism in forests: mycorrhiza mutualistic associations between soil fungi and plant roots plant receives mineral nutrients while the fungus obtains photosynthetically derived carbon compounds Abiotic ecological factors: (physical characteristics of the environment that determine plant distribution) Solar radiation temperature fire soil water Fire as an ecological factor in the environment: Fire has influenced the evolution of various ecosystems like grasslands and pine barrens lightning is the major cause of natural fires (estimated to be three billion strikes of lightening per year) other causes are sparks, volcanic activity, spontaneous combustion, human activity intensity, frequency, and behavior of fire is determined by: climate, fuel amount, fuel moisture, soil moisture Disturbance: a discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystems, communities or populations: Disturbance causes changes in substrates and resource availability Disturbance creates opportunities for new individuals to become established Natural disturbance is a necessary and beneficial ecosystem process The best way to preserve biodiversity is to protect the entire ecosystem, including its natural disturbance regime Agents of disturbance: Wind: can range from mild to catastrophic: shapes canopies, affects wood growth, uproots trees, massive blow-downs moving water: storms can scour stream beds, cut-away banks, move and deposit sediment drought: prolonged and regularly occurring drought can determine species composition; temporary drought can alter biological events, e.g., flowering time fire: both a destroyer/regenerator of communities animals: browsers, dam builders, defoliators, etc. humans: logging, cultivation, urbanization, pollution, surface mining, livestock grazing... Ecological succession: The predictable recovery process after a disturbance that leads to the restoration of the biotic and abiotic processes of the area. This process is most easily visualized by examining the re-vegetation of the area. The replacement of one community by another over time; directional and predictable. Community attributes change as succession proceeds: Early: soil nutrients low light abundant substrate dry opportunistic species (fast growth, short-lived, large number of wind dispersed seeds,) veg is small, low, and non-woody biomass low Later: increased soil nutrients shade increases moisture increases species diversity increases veg is longer-lived, larger, woody, slow growing, few seeds, heavy seeds, animal-dispersed biomass increases As plant communities change, so do the associated animal communities: WHY? The physical structure of the plant communities is related to selection of roosting and nesting sites. Food availability and type change (seeds versus fruits). climate change is a disturbance animals and plants move (if possible) to track preferred resources animal and plant migration is a response Animals have Icarus tags which are sensors that record GPS data and other information on conditions experienced by an animal, such as temperature. Data from the sensors are collected by antennae in space and then transmitted to computers on the ground. This creates a living picture of environmental change on the planet by documenting countless individual movement decisions as animals seek out their preferred conditions, sensing the quality and health of ecosystems in real time. This allows scientists to identify areas essential for survival of the animals and identify areas where biodiversity may be threatened by human encroachment or poaching when anticipated migration routes are blocked. animal migration maps https://www.movebank.org/cms/movebank-main Ecosystem services: Recall ecosystem services: what is the definition? Can you recall specifically the ecosystem services provided by trees? https://www.treepeople.org/22-benefits-of- trees/#:~:text=Trees%20absorb%20CO2%2C%20removing%20and,oxygen%20back%20into%20the %20air.&text=Trees%20absorb%20odors%20and%20pollutant,on%20their%20leaves%20and%20ba rk Forest ecosystem processes: Photosynthesis, Respiration and Evapotranspiration facilitate Ecosystem services: Purification of air and water Regulation of atmospheric composition Regulation of climate Regulation of hydrological cycle Boreal forest carbon is stored in both trees and in underlying peatlands and permafrost soils. Boreal forests store almost twice as much carbon per area as tropical forests Carbon flux in tropical forests is balanced between plant growth and decay, whereas cool temperatures of boreal ecosystems prevent the breakdown of dead biomass, leading to large accumulations of carbon over thousands of years Forests and trees make vital contributions both to people and the planet: bolstering livelihoods providing clean air and water conserving biodiversity responding to climate change providing food, medicine and fuel protecting soils and water housing biodiversity Water cycle FAO.org (UN) Comparisons between deciduous forest and boreal forest Eastern deciduous forest Boreal forest warm summers (>100 FFD), cold winters