Forensics for my Boos PDF

Introduction to Forensic Medicine Chapter One: IntroductionCase - Ted Bundy, Serial Killer Allegedly responsible for forty murders between 1964-1978 Victims: young women ○ Murdered with a blunt instrument or strangulation ○ Sexua...

Introduction to Forensic Medicine Chapter One: IntroductionCase - Ted Bundy, Serial Killer Allegedly responsible for forty murders between 1964-1978 Victims: young women ○ Murdered with a blunt instrument or strangulation ○ Sexually assaulted before and after death Utah, 1976: First convicted for kidnapping but escaped during an extradition Killed two women at Florida State University and murdered a 12 year old three weeks later Arrested while driving a stolen vehicle. Victim had bite marks on her left buttock and breast. ○ An odontologist matched the bite on the victim's left buttock to Bundy’s front teeth. READING: Pages 1-18 Definition and Scope of Forensic Science Forensic science is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system. American Academy of Forensic Science (ten sections) 1) Anthropology ○ Study of bones to find age, race, sex 2) Criminalistics ○ Total work of a crime lab 3) Digital/multimedia ○ Phone and computer evidence All crimes involve a computer in some way 4) Questioned Documents ○ Ransom note, handwriting, etc 5) Engineering and Applied Science ○ Faulty buildings vs intentional collapse 6) General Psychiatry and Behavioral Science ○ Examining criminal mental health 7) Jurisprudence ○ Scientific application of the law  8) Odontology ○ Study of teeth bitemarks 9) Pathology/Biology ○ Bodily fluids, skin samples 10) Toxicology ○ Poisons (not necessarily all drugs) Does not include: fingerprint examination, firearm and tool mark examination, computer and digital data analysis and photography. Criminalistics: more description than forensic science for describing the services of a crime laboratory. Either or, it is all down to a scientist in a crime laboratory as a participant in the criminal justice system History and Development of Forensic Science Early Development Third-century China: earliest record of applying forensics to solve criminal cases ○ Yi Yu Ji (“A collection of Criminal Cases”) describes a coroner solving a case where a woman murdered her husband and burned the body saying she died in an accidental fire. The husband had no ashes in his mouth, so he experimented with two bigs, one alive, one dead, and burned both of them. He found ashes in the pig alive then burned to death, but not the one dead then burned to death. Marcello Malpighi- first recorded notes about fingerprint characteristics (1686) ○ Professor of anatomy in University of Bologna in Italy. ○ DID NOT acknowledge it as a method of identification. Initial Scientific Advances Francois-Emanuel Fodéré (1798) ○ French physician ○ First scientific treatises on forensic science¨A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health¨ Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1775) ○ Swedish chemist ○ First successful test for detecting poison arsenic in corpses Valentin Ross (1806) ○ German chemist  ○ Precise method for detecting arsenic in the stomach. Mathieu Orfila (1814) ○ Father of Forensic Toxicology ○ Spaniard who published the first scientific treatise on detection of poisons and their effects on animals This established forensic toxicology as a legitimate scientific endeavor. William Nichol (1828) ○ Invented the polarizing microscope Henri-Louis Bayard (1838) ○ Formulated the first procedures for microscopic detection of sperm Other development of the 19th century: ○ First microcrystalline test for hemoglobin (1853) ○ First Presumptive Test for blood (1863) James Marsh (1839) ○ Scottish Chemist ○ Testified on the detection of arsenic in a victim’s body Late Nineteenth-Century Progress Anthropology and morphology (study of the structure of living organisms) was applied to the first system of personal identification by Alphonse Bertillon in 1879. ○ Alphonse Bertillon Father of criminal identification ○ Bertillon’s system: anthropometry Systemic procedure which involves taking a series of body measurements as a means of distinguishing one individual to another. Considered the most accurate method of personal identification, but was replaced by fingerprinting in the early 1900s. *Thomas Taylor ○ A U.S. microscopist who first suggested fingerprints could be used as means of identification. *Henry Faulds made a similar assertion and published it in a journal, but nothing was done about it. *Francis Henry Galton (1892) ○ First definitive study of fingerprints and developed a method of classifying them for filing.  ○ in 1892: published a book titled Finger Prints, first statistical proof supporting this method of personal identification. Hans Gross (1893) ○ First treatise describing the application of scientific discipline stop the field of criminal investigation ○ First book of forensics Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ○ Popularized scientific crime-detection methods by writing Sherlock Holmes. Sherlock Holmes ○ Best-known figure in 19th century forensics ○ Use of serology (study of blood and bodily fluids), fingerprinting, firearms, identification, and questioned-document examination was involved before it was recognized by real-life criminal investigators. Twentieth-Century Breakthroughs Dr. Karl Landsteiner (1901) ○ Discovered that blood could be grouped into different categories, A, B, AB, and O. Dr. Leone Lattes (1915) ○ Professor at Institute of Forensic Medicine at University of Turin ○ Simple procedure for determining blood group of a dried blood stain. Albert S. Osborn (1910) ○ First significant test in this field of document examination: Questioned Documents ○ Responsible for acceptance of documents as scientific evidence by the courts Frenchman Edmond Locard ○ Demonstrated how the principles enunciated by Gross could be incorporated within a workable crime laboratory. ○ Got two attic rooms and two assistants to start a police laboratory ○ Only had these two tools microscope and rudimentary spectrometer ○ Founder and director of Institute of Criminalistics at the University of Lyons: leading international center for study and research in forensic science Locard’s exchange principle ○ When two objects come into contact with each other, a cross–transfer of materials occurs that can connect a criminal suspect to his or her victim. ○ Every criminal can be connected by dust particles carried from the crime scene. ○ With counterfeit coins and three suspects, Locard used the suspects’ clothing to put the suspects under arrest  Microscope ○ Dr. Walter C. McCrone Microscopist who advocate for applying microscopy to forensics. Educated thousands of forensic scientists with microscopic techniques, and used microscopy to examine evidence in thousands of criminal and civil cases. U.S. Army Colonel Calvin Goddard ○ Refined techniques of firearms examination with the comparison microscope. ○ Helps determine whether a particular gun has fired a bullet by comparing the bullet with one that has been test-fired from the suspect’s weapon. Modern Scientific Advances Procedures such as chromatography, spectrophotometry, and electrophoresis allow modern forensic scientist to determine with astounding accuracy the identity of a suspect substance and connect even tiny fragments to a particular person and place Discovery of and refinement DNA ○ (most significant modern advance in forensic science) Sir Alec Jeffereys ○ developed the first DNA profiling test in 1984 ○ In 1986 he applied it for the first time to identify Colin Pitchfork, the murderer of two young English girls. Same case marked the first time DNA profiling established the innocence of a criminal suspect. “DNA typing offers law enforcement officials a powerful tool for establishing the precise identity of a suspect even when only a small amount of physical evidence is available. Establishment of computerized databases on physical evidence ○ Such as fingerprints, markings on bullets, and shell casings, and DNA. ○ Enable law enforcement officials to compare evidence found at crimes scenes ○ Reduced time required to analyze evidence and increased accuracy of work done by police and forensic investigators. The Footpath Murders Victim #1: Lynda Mann First case in which DNA is used (DNA profiling)  Crime occurred in Narborough, UK Strangled & assaulted Found along a footpath Samples of semen & blood were obtained Victim #2: Dawn Ashworth Murdered on footpath - 10 pound lane Close to where victim #1 ws found, less than a mile away Strangled & assaulted Samples of semen and blood were taken Results from semen and blood: Same blood type found: Blood type A Similarities Both were from the same school Both were murdered on footpaths Both were teenagers (15 years old) Both were strangled and severely sexually assaulted Both were walking alone Both were from the same locality & circumstances Suspect #1: Richard Buckland Kitchenworker at the psychiatric hospital 17 year old with a poor reputation (scared girls) Knew details of the murder that weren’t in the newspaper. When questioned, couldn’t recall his actions in that afternoon Confessed to the rape & murder of Dan Ashworth ○ DENIED Lynda’s murder University of Leicester Dr. Alec Jeffery: DNA/genetic profiling ○ Originally used for paternity disputes and immigration cases David Baker wanted Jeffrey to prove the case Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) Can identify an individual based on a small amount of DNA:  ○ DNA that can come from semen, blood, hair roots and other cells ○ Only twins have the same DNA pattern Dr. Alec Jeffrey Jeffrey Takes the semen recovered from both victims and compare it to the blood sample from Richard Buckland PROCESS: 1. White blood cells were treated with a special chemical which allows DNA to float a. Extract white blood cell, separates DNA material 2. Restriction enzymes break up DNA to smaller fragments and is sorted out through electrophoresis 3. Plated on electrophoretic gel 4. Subjected to electric field, current goes through the gel to separate fragments by charge to opposite poles 5. Visualized on autoradiogram, showing genetic makeup. RESULTS: ○ Both girls were raped by the same man but it was NOT Richard Buckland. FIRST person to be EXONERATED of murder through the use of DNA profiling. DNA MANHUNT! Detective David Baker calls for a DNA Manhunt: ○ All men between 13-33 were asked to volunteer for a blood and saliva test for 2,000 people ○ 10% of the people had same blood type ○ More than 5,000 people gave the samples ○ Local baker Colin Pitchfork didn’t Colin Pitchfork Persuaded Ian Kelly to take the blood test ○ Has done this for another friend of his, Co-worker of Kelly. Pitchfork took his passport and a razor blade to replace it with a passport sized photo of Kelly. ○ Police did NOT notice One year later: ○ Ian Kelly is at the pub and a lady overhears the conversation of the DNA manhunt and how Kelly took the blood test for Colin PItchfork. Feeling that it is suspicious, she reached out to the police.  Police reached out to Pitchfork, and he confessed shortly asking about the blood test and the murders ○ DNA typing showed that he as the perfect match Sentences Colin Pitchfork: 27 year old, married, with children - SENTENCED TO LIFE Ian Kelly: Served no time SECOND READING (14-32) Crime Laboratories History of Crime Labs in the United States August Vollmer (1923) ○ Created the oldest laboratory in the U.S. ○ Police chief, headed 1st U.S. Paul Kirk ○ Head of criminalistic department Organization of a Crime Laboratory Operate at the federal, state, county, and municipal level. Staff sizes range from one person to more than 100, and services may be diverse or specialized. Prosecution of criminal cases require a professional police investigation, which incorporates skills of forensic science experts. All illicit-drug seizures must be sent to a forensic laboratory for confirmatory chemical analysis before the case can be adjudicated. Biological Evidence: includes bloodstains, semen stains, hair, and saliva residues left behind on stamps DNA factoring is the dominant factor in explaining how the general public perceives the workings and capabilities of the modern crime laboratory. Crime Labs in the United States Four major crime laboratories 1. Federal Bureau of Investigation (Department of Justice) ○ Largest crime laboratory in the world ○ Quantico, Virginia 2. The Drug Enforcement Administration Laboratories (Department of Justice)  ○ Analyze drugs seized in violation of federal laws regulating the production, sale, and transportation of drugs 3. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (Department of Justice) ○ Analyze alcoholic beverages and documents relating to alcohol and firearm excise tax law enforcement and examine weapons, explosive devices, and related evidence to enforce the Gun Control Act of 1968 and Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 4. The U.S. Postal Inspection Service (Admin - USPS) ○ Concerned with criminal investigations relating to the postal service Crime Labs have expanded since the 1960s due to three main reasons 1) Increased emphasis on suspects rights 2) Drug evidence is the #1 reason for the growth of crime labs 3) DNA evidence and related DNA technology Local laboratories provide services to county and municipal agencies. ○ Generally, operate independently ○ The U.S. usually maintain their own crime laboratories under the direction of a local police department. Crime Laboratories Abroad The British Home Office reorganized to Forensic Science Service ○ Six Royal Canadian Mounted Police region laboratories ○ The Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto ○ The Institute of Legal Medicine and Police Science in Montreal Services of the Crime Laboratory Reasons for the variations of labs 1) Variation in local laws, 2) different capabilities and functions of the organization to which a laboratory is attached 3) budgetary and staffing limitations are three reasons for the variation in total services offered in crime laboratories. Basic Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Laboratories 1) Physical science unit  ○ Chemistry, physics, and geology to identification and comparison of crime-scene evidence. ○ Staffed by criminalists who use chemical tests and modern analytical instrumentation to examine items such as i) Drugs, glass, paint, explosives, and soil ○ Variety of trace physical evidence 2) Biology unit ○ Biologists and biochemists ○ Identify and perform DNA profiling on dried bloodstains and other body fluids ○ Compare hairs and fibers, and identify and compare botanical materials like wood and plants 3) Firearms unit ○ Examines firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition of all types. ○ Garments and other objects are also looked at to detect firearms discharge residue and to approximate the distance from a target at which a weapon was fired ○ Basic principle of firearms examination are applied by comparison of marks made by tools 4) Document examination unit ○ Studies handwriting and typewriting on questioned documents to ascertain authenticity or source. ○ Paper and ink, indented writings, obliterations, erases, burned or charred documents 5) Photography unit ○ Examines and records physical evidence. ○ May include digital imaging, infrared, ultraviolet X-ray photography, to make invisible information visible to the eye. ○ Prepares photographic exhibits for courtroom presentation Optional Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Laboratories 1) Toxicology unit ○ Examines body fluids and organs to determine the presence or absence of drugs and poisons. ○ Intoxilyzer is used 2) Latent fingerprint unit ○ Processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints when they are submitted in conjunction with other laboratory examinations.  3) Polygraph unit ○ Lie detector. 4) Voiceprint analysis unit ○ Involving telephoned threats or tape-recorded messages, use voiceprint analysis to tie the voice to a suspect. ○ Use of spectrograph transforms speech into voiceprint. 5) Crime-scene investigation unit ○ Incorporating crime-scene evidence collection into the total forensic science service. ○ Specially trained personnel (civilian and/or police) go to the crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence to be used later at crime laboratories. Laboratory administrators need to keep open lines of communication between analysts, crime-scene investigators, and police personnel. Anthrax Letter Includes: ○ Indented writing ○ DNA ○ Cellophane tape ○ Photocopier toner ○ Fingerprints ○ Paper examination ○ Handwriting examination ○ DNA from saliva resides on back of stamp ○ DNA from saliva used to seal envelope ○ Ink analysis ○ Trace evidence, like hairs and fibers Forensic Science Services 1) Forensic Anthropology ○ Concerned with study of ossified remains i) Determine the age, gender, previous medical history, ethnicity of collection of bones (1) Case example: Crawlspace of John Wayne Gacy’s home 2) Forensic Engineering ○ Responsible for the determination of structural failure i) Ask, accidental or intentional?  ii) Who was responsible? (1) Case example: Perhaps in the collapse of a crane in NYC with a construction 3) Forensic Odontology ○ The services of a dentist to work with bite-mark impressions or dental records to link a suspect to a crime ○ Identify victims based on dental evidence as well i) Case Example: comparison of bite marks on female victim in 1978 and comparing it to the denitia of Bundy, successful. 4) Forensic Entomology ○ Use of insects and their feeding/ egg laying habits on mortal remains to determine time of death - how long they have been dead i) Case example: the blowfly (maggot stage) is the first step in the blowfly cycle to allow investigators to know how long an individual has been dead. ii) 24 hours after death the maggots hatch and infest the body. 5) Forensic Pathology ○ The use of medicine for the determination of the cause of death, particularly when an autopsy is required. Any death that is not witnessed usually will require autopsy for the office of the M.E. 6) Forensic Psychiatry ○ Medical specialists who deal with the criminally insane to determine a true psychopathy that warrants the verdict of criminal insanity i) Case example: the determination that John Hinkly as criminally insane to attempt a presidential assassination. Also, the failed determination that Jeffrey Dhamer was NOT insane for his crimes 7) Forensic Toxicology ○ Used ONLY in cases that are violations of criminal law- such as driving under the influence of an intoxicant. Blood test MUST be read by a forensic toxicology i) Case Example: The investigation of the intentional poisoning of Carmela Coppolino. The Functions of the Forensic Scientist Must analyze physical evidence and persuade a jury to accept the conclusions derived from analysis Scientific Method: Scientific derives its integrity from adherence to strict guidelines that ensure careful and systematic collection, organization, and analysis of information: ○ A process that uses strict guidelines to ensure careful and systematic collection, organization, and analysis of information ○ Begins with a hypothesis that must be approved and recognized by other scientists as valid before it becomes suitable as scientific evidence. Determining Admissibility of Evidence Frye v. United States ruled to be admitted as evidence at trial, the questioned procedure, technique, principles must be “generally accepted” ○ Note on books and papers on subjects, etc Daubert v. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals asserted that “general acceptance” or the Frye standard, is not an absolute under this rule. Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence: sets a different standard from ‘general acceptance’ for admissibility of expert testimony ○ Replaced the “Frye Standard” or “General Acceptance” ○ A witness “qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education’ may offer expert testimony on a scientific or technical matter if 1) The testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data 2) The testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods 3) The witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of this case Expert/Scientific Witness: Factual info, completely objective. ○ Knowledge, training, education, skill and experience Court Guidelines: 1) Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested 2) Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication 3) The technique’s potential rate of error 4) Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the technique’s operation  5) Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community The court acknowledged that researchers must devise new scientific tests to solve the special problems that continually arise in the forensic laboratory. In the 1999 decision, Kumho Tire Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael, the Court ruled that the “gatekeeping” role of the trial judge not only applied to scientific testimony, but all expert testimony. Coppolino v. State ○ Exemplifies the flexibility and wide discretion that the Daubert ruling did. ○ Whether the results of a new procedure not widely accepted are inadmissible as evidence. Court reached the conclusion that tests may be new and unique, but they are admissible only if based on scientifically valid principles and techniques Case Study: Dr. Coppolio’s Deadly House Calls Dr. Carl Coppolino ○ An anesthesiologist who killed his wife and William Farber. ○ Suspected of killing his wife for her life insurance of $65,000 Carmela Coppolino ○ Killed by her husband. He convinced the doctor, Juliette Karow, that she died of “coronary occlusion” Mary Gibson ○ Socialite that Coppolino married after his wife died. Marjorie Farber ○ Gave testimony saying that Coppolino helped her kill her husband. William Farber ○ Injected with a syringe and Coppolino finished the job by suffocating him with a pillow. New Jersey ○ Tried for the murder of William Farber, represented by F. Lee Bailey, but in the end he got an acquittal. Florida ○ Dr. Milton Halpern and Dr. Charles Umberger successfully brought him to justice. Dr. Charles Umberger and Dr. Milton Halpern ○ Prove the use of succinylcholine administration.  Drug breaks down into succinic acid and choline which are naturally occuring chemicals in the body. ○ Isolated levels of succinic acid in Carmela’s brain and proved that she received a large dose of the drug before her death. Providing Expert Testimony Expert witness: an individual whom the court determines to possess a particular skill or knowledge in a trade or profession that is not expected of the average layperson and that will aid a court in determining the truth of a matter at trial. ○ Considered if training, education, education is sufficient Courts rely on training and years of experience as a measurement of knowledge and ability of the expert Ordinary or lay witness testifies on events or observations that are from personal knowledge. Most are factual and not biased, nor contain personal opinions of the witness. Expert witnesses can NOT render any view with certainty. Furnishing Training in the Proper Recognition, Collection, and Preservation of Physical Evidence Evidence-collection technicians ○ 24 hour call ○ Trained by laboratory staff to recognize and gather physical evidence ○ Assigned to laboratory full-time ○ Do not need to have a bachelors  FBI Notes Video Composed of 25 different units Over 80 technologies used for fingerprinting? Fact check this. ○ Forensic analysis units doing exams like latent fingerprints, firearms, DNA analysis, trace evidence, chemistry. ○ Responsible for responding to crime scene for the collection and preservation of Evidence ○ Range from PhD level scientists to technicians and lab assistants ○ Lab is one division of 13 that make up the FBI. ○ Provides services to ALL law enforcement, even international law enforcement agencies. ○ Fingerprinting has been largely replaced with the work of Dr. Jefferyes Receives over 600 piece of evidence everyday Origin First impetus occurred in 1928. (Sacco and Vanzetti case) Forensic evidence was used for the first time in court in the form of bullets fired from suspects' guns. Charles Appel: ○ Special agent who attended classes at the nation’s first crime lab run by Goddard in Northwestern University. ○ September 1932: Southern Railroad building was the crime lab for him Ultraviolet light machine to inspect handwriting A machine to examine gun barrels One microscope Only staff was him Lindbergh baby kidnapping, handwriting samples identified Bruno Richard Hauptmann as the author of the ransom notes. Moved into the Justice Department building. 1936: first to test the new polygraph Spectrographic analysis: uses beam of refracted light shown through suspected mixture absorb specific wavelength of chemical makeup, etc (7:00) ○ By identifying invisible handwriting, caught 8 Nazi saboteurs Serology Unit: Chemical tests could determine human blood types The FBI moved to a building in Washington D.C. Firearms/Toolmark Unit (11:08) Look at firearms and ammunition components that could be linked to them Cartridge cases, bullets from bodies, etc perform tests and decide if they come from what gun Narrows down from: How are they manufactured? Based on the barrel, there are grooves in the barrel and it rotates. Explosives Unit (15:20) Basic components of a bomb is energetic material, others to initiate the bomb Most common is improvised explosive devices or IEDS or homemade bombs. MOST dangerous and foreign to them. Crash of Pan Am Flight 103 ○ Lockerbie Scotland, 1988 ○ Largest crime scene in history, 800 square miles ○ Knife like rips at the metal ○ From a cargo container and particular pieces they were able to determine certain pieces of luggage that had the high explosive damage and knew it had to appear from a piece of luggage. ○ They found out who made the other bombs because of an identical timer used to another bomb in Libya, Africa. Latent Fingerprint Unit 1905: William West was arrested and sent away, and his Bertillon measurements was the same as another William West (his twin brother, James West) who had the same measurements, the only thing different was their fingerprints 1924: first fingerprint files ○ 1933: latent prints off crime scene to support criminal matters Latent/hidden fingerprints are often left at a crime scene Public Enemy #1: John Dilliginger: killed outside a movie theater - or was he? ○ Changed his appearance: dipped his fingerprints in acid, had rudimentary plastic surgery ○ The uniqueness can be identified to second and third joints of the finger even though he burned the tips of his finger Techniques to develop latent fingerprints: ○ Three processes, chemical and liquBombids, today there are 80. (23:58) Blood on fingerprints  ○ The unit uses a special chemical process known as amido black Reacts to proteins in the blood, once rinses, the amido black clings to fingerprints and reveals it ○ Searching for proof ____ of World War, another method is found: Valerian Trifa bishop who denied that he was involved in the Iron Guard Did not want any method of damage on the postcard, so they went to another technology, a laser. 41 years after the post card was made 30 watt laser is used ○ Fiber optic, yadda yadda, (26:00) ○ Comes into a fiber optic, has a refracting lense that disperse the laser light across the display table, take the evidence and go through stuff at a higher frequency than the object ○ Valerian was convicted as a result. DNA Unit No two people with the same DNA DNA was first being used in Manchester England and were used for application to rapes and homicides to other violent crimes. Two distinct types of DNA which can be exploited as DNA Nuclear DNA is found in the Nucleus of the cell, like a yolk of an egg. ○ Encodes physical characteristics like eye color and hair color. Two copies of the DNA in cells Mitochondrial DNA is found in the outer layers of the cell, like the egg white of an egg. ○ Found in much higher copy numbers National DNA index system ○ Nationwide network of more than 170 crime labs that are hooked together that share DNA information ○ More than 1.5 million convicted offender profiles in the national DNA index system ○ More than 6,000 cases using this technology Trace Evidence Unit (31:08) Look for hairs, fibers, glass, or soil and are looking at whatever item that they are examining and is foreign to those items.  Take debris that is removed from the clothing and look at it under a microscope and if they are consistent they would be looked under a fluorescent microscopy to see if they flourse the same way, and if it is run under a FTIR. FTIR (32:00) ○ Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer Cutting edge of trace evidence analysis, identifies actual chemical structure of the substance being examined Identifies unknown compounds ○ Determine what subtype of fiber it is. Nylon, tells you if it’s a Nylon 6, or Nylon 66 ○ Usually not enough to seal a conviction ○ 1979: only physical evidence prosecution had with the disappearances in the Atlanta area - Wayne Williams Bodies were found and interrelated through fibers, so it is the same person Wayne Williams - 23 year old local music promoter said he threw garbage to the side, when it was really a body. Hair and fiber evidence against him mounted. Fibers from his vehicle, form the carpet in his house, etc Convicted of murder with life sentence based on fiber evidence Chemistry Unit Crash of United Flight 629 ○ Sodium Carbonate was found on pieces of the wreckage which was residue from a TNT detonation. First case of sabotage in modern history. ○ Five million dollar room has highest tech instruments; most expensive unit Spectrophotometry (measures the absorption of light) Chromatography (uses chromatic instruments; separates the components) Mass Spectrometry Machine known as “time of flight” (mass spectrometer) Allows scientists to look at chemicals and weight with high resolution Can identify compounds and elements not even dreamed of with microscopic accuracy/precision by the item’s atomic weight Identifies them with a “chemical fingerprint” of a chemical down to the hundredths or thousandths place from its atomic weight Impact of 9/11 Lab moved from domestic crime to world-wide terrorism; worked to prevent crime and acts of terrorism  3 units created HMRU (Hazardous Materials Response Unit) One of the busiest units after 9/11; tasked with collecting evidence and recording events (ex. anthrax letters) Equipment heavy unit ○ protective masks, gloves, suits, boots, detection equipment for toxic chemicals ○ Suits have dermal and respiratory protection from levels A (highest level of protection) to D (lowest level of protection) ○ Gloves and “footies” used to fully encapsulate the user Bomb Data Center Provide a database for public safety bomb technicians Bomb defusing robots are used, can’t replace a bomb technician ○ Allows them to operate on bombs from distance without putting technician at risk ○ Robot can use water cannons (also known as disruptors) which are used to put water into the incendiary device to denote the bomb in a controlled environment Water is incompressible, so it's safe to use it around certain devices CFSRU (Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research Unit)/Forensic Science Research Center? Dual mission of fighting crime and terrorism Looks at weaponry and devices (more to add) Side notes: EACH CASE HAS A CRIMINAL VIOLATION THAT REQUIRES A FORENSIC SERVICE. FOR INSTANCE A FORENSIC PATHOLOGY, A SUSPICIOUS DEATH REQUIRES BY LAW FOR THEM TO PERFORM AN AUTOPSY IF YOU ARE DRIVING ON A PUBLIC YEAR YOU MUST CONSENT TO A BLOOD SAMPLE IF THE POLICE ASK FOR IT. THE POLICE APARTMENT WILL DO THE BLOOD DRAW AND HAVE A FORENSIC TOXICOLOGIST ON DUTY TO READ IT. QUESTION: 1) How was the bombing of Pan Am 103 studied and narrowed down to the location of the explosive device and responsible party?  The bombing of Pan Am 103 was studied from a cargo container and with particular pieces they were able to determine certain pieces of luggage that had the high explosive damage (knife like edges on metal and gas washing on metals). They found out who made the other bombs because another bomb expert noticed the thumbnail piece of a timer that he connected to another identical timer which was similar to another undetonated bomb that was used in Africa. With this they identified, Libyan government. CODIS: CODIS - National DNA Index System Codis has a offender index and forensic database Has around 1.5 million offenders on file CODIS attempts to match unidentified forensic evidence from crime scenes with known offenders In the DNA Unit Chapter Two: Crime-Scene Investigation Case - JonBenet Ramsey: Who Did it? Patsy and John are in upper society and John has a billion-dollar corporation. December 26, 1996, Patsy wakes up and goes to her kitchen and finds a two and a half page note saying that her daughter, Jon Benet (6 years old) was kidnapped. ○ Ransom note demand $118,00 Mistakes were made in securing the crime scene: ○ Police conducted a cursory search, but did not find JonBenet. ○ House was not sealed off. ○ John was permitted to leave premises unattended for one and a half hours. ○ John found Jon Benet’s body in the basement, removed a white blanket from her and placed her upstairs. Theories vary: whether the crime as done by an outsider, or someone from the household. Physical Evidence and the Crime Scene Crime laboratories run on physical evidence ○ Any object that can establish that a crime has been committed or can link a crime and its victim or its perpetrator To be effective, it must be recognized at the crime scene. If everything was gathered together, that would limit the laboratory facility.  ○ Collection is performed selectively by the collector’s knowledge of crime labs techniques, capabilities, and limitations. Forensic science BEGINS on a crime scene. If investigators cannot recognize physical evidence or preserve it, it can not be salvageable. Securing and Recording the Crime Scene Evidence at the crime scene MUST be preserved and recorded in its ORIGINAL position as much as possible. ○ Failure to do so properly or record its details accurately can result in the destruction or altering of evidence, hinder the search for the perpetrator by misleading investigators about facts of the incident as well. Secure and Isolate the Crime Scene First priority is to obtain medical assistance for individuals in need and arrest the perpetrator. As soon as possible, extensive efforts are made to exclude unauthorized personnel from the scene. ○ Ropes or barricades along with guards prevent unauthorized access to the area. Individuals who enter the scene have the potential to destroy physical evidence, even if it’s unintentional carelessness. Securing the area and isolating the crime scene are CRITICAL steps in an investigation. ○ Once scene has been secured: lead investigation begins evaluating 1) Determines the boundaries of the scene 2) Establishes the perpetrator’s path of entry and exit 3) Items that come to the investigator’s attention are documented and photographed 4) Proceeds with a walkthrough to gain an overview of situation and to develop a strategy Record the Scene Three methods of for crime-scene recording: ○ Photography, sketches, and notes Ideally, all should be used, but personnel and monetary limitations often prohibit the use of photography at every crime scene. No reason NOT to make sketches and notes at crime-scene. 1) Photography ○ Most important prerequisite for photographing a crime scene is for it to be unaltered.  ○ Objects must not be moved until they have been photographed from all necessary angles (unless there are injured people). ○ If evidence has been removed or moved, it should be noted in the report but not reintroduced. ○ Crime scene should include area in which the crime actually took place and all adjacent areas where important acts occurred immediately before or after commission of crime. ○ Overview photographs of the entire scene and surrounding area, including points of exit and entry MUST be taken from various angles. i) If it is taken indoors, the entire room should be photographed to show each wall area. Rooms adjacent too. ii) If there is a body, photos including body’s position and location relative to the entire scene. ○ Close-up photos depicting injuries and weapons lying near the body are also necessary, after the body is removed, the surface beneath the body is also photographed. ○ Physical evidence are photographed to show position and position relative to entire scene. After these overviews are taken, close-ups are taken to record details of the object and if the size is significant, a ruler or other measuring scale may be inserted near the object and included in the photograph as a point of reference. ○ The Digital Revolution can bring photographic capabilities to the crime scene. i) These images can be stitched together to reveal a three-dimensional panoramic view of the crime scene. Any area of the scene captured digitally can be enhanced and examined in fine detail. ○ Videotaping i) Cost of this decreasing, popularity rising. Should include the entire scene and the immediate surrounding area. Long shots as well as close-ups should be taken in a slow and systematic manner. ii) Preferred to have an investigator narrate the events and scenes being taped hile another does the actual shooting. This technique cannot at this time be used in place of still photography regardless of capturing sounds and sounds of the scene. 2) Sketches ○ Once photos are taken, the scene is sketched by the crime-scene investigator. ○ They may not have the skill or the time to make a polished sketch of the scene but this is not required during the early phase of investigation.  ○ A Rough draft is necessary, containing an accurate depiction of dimensions of the scene and showing the location of all objects having a bearing on the case. i) A sketch, drawn at the crime scene, that contains an accurate depiction of the dimensions of the scene and shows the location of all objects having a bearing on the case ○ Objects are located in the sketch by distance measurements from to fix points, such as the walls of a room. These distances must be accurate and not a guess or estimate. ○ All measurements are made with a tape measure. i) Assign a number or letter to designate an item. ○ A legend/list is placed below the sketch as a key. ○ Sketch should also include a compass heading designating north. ○ Finished sketch: A precise rendering of the crime scene, usually drawn to scale i) Done with care and concern for aesthetic appearance ii) Reflects information contained in rough sketch in order to be admissible evidence in a courtroom iii) Computer-aided drafting (CAD): Standard method for reconstructing crime scenes from rough sketches. (1) Contains predrawn intersections, roadways, buildings, and rooms onto which information can be entered (2) Symbol library (3) Zoom function (4) Allow the user to select scale size so that the final product can be produced for courtroom presentation. 3) Notes ○ Constant activity throughout the processing of the crime scene ○ Detailed written description of the scene with the location of items of physical evidence discovered, by whom, how and by whom it was packaged and marked, and the disposition of the item after it was collected ○ Must be detailed to anticipate this need to refresh peopleś memory after months and even years after a crime has been processed.  ○ Tape-recording is advantageous–taped is faster than written. However, this still has to be transcribed into a written document. Dealing with Physical Evidence Physical evidence must be collected and stored in a way that preserves its integrity for forensic comparison and analysis. Conduct a Systematic Search for Notes For factual, unbiased reconstruction of the crime, the investigator must not overlook any pertinent evidence. Even when suspects are immediately seized, physical evidence still has to be conducted. The investigator in charge assigns the personnel responsible for searching a crime scene. Forensic scientists are usually not needed unless it is a major crime. Considerations ○ How a crime is conducted depends on the locale and size of the area, the actions of the suspect(s) and victim(s) at the scene. If possible, a person to supervise and coordinate is preferable in order to not cause confusion. ○ Areas searched must include all probable points of entry and exit used by the criminals. ○ What to search for determines by the circumstances In a homicide case, the search will center on weapons and any type of evidence left as a result of contact between the victim and assailant. Cross-transfer of evidence, like hairs, fibers, and blood, is also particularly useful for linking suspects and for corroborating events. ○ Vehicle searches must be carefully planned and systemically carried out. Nature of case determines how detailed the search must be Hit-and-run cases would have the outside and undercarriage of the car examined. Particular attention is paid towards cross-transfer of evidence between car and victim- including blood tissue, hair, fibers, and fabric impressions Collect Physical Evidence Can be from massive objects to microscopic traces. ○ Some are obvious, others detected only through examination in a crime laboratory.  For example, minute traces of blood on garments only after a thorough search in a laboratory For this reason, it is important to collect possible carriers of trace evidence in addition to more discernible items. ○ May be necessary to take all the clothing worn by the participants in a crime Must be handled carefully and wrapped separately to avoid loss of trace materials Critical areas should be vacuumed and sweepings submitted to the laboratory for analysis. ○ Sweeping for different areas must be collected and packaged separately. A portable vacuum cleaner has a special filter attachment suitable for this purpose. The search for physical evidence goes beyond the crimson to the autopsy room of a deceased victim. Medical coroner or examiner carefully examines the victim to establish cause and death. These are things that should be collected and sent to a forensic laboratory 1) Victim’s clothing 2) FIngernail scrapings 3) Head and pubic hairs 4) Blood (for DNA typing) 5) Vaginal, anal, and oral swabs (in sex-related crimes) 6) Recovered bullets from the body 7) Hand swabs from shooting victims (for gunshot residue analysis) Once the body is buried, efforts at obtaining items may be difficult or futile to obtain. “Mobile crime laboratories” or crime-scene search vehicles are being purchased more for their evidence technicians. These vehicles carry the necessary supplies to protect the crime scene; photograph, collect, and package physical evidence, and develop latent prints. They do NOT do functions of a chemical laboratory. Procedures for Collecting and Packaging Physical Evidence ○ Must be handled in a way that prevents any change from taking place between the time it is removed from the crime scene and the time it is received by the laboratory ○ Changes can arise through contamination, breakage, evaporation, accidental scratching or bending, or loss through improper or careless packaging. ○ Integrity of evidence is maintained when the item is kept in its original condition as found at the crime scene.  Blood, hairs, fibers, soil particles, and other types of trace evidence should not normally be removed from garments, weapons, or other articles, but the ENTIRE object should be sent to the laboratory for processing (53) Each different item or similar items collected at different locations must be placed in separate containers. Packaging evidence separately prevents damage through contact and prevents cross-contamination. Tools for Evidence Collection ○ The evidence collector arrives at the crime scene with a lot of packaging materials and tools. ○ Forceps and similar tools to pick up small items. ○ Unbreakable plastic pill bottles with pressure lids are good containers for hairs, glass, fibers, and various other kinds of small or trace evidence. ○ Manila envelopes, screw-cap glass vials or cardboard pill boxes are good for most trace evidence at crime sites. ○ Small amounts of trace evidence can also be packaged in carefully folded paper, using a “druggist fold”. Folding one end of the paper over one-third, then folding the other end (one-third) over that, and repeating the prowess from the other two sides. After the paper is folded in this manner, the outside to edges are tucked into each other to produce a closed container. ○ If bloodstained materials are stored in airtight containers, the accumulation of moisture may encourage mold which can destroy the evidential value of blood. Wrapping paper, manila envelopes, or paper bags are recommended packaging materials ○ All items of clothing must be air-dried and placid in separate paper bags to ensure constant circulation of air through them. ○ Charred debris recovered from suspicious fire must be sealed in an airtight container to prevent the evaporation of volatile petroleum residues. Maintain the Chain of Custody Chain of custody: continuity of possession, a list of all people who came into possession of an item of evidence. ○ Failure to substantiate the evidenceś chain of custody may lead to serious questions about the authenticity and integrity of evidence and its examinations.  ○ Adhere to standard procedures in recording the location of evidence, marking it for identification, and properly completing evidence submission forms for laboratory analysis ensure the best outcomes! All items of physical evidence should be carefully packaged and marked upon their retrieval at crime sites. Evidence itself should be marked for identification Normally, colletorś initials and date of collection are inscribed directly on the article, but if the collector is unsure of the necessity of marking the item, or has doubts as to where, it is better to omit this step and tag it for identification. Once an evidence container is selected, it also must be marked for identification. ○ Minimum record would show collectorś initials, location of the evidence, and date of collection If evidence is transferred it must be recorded in notes and other appropriate forms. ○ Everyone who had possession must maintain a written record of its acquisition and disposition. ○ Frequently, those involved in the collection and transportation of the evidence may be request to testify in court. Obtain Standard/Reference Samples The examination of evidence, whether soil, blood, glass, hair, fibers, and so on, often requires comparison with a standard/reference sample. ○ Standard/reference sample: Physical evidence whose origin is known, such as blood or hair from a suspect, that can be compared to crime-scene evidence The presence of standard/reference samples greatly facilitates the work of the forensic scientist as well ○ For example, hair found at a crime scene will be of value only when compared to standard/reference hairs removed from the suspect and victim. ○ Similar to bloodstained evidence, which MUSt be accompanied by a whole-blood or buccal swab standard/reference sample obtained from all relevant crime-scene participants. Buccal swab: A swab of the inner portion of the cheek, performed to collect cells for use in determining the DNA profile of an individual ○ With better quality of these specimens it often determines the evidential value of crime-scene evidence. Some types of evidence must also be accompanied by the collection of: Substrate controls: Uncontaminated surface material close to an area where physical evidence has been deposited;  used to ensure that the surface on which a sample has been deposited does not interfere with laboratory tests Submit Evidence to the Laboratory Evidence is usually submitted to the laboratory either by personal delivery or mail shipment ○ Determined by distance the submitting agency must travel to the laboratory and urgency of the case. ○ If it is delivered personally, the deliverer should be familiar with the case to facilitate any discussions between laboratory personnel and the deliverer concerning specific aspects of the case ○ Most evidence can be shipped by mail if desired. ○ Restrictions: certain chemicals and live ammunition and the mailing of explosives ○ Most places require an evidence submission form. Information provided will enable the laboratory analyst to make an intelligent and complete examination of the evidence. The Murder Scene: Death and Autopsies Most important piece of evidence at a crime scene is the dead body of a victim. When foul play is suspected, a cictimś corpse is subjected to the same intense physical analysis as any other piece of evidence. ○ This task falls on a forensic pathologist often aided by forensic anthropologists and entomologists. Role of the Forensic Pathologist They answer questions: ○ Who is the victim ○ What injuries are present ○ When did the injuries occur ○ Why and how were the injuries produced Primary role is to determine the cause of death. If it cannot be found through observation, an autopsy is performed. ○ Autopsy: the medical dissection and examination of a body in order to determine the cause of death Five categories of death: natural, homicide, suicide, accident, or undetermined based on the circumstances surrounding the incident. Typically perform autopsies if death is deemed suspicious or unexplained. Estimating Time of Death The body goes through several stages of decomposition: ○ Rigor mortis: a medical condition that occurs after death and results in the stiffening of muscle mass; the rigidity of the body begins in 24 hours of death and disappears within 36 hours of death ○ Livor mortis: a medical condition that occurs after death and results in the settling of blood in areas of the body closest to the ground ○ Algor mortis: A process that occurs after death in which the body temperature continually cools until it reaches the ambient or room temperature Another approach to estimate time of death is to determine potassium levels in the ocular fluid (fluid within the yee, also known as vitreous humor). ○ By analyzing the amount of potassium present at various intervals after death, the forensic pathologist can determine the rate at which potassium is released into the vitreous humor and use it to approximate the time of death Forensic Anthropology: Skeletal Detectives Concerned with identification and examination of human skeletal remains. ○ Because of their resistance to rapid decomposition, skeletal remains can provide a multitude of individual characteristics. An examination of bones may reveal their sex, approximate age, race, and skeletal injury This area of expertise is not limited to identification, but may also help create facial reconstructions to identity skeletal remains Case Study: Identifying a Serial Killerś Victims John Wayne Gacy, after admitting his guilt to the police, showed them the crawl space in his house which had twenty-eight young men. ○ No identification found in the bodies, the police were forced to examine missing person reports for leads. Clyde Snow, a forensic anthropologist, made a thirty-five-point examination of each skull for comparison to known individuals. He made sure each bone as correctly attributed to an individual ○ He used long bones to estimate each individual’s height. ○ After narrowing possibilities, investigators consulted potential victimś hospital and dental records.  Evidence of injury, illness, surgery, or other unique skeletal defects were used to make identifications. For example, one of Gacyś victims had an old fracture of his left arm, and shoulder blade, and arm or the telltale signs of a left-handed individual. Forensic Entomology: Testimony from Insects Study of insects and their relation to a criminal investigation Used to estimate time of death hen circumstances surrounding the crime are unknown Insects such as blowflies are the first to infest the body after decomposition begins Eventually, eggs are laid and it consume human organs and tissues Forensic entomologists can identify the specific insects present in the body and approximate how long a body has been left exposed by examining the stage of development of the fly larvae ○ Time required for stage develop is affected by geographical location, climate, and weather conditions IN CLASS NOTES 10/25/23 Important Evidence Containers Pill box ○ should be used for all small, trace evidence which is found at sea ○ Do not use to prevent evaporation Would not use for a small wood chip with petroleum jelly residue Mailing envelope ○ NEVER used Manilla envelope ○ Okay for most envelope evidence: expect - evaporation prevention, blood, separate clothing articles Sealed paint can ○ Great for arson evidence Screw-cap glass jar: Brown paper bag ○ Great for blood evidence, blood-soaked evidence and single articles of clothing Druggist fold ○ For all powder residue and trace evidence - secure Sealed plastic bag ○ Good for evidence (except - trace evidence and the (3) exceptions )  Manilla envelopes, pillboxes, or sealable plastic bags are good universal containers for most trace evidence, there are two special exceptions. ○ Clothing All must be air dried and placed individually in separate paper pages ○ Blood soaked evidence Wrapping paper, manila envelopes, or paper bags are recommended ○ Charred Debris Sealed in airtight container to prevent evaporation of petroleum residue Continuity of possession/chain of custody The investigator MUST leave their initials and date of collection Dr. Gray Says: ○ Initials of investigation ○ Date of collection ○ Where evidence as found Types of Biological Evidence Collected 1) Victims clothing 2) Fingernail scrapings a) Help collect DNA 3) Blood a) (for DNA typing) 4) Anal, oral, vaginal swabs (sexual assault) 5) Sabs of victim’s palm (hand) for detection of gun residue 6) Hair/scalp samples for gun residue 7) Buccal swab a) Swab of inner portion of the cheek, performed to collect cells for use in determining the DNA profile of an individual FBI CRIME LAB: FIREARM AND TOOL MARK UNIT Types of Death 1) Sucide a) Done by their own attempt/will 2) Homicide  a) 3) Accidental a) 4) Natural a) Stroke, cardiovascular events 5) Undetermined/UnClassified a) Someone found in the field, no marks in the field, their blood is clean, no idea what happened b) No drugs, no alcohol Called Forensic Pathology - Type of activity caused is criminal and breaks the civil law, not just a toxicologist but must be a forensic toxicologist. - If someone drives drunk - Two locations of work: office of the medical examiners or in a crime lab 3 Physical Signs of death - Rigor mortis - stiffness of the body (peak 24-36 hours) - Livor mortis - purple (black) discoloration of the skin due to the settling of blood by gravity - Algor mortis - drop in body temperature of 1-1.5 F/h - 98.6F - Coroner is a local elected official ho is in charge of certifying the death - 1-1.5 F per hour ASK ALINA FOR HER NOTES Trace QUESTIONS IN CLASS/QUIZ 1. What is the name of the search method with a double line? a. Strip or line search b. Spiral-search method 2. If the motive and suspect is known for a crime, no evidence search is necessary. a. FALSE Can show negligence and/or cover up 3. What unit's official name of the FBI crime lab has a revolver from Pre? Boy? Floyd? a. Firearms and Toolmarks Unit 4. What are the three things of the upper left corner of the a. Date of Crime b. Time of Crime c. Address of Crime d. Type of Crime e. Case Number 5. What forensic science service is most closely associated with the investigation of the evidence of the case against Carl Coppolino a. Forensic Toxicology 6. What step involves the police officer on duty at the crime scene? a. Step five b. Step 7 preliminary walk through c. Step 8 exit and entry of perpetrator d. Step 9 is rulers and marks etc 7. What was the official name of the toxin that caused the death of Carmela Coppolino? a. Succinylcholine chloride 8. How many units are in a full-service crime lab? a. Ten units are in a full-service crime lab 9. How did Dr. Clyde Snow determines the age of the victims of the Gacy crime-scene. a. He made a thirty-five-point examination of each skull for comparison to known individuals. He made sure each bone as correctly attributed to an individual He used long bones to estimate each individualś height. After narrowing possibilities, investigators consulted potential victimś hospital and dental records. Evidence of injury, illness, surgery, or other unique skeletal defects were used to make identifications. For example, one of Gacyś victims had an old fracture of his left arm, and shoulder blade, and arm or the telltale signs of a left-handed individual.  He measured the lengths of the femur 10. Name one forensic pioneer involved with personal identification measures? a. Sir Alec Jeffreys b. Alphonse Bertillion c. Francis Henry Galton 1) Blood, semen, and saliva 2) Documents 3) Drugs 4) Explosives 5) Fibers 6) Fingerprints 7) Firearms and ammunition 8) Glass 9) Hair 10) Impressions 11) Organs and physiological fluids 12) Paint 13) Petroleum products 14) Plastic bags 15) Plastic, rubber, and other polymers 16) Powder residues 17) Serial numbers 18) Soil and minerals 19) Tool marks 20) Vehicle lights 21) Wood and other vegetative matter