short summers (50-100 FFD), long severe winters precipitation adequate to support tree growth precipitation adequate to support tree growth leaves abciss in autumn to avoid moisture loss dominated by evergreen complex layered physiognomy not complex rich soils wet acidic soils, permafrost Edible leaves! Leaves not that edible local variation in tree species related to elevation, water availability, soils, microclimate, fire, etc. 5 valuable ecosystem services provided by the NA Boreal Forest: The North American Boreal is the largest intact forest left on Earth North America’s bird nursery 300+ species (billions of birds) Other Wildlife: safe haven for many of North America's most iconic large mammals: wolf, moose, caribou grizzly, black, and polar bears Climate: The boreal forest plays an enormous role in slowing the effects of climate change. It stores almost twice as much carbon as tropical forests Water: world's largest source of unfrozen fresh water on Earth Current threats to NA Boreal Forest Logging Mining Oil and Gas Hydro Climate Change URBAN ECOLOGY urban areas (like everywhere else) are social-ecological systems (SES) that include 1 social capital (networks, institutions, norms) 2 built capital 3 natural capital environmental challenges in cities heat stress pollution flooding disease outbreaks food supply shocks etc can green infrastructure help mitigate these challenges for people living in cities and create resiliency? Resilience = capacity to sustain functioning and well-being in the face of disturbance https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fee.2446 forests and cities Let’s think about trees in cities. How do trees clean our air? https://edu.rsc.org/feature/how-do-trees-clean-our-air/4010864.article tree ecosystem services for urban areas and in general 1. trees sequester carbon by “inhaling” the CO2 needed for photosynthesis 2. trees play an important role in removing air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ozone (O3) trees “inhale” nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) gases through the same pores (stomata) in the tree leaves that trees used to inhale CO2 3. trees play an important role in dispersing and trapping air pollutants such as particulate matter (PM) PM = particulate matter made from a mixture of different chemicals and soot that clog up the air, causing heart and lung disease. PM can be solid or liquid and can come from car engines, building sites, fires and a whole range of other sources two main types: PM10 = particles smaller than 10 5 μm and PM2.5 = particles smaller than 2.5 μm trees act as physical barriers that block the pollutants from reaching people: in the case of PM, trees either disperse it like other pollutants, or they act as a surface for the particles to deposit on -- it sticks to the leaves and bark 4. trees provide an aesthetic that is well known to benefit mental health 5. trees in many situations reduce surface flooding by capturing water in rainstorms 6. provide much-needed shade in the summer 7. provide evaporative cooling and so serves as air conditioning ref: https://edu.rsc.org/feature/how-do-trees-clean-our-air/4010864.article Tree canopy disparity (the lack of trees) is one of the many environmental injustices. Fig cap for image below: Residential segregation and systemic racism have substantial impacts on ecological and evolutionary dynamics in cities. Government-sponsored policies stratify neighborhoods on the basis of race and class (e.g., through “redlining” in the United States, represented here by the red circle), which results in restricted access to social services and environmental amenities for racial and/or ethnic minorities and low-income communities (red arrows). Habitat quantity and quality tend to be greater in wealthier and predominantly white neighborhoods (green arrows), which leads to variations in ecological and evolutionary processes, underscoring the influence of systemic racism and inequality in driving urban landscape characteristics. https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.aay4497 Urban Ecology challenges more pollution more disturbance more invasions warmer and drier less connectivity NY CITY sustainable forest initiatives http://www.nycgovparks.org/trees street trees are living breathing parts of our communities: shade, wind break, provide fresh air MillionTreesNYC: to plant and care for one million new trees across the City’s five boroughs over the next decade Greenstreets: storm water capture: asphalt is converted to bioretention planting beds (disconnects impervious surfaces from the CSO) http://www.nycgovparks.org/sub_your_park/trees_greenstreets/images/NYC_Greenstreets- Green_Infrastructure_for_Stormwater_Management.pdf Greenroofs: http://www.nycgovparks.org/greening/sustainable-parks/green-roofs/conditions Tips for identifying needle-leaved trees Tips for identifying broadleaf trees: Points to consider when identifying birds: Size & Shape Color Pattern Behavior Habitat Field Marks Songs & Calls Size and shape: Color and pattern: Behavior: Habitat: