Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology PDF

**FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND** **TOXICOLOGY** INTRODUCTION ============ 1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation 2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal proceeding. 3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in...

**FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND** **TOXICOLOGY** INTRODUCTION ============ 1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation 2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal proceeding. 3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings. 4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably Legal Medicine, Ballistics, Questioned Documents, Dactyloscopy, and Photography. a. Determining whether or not a place / location is a clandestine laboratory b. Examination of marked bills / suspects during entrapment (extortion case) c. Taking Paraffin Cast FOUR STAGES OF WORK OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST ========================================= 1. Collection or reception of the specimen/evidence for laboratory Examination a. sufficiency of sample b. standard for comparison c. maintenance of individuality d. labeling and scaling 2. The actual examination of specimen 3. Communication of the result of examination 4. Court Apparatus 1. Improper packing of specimen 2. Improper preservation 3. Failure of identification of specimen 4. Improper precaution used in transmitting the specimen 5. Lack of precaution to prevent tampering of the specimen a. PROOF -- refers to the degree of kind of evidence, which will produce full conviction or establish the proposition to the satisfaction of the court. b. Evidence -- is the reclusion of proof. THREE MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE ====================================== 1. **Direct Evidence** -- evidence which directly establishes the main fact of an issue. It is simply that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted. 2. **Indirect/ Circumstantial Evidence** -- one which tend to establish a fact by proving another fact. A kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences from proved facts. An evidence which establishes a fact or circumstances from which the court may infer another fact at issue 3. **Real Evidence --** comprises tangible objects introduced at a trial to prove or disprove a fact in issue. The evidence speaks for itself. It requires no explanation, merely identification. FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE ============================ 1. **Real or Autoptic Evidence --** is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It is not limited to that which can be known by the senses of vision but extends to those which are perceived by the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch 2. **Testimonial Evidence --** an expert witness may be called upon and placed on the witness stand and answers all questions to be propounded by both parties in the case. It is a solemn declaration made orally by a witness under oath in response to the interrogation by a lawyer. It is the declaration of truth of facts by an expert. 3. **Experimental Evidence --** an evidence required of an expert witness to prove a certain matter of fact through certain experiments. An expert witness may be required to perform certain experiments to prove a certain matter of fact. The court, however, in its own discretion may or may not allow this kind of evidence. 4. **Documentary Evidence --** any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of Court. 1. **Ordinary Witness -** State facts and may not express his opinions or conclusions. He may testify to impressions of common experiments such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that of a man, woman or child. 2. **Expert Witness -** One who possess a special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who has special knowledge in waters not generally known to men or ordinary education and experiments. A person skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not within the common knowledge of man. 3. **Eye Witness -** Person who saw the fatal act. 1. He must have the organ and powder to perceive. 2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others. 3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for Sec. 26, Rule 123, Rules of Court. 1. An ordinary witness can only state what is senses has perceived while an expert witness may state what he has perceived and also give his opinions, deduction or conclusion to his perception. 2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he his testifying while an expert witness be skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying. 3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived except those provided for any law while an expert witness must testify on things which he has seen giving his opinions, deductions or conclusion on the statements of facts. SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY ====================================================== 1. Go Slowly 2. Be thorough 3. Take note 4. Consult others 5. Use imagination 6. Avoid complicated theories **PRIMARY REASON WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE DISASTER OF** EVIDENCE/SPECIMEN ================= 1. 2. 3. 4. BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS ====================== COMPOSITION OF BLOOD ==================== 1. **(45%) formed elements or the solid materials** consisting chiefly of cells namely: a. **Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES)** -- contains hemoglobin and carry oxygen to various cells in the body. Circular, biconcave discs of rounded edges. There are around 4 -- 5 million of red cell per cc. of blood. b. **White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)** -- are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It defends the body from invading microorganisms. Help fight infection. c. **Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)** -- cells that are produced by the bone marrow and are necessary for proper clothing of blood. Normally responsible for the retraction of blood cloth. 2. **(55%) PLASMA** -- The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. d. Water - - - - - 90% e. Solid - - - - - 10% (largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulin's and fibrinogen. "In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood grouping, our discussion will concentrate on the RBC and blood serum. Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like the plasma." 1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime. 2. As evidence in case of disputed percentage 3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived the attack. 4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant 5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood 6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed. 1. **Where Has to be Searched For** 2. **Collection, Preservation, Packing and Transportation of Specimen Suspected to Contain Blood.** 1. Victims of crimes of violence 2. Parent and child in case of disputed parentage. 1. Smooth surface like walls, finished floors, table tops 2. Hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars 3. Glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles 4. Bulky objects like blackboard, linoleum sheets, doors, window frames 5. Clothing 6. Blood absorbed by the soil 3. **Does the Stain Contains Blood or another Substance?** 1. **Preliminary Test --** Determines whether the stain contains blood or another substance. Determines whether visible stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of blood. 2. **Confirmatory Test --** Determines whether bloodstain really contains blood. Test that positively identifies blood. 3. **Precipitin Test --** Determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin, and if non-human, the specific animal family from which it originated. 4. **Blood Grouping Test --** Determines the blood group of humans 1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test 2. Phenolphthalein Test (also known as "Kastle -- Meyer Test") 3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day's or Schonbein's Test) 4. Leucomalachite Green Test 5. Luminol Test **1. BENZIDINE TEST** **2. PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST** 3. **GUAIACUM TEST** 4. **LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST:** Not as sensitive as the benzidine test PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY TESTS FOR BLOOD ========================================================== The peroxidase presents in hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored compounds by **OXIDATION**. **Positive Result of the Test --** Luminescence or emission of light. THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD =============================== The Three Confirmatory Tests for Blood (Or the Three Test to Determine If Stain Is Really Blood) ================================================================================================ 1. Microscopic Test 2. Microchemical Test or Microcrystalline Test 3. Spectroscope Test 1. **MICROSCOPIC TEST** - BIRDS, FISH AND REPTILES RED BLOOD CELLS -- larger, oval and nucleated - AMPHIBIANS -- animal living on land breeding in water. Red blood cells are larger than mammals, oval and nucleated. - LAMPREY EEL RED BLOOD CELLS -- circular and nucleated 2. **MICROCHEMICAL TEST OR MOCROCRYSTALLINE TEST:** A. **Teichmann Haemin Reaction/Teichman Test/Haemin Crystal Test** - **Reagent:** Sodium Chloride, glacial acetic acid - **Procedure:** Place minute fragment of the stain on a glass slide. Add a small crystal of sodium chloride and 2 to 3 drops of acetic acid. Place cover slip and heat gently cover a small flame to evaporate the acid. Cool. Examine under the high-power objective. - **Positive result --** dark brown rhombic crystals of haemin or haematin chloride arranged singly or in cluster. - **Limitation of the Test --** The test is also given by indigo -- dyed fabrics. If the stain is old or washed or is changed by chemical reagents, the crystals are not formed. The addition of too much salt or presence of moisture in the acid or over-heating of the slide may result in failure. B. **Haemochromogen Crystal Test or Takayama Test** - **Reagent:** Takayama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of saturated glucose solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water. - **Procedure:** Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add 2 -- 3 drops of Takayama reagent. Cover with glass slip. - **Positive Results:** Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in clusters, sheaves and other forms that appear within to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power objectives. To hasten result heat maybe applied. C. **Acetone-Haemin Test** - **Reagent:** Acetone, dilute acetic acid or oxalic acid - **Procedure:** Place dried stain on a glass slide and cover with cover slip with a needle interposed to prevent direct contact of the cover slip with the slide. Add a drop of acetone than a drop of acetic acid. - **Positive Result:** Small dark, diachronic acicular crystals of acetone haemin. 3. **SPECTROSCOPIC TEST FOR BLOOD** PRECIPITIN TEST =============== - **Reagent:** Precipitin/antiserum - **Procedure:** Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and exact with saline solution. If the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test tube and add extract with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube. - **Positive Result:** A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the fluid that appears immediately or within one or two minutes. - **Limitation of Precipitin Test:** The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids. BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD ================================== 1. Group "O" 2. Group "A" 3. Group "B" 4. Group "AB" These are properties or "principles" contained in the serum which cause **ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINOGEN PRESENT IN THE RBC** **ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTINIES PRESENT IN THE SERUM** ---- --------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- A A Anti -- B B B Anti -- A AB A and B neither Anti -- A nor Anti -- B O Anti -- A and Anti -- B IIDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD GROUP WITH KNOWN ANTI -- SERUM ======================================================= +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **ANTI -- A | **-** | **ANTIGEN | | | SERUM** | | PRESENT** | | | | | | | | **+** | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | **+** | **-** | A | A | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **-** | **+** | B | B | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **+** | **+** | A and B | AB | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **-** | **-** | neither A and B | O | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ (+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC (−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RBC THE TEN DIFFERENT MATINGS POSSIBLE BETWEEN THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS ================================================================ **GROUP OF CHILDREN** -------- ------------- ----------------------- ------------------ **Possible** **Not Possible** **1** **O x O** O A, B, AB **2** **A x O** A, O B, AB **3** **A x A** A, O B, AB **4** **B x O** B, O A, AB **5** **B x B** B, O A, AB **6** **A x B** O, A, B, AB None **7** **AB x O** A, B O, AB **8** **AB x A** A, B, AB O **9** **AB x B** A, B, AB O **10** **AB x AB** A, B, AB O 1. **GENES -** Any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which hereditary characters are transmitted. Responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics. They occur in pair. There are two genes or factors called gene A and gene B. these are found in the chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in pair, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these genes. An individual's called genotypes, where O represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the A or B gene. 2. **PHENOTYPES -** Term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristic as found in the individual. Actually the blood groups 3. **GENOTYPES -** Are paired genes. It is either homozygous or heterozygous THE BLOOD TYPING (M-N SYSTEM) OF BLOOD ====================================== 1. Type M 2. Type N 3. Type MN IMPORTANT APPLICATION OF BLOOD GROUP DATA ========================================= 1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or could not be its parent. 2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been fathered by her legal spouse. 3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the case of accidental interchange of infants in a hospital. 4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval could or could not belong to a given set of parents. SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS ======================== 1. **Seminal Fluid --** has the characteristic alkaline odor, it is viscid, gelatinous and sticky. Becomes more liquid in character when exposed to air for one and a half hour due probably to enzyme reaction. Slightly alkaline in reaction 2. **Formed Elements Cellular** a. b. c. - to 3.5 cc is the normal quantity of seminal fluid in single ejaculation - 400 to 500 million is the total number of spermatozoa contained in a single ejaculation CASES WHEREIN EJACULATION HAS NO SPERMATOZOA ============================================ 1. **Aspermia --** A condition wherein males have no spermatozoa at all in their seminal 2. **Oligospermia --** a condition whereby males have abnormally low sperm counts or with few spermatozoa LOCATION OF SEMEN AND SEMEN STAIN AS EVIDENCE ============================================= 1. AS FRESH a. b. 2. AS WET OR DRIED CONDITION a. b. 3. AS DRY STAINS a. underclothing b. bed clothing 1. Seizure of apparel must be done as soon as possible. 2. In packaging of wearing apparel there should be no friction between the apparel and the stain. 3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit. 4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked. 5. Specimen should be thoroughly dried before packing. 6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It may be preserved by a few drops of 10% solution of formalin during hot weather 1. Physical Examination 2. Chemical Examination a. Florence Test b. Barberio's Test c. Acid-phosphates Test 3. Microscopic Examination 4. Biological Examination 1. Transfers a drop of specimen to a glass slide. 2. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip 3. Examine under the microscope 4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa 1. Nature of fabric 2. Age of stain 3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory 4. Handling of the specimen OTHER STAINS OF MEDICO -- LEGAL INTERESTS ========================================= 1. Obstetrical and gynecological stains 2. Excrements Infant -- greenish yellow 3. Paint Stains 4. Rust Stains - Rust - reddish - brown in color, insoluble in water and soluble in dilute acid. Resembles blood stains. 5. Synthetic Dyes -- resembles old bloodstains but can be recognized by treating with strong acids and alkalis. 6. Mineral Stains -- these are due to red paints containing oxides of iron 7. Stains of vegetable Origin -- stains resembling blood may be produces by fruit juices like mulberry, mangosteen. GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES =============================== 1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands within pertinent period of time 2. Determination of the probable gunshot range, the distance of the firearm that was held from the body of the victim at the time of discharge. 3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the approximate date of last discharge. 1. **Black powder** -- which is consist of or made of 15% of C, 10% of S and 75% of KNO~3~ or NaNO~3~. When black powder explodes 2. **Smokeless powder** -- which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate combined with cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers. When exploded the following reaction occurs: POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN BLACKPOWDER AND SMOKELESS POWDER EXPLODE ============================================================================ 1. Residue of the barrel of the gun. 2. In or around the wound 3. On the clothing of the fired upon at close range 4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun 1. **Paraffin test** -- Test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in the skin. 2. **Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test** -- test that determines the presence and location of nitrate chemical needed diphenylamine reagent. Procedure to be taken up in the laboratory V.S. blue specks if nitrates are present. 1. Time of reaction 2. Number of blue specks 3. Location of specks 4. Character of specks 1. Use of automatic pistol 2. Direction of wind 3. Wind velocity 4. Excessive perspiration 5. Use of gloves 6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates 1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the barrel of the gun being fired by another person. 2. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand in some instances result in the implanting of powder particles on the hands of a person close to one firing a gun. **HOW TO DETERMINE THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE?** The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residues, singeing, burning, smudging and powder tattooing. DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE TIME THE GUN HAS BEEN FIRED ========================================================= In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last discharge we need the specimen firearm in the examination. The barrel is swabbed with cotton and the residues examined under the microscope. 1. **Soot --** a black substance that is formed by combustion, rises in fine particles and adheres to the side of the barrel conveying the smoke 2. **Metallic Fragment** 3. **Rust -** Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good indication of the determination of the approximate time the gun has been fired. - If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun. - If a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust. 4. **NITRITE** -- Presence of nitrate (NO~2~) is determined by addition of diphenylamine (DPA) reagent. If the color becomes blue nitrates are present, and we may say that the firearm could have been fired recently. 5. **NITRATES** -- Presence of nitrates (NO~3~) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color turned yellow green, nitrates are present, and we may say that the firearms could have been fired but not recently. FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE ================================================================ 1. Length of the barrel of the gun 2. Type and cal. of ammunition 3. Wind velocity 4. Direction of firing 5. Distance of firing 6. Nature of firing 7. Humidity EXPLOSIVES ========== 1. 2. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ======================================================================= A. INORGANIC COMPOUND Examples: Lead azide (Pb(N~3~)~2~; ammonium nitrate (NH~4~NO~3~) B. ORGANIC COMPOUND C. MIXTURE OF OXIDIZABLE MATERIALS AND OXIDIZING AGENTS THAT ARE NOT EXPLOSIVES SEPARATELY Examples: Blackpowder -- possibly the oldest explosive. Used CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING CHARACTERISTICS ======================================================================== 1. **PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES --** Are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion that burn but do not explode and function by producing gas that produces explosion. 2. **PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS --** Explode or detonate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn. Sometimes they do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials themselves explode and the explosion results whether they are confined or not. Examples: Mercury fulminate, lead azide 3. **HIGH EXPLOSIVES --** Explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of primary explosive. They do not function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat or by their own combustion, they sometimes explode. HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS ======================= TWO KINDS OF HAIR (AMONG MAMMALS INCLUDING HUMAN BEING) ======================================================= 1. Real hair (generally a long and stiff) 2. Fuzz hair (generally short, fine at times curly and wooly) 1. Roots (portion embedded in the skin) 2. Shaft (portion above the surface of the skin). The most DISTINCTIVE part of the hair. 3. Tip (sometimes termed point). The distal end of an uncut hair. 1. **Cuticle** -- outermost covering of the hair. It is consisting of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal cells, which overlaps like the scales on a fish. 2. **Cortex** -- the intermediate and the THICKEST layer of the hair and is composed of elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in varying proportion depending on the type of hair. 3. **Medulla or Core** -- the most characteristics portion of the hair. It is the central canal of the hair that maybe empty or may contain various sorts of cells more or less pigmented and begins more and less near the root. **Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore, hair can be classified into two categories namely:** 1. 2. HUMAN HAIR (MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR) ================================================== 1. **Color** a. b. 2. **Length by actual measurement** 3. **Character of hair** (whether stiff, wiry or soft) 4. **Width (breadth)** 5. **Character of hair tip if present --** tip of the hair may show whether a hair has been cut. Tips of body hairs become rounded from rubbing against the cloths. Hair of a woman usually shows a fine tip in apt to be cutoff square. 6. **Manner by which hair had been cut** 7. **Condition of root or base or bulb of hair** TWO KINDS OF ROOTS ================== 1. 2. 8. **Character of cuticle** -- the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scale 9. **Character of cortex** -- structural features are studied under the microscope. Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with color. It is the color, shape and distribution of these granules. They provide the chemist with important points of comparison between the hairs of the different individuals. 10. **Presence Of Dye In Hair -** Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural hair is not and the individual pigment granules stand more sharply. 11. **Determination of Whether Naturally or Artificially Curled** 12. **Character of medulla** The diameter of the medulla is very little importance but the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair his of great importance. 1. HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) -- belongs to human 2. HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) -- belongs to hair of cow, horse, others. 3. HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) -- almost all animals belong COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR ======================================== **HUMAN ANIMAL** 1. M.I. is less than 0.5 1. M.I more than 0.5 2. Medulla may not be present 2. Medulla always present 3. Scale pattern is fine and each 3. Scale is coarse and overlaps one overlaps the other more less than ½ than 4/5 4. Pigment granules are fine 4. Pigment granules are coarse OTHER ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION ================================= 1. Characteristic by race 2. Characteristic by sex 3. The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed 4. The approximate age of individuals 1. Contains heavy pigment distributed unevenly 2. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape 3. Hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the diameter along the shaft **MONGOLOID RACE:** 1. Hair contains dense pigment distributed more or evenly the Negroid race hair 2. Cross section of the hair will around to oval in shape 3. Hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the hair 4. Usually contains a heavy black medulla or core. 1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment, and more evenly distributed than is found in Negro or Mongolian. 2. Cross section will be oval to around in shape 3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky CHARACTERISTICS BY SEX ====================== 1. Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in texture than that of a female 2. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of an inch in diameter, female hair averages approximately 1 / 450 of an inch in diameter. 1. **Scalp hair** -- they are more mature than any other kind of human hair 2. **Beard Hair** -- coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in cross section 3. **Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear** -- short, stubby, and have wide medulla. Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip. 4. **Trunk hair** -- vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to head hairs. They have fine, long tip ends. 5. **Limb hair** -- similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually contain less pigment. 6. **Auxiliary Hair** -- is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and structure. Looks like pubic hair but the ends are shaper and the hair is not so curly. 7. **Pubic hair** -- similar to auxiliary hair but are coarser, and do not appear bleached. More wiry and have more constriction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla. Have many broken ends the clotting rubs. from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration **TEXTILE FIBERS** 1. Natural fiber 2. Synthetic or artificial fiber 1. Vegetable fibers -- made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed. Stem barks or bast fibers, leaf fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or nut fibers. 2. Animal fibers -- made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair. 3. Mineral fiber -- example is asbestos 1. Organic Fiber a. Cellulosic -- example of this is rayon b. Non-cellulosic -- examples are nylon, casein fiber, and resin 2. Inorganic Fiber c. Mineral fiber -- examples are glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag wools d. Metallic fiber -- examples are fine wire filament, steel wool, tinsel threads. 1. Burning test or ignition test 2. Fluorescence test 3. Microscopic test 4. Chemical test a. staining test b. dissolution test a. Manner of burning b. Odor of fumes c. Appearance of burnt end d. Color of ash e. Action of fumes on moisten red and blue litmus paper f. Effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TEXTILE FIBERS ======================================== 1. **Cotton** -- unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis; central canal is uniform in diameter. Cell wall thick, covered by a thick, structure less, waxy cuticle. Fibers taper gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end. 2. **Mercerized Cotton** -- straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly lustrous, smooth except for occasional transverse fold or wrinkles; cuticle mostly lacking. 3. **Linen** -- multi-cellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a sharp point. Cell walls thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber to appear jointed resembling bamboo. 4. **Cultivated Silk** -- smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin filament held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite structure. 5. **Wild Silk** -- similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross markings. 6. **Artificial Silk** -- cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod. 7. **Wool** -- easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal scales not found on silk or any of the vegetable fibers. A. **Staining Test** -- the fiber is stained with picric acid, Million's reagent, stannic chloride or iodine solution. B. **Dissolution Test** -- if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute potassium hydroxide. The fiber is then treated with the following and reaction observed. 1. 10% NaOH 2. 5% oxalic acid 3. Half saturated oxalic acid 4. Concentrated sulfuric acid 5. Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide 6. Concentrated nitric acid CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION ======================================== PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF EVIDENCE/DOCUMENTS ============================================================== 1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible. 2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old lines. Place it in a Manila paper envelope or brown envelope or it can be placed in a transparent plastic envelope. 3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane white paper in folder. 4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could possibly mark them. THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS ======================================= 1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source. 2. Determine of probable age of paper. 3. Determination of the composition of paper. 1. Fiber Composition 2. Sizing Material -- to improve quality of paper 3. Loading Material -- to add weight to the paper COMPOSITION OF PAPER ==================== 1. **Fiber Composition**: practically all papers maybe classified form the standpoint of their basic fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely: a. Mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite mixture. b. Soda-sulfite mixture c. Rag sulfite 2. **Sizing Material --** added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials are rosin, casein, gelatin, starch. 3. **Loading Material** -- added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the fibers of the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate. SUBSTANCES USED FOR WRITING =========================== 1. **Egyptian Papyrus** -- one of the earliest substances used for writing. It is form the name papyrus, that the word paper was derived. 2. After the papyrus came parchment and velum 3. Then, Linen Rag 4. Followed by mixture of Linen and cotton or cotton only 5. Paper made from variety of fibrous materials which started about the middle of the 19^th^ century. a. 1800 -- straw was first used b. Between 1845 and 1880 -- from soda wood pulp c. Between 1880 and 1890 -- from sulfite wood pulp 6. **Present --** a thin sheet of matted or felted vegetable fiber (usually from wood pulp) which filters as clay and sizing material as rosin or starch. THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER ======================== 1. Preliminary Examination 2. Physical test causing no perceptible change 3. Physical test causing a perceptible change 4. Chemical Test 1. **PRELIMINARY TEST FOR PAPER** a. Folds and creases b. Odor c. Impressions caused by transmitted light d. Presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet light. 2. **PHYSICAL TEST CAUSING NO PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE** a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 3. **PHYSICAL EXAMINATION CAUSING A PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE** a. bursting strength test or "POP" test b. folding endurance test c. accelerated aging test d. absorption test 4. **CHEMICAL TEST -** This test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing material used in the paper. e. **Fiber Composition** -- examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material used and nature of processing. f. **Loading Materials** -- is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the paper and then the ash examined. g. **Sizing Material** -- gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in water and the solution treated with tannic acid; rosin is extracted by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The alcohol evaporated and the residue treated with acetic anhydride and strong sulfuric acid; starch is determined by addition of dilute iodine solution; case in is determined by addition Millon's reagent. 1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other parts of the same documents or other document. 2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with the identical ink, or inks of different qualities or in different conditions. 3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be 4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries show the natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one time under identical conditions. 1. **Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink** -- the type of ink where age maybe determined. Today the most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for business purposes. Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall. This ink can penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making its removal more difficult to accomplish. 2. **Logwood ink** -- made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive and does not corrode steel pen. Will not wash off the paper even fresh, flows freely. 3. **Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink** -- made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in water. It easily smudges, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with little difficulty. It is best determined by spectrographic method. 4. **Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink** -- the oldest ink material known. Made of carbon in the form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents. 5. **Colored writing ink** -- today, almost all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing more permanent. 6. **Ball Point Pen ink** -- made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol, glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine this type of ink. TEST FOR INK ============ 1. Physical Test 2. Chemical Test or Spot Test 3. Paper Chromatography Test 1. **Physical Test** -- applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures, destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or microscope. 2. **Chemical Test** -- a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or other changes in the ink is observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid, 2% NaOH, 10% NaOC1, C1~2~, H~2~O, KCNS, water. 3. **Paper Chromatography** -- a reliable procedure that can be adopted to identify and compare ballpoint pen ink. DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT ============================================ 1. **Age of Ink** -- no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when the color is black, because on the observation that within a few hours, the color of ink writings becomes darker because the dye contain therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of the paper. 1. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with the standard colors of with itself over a period of time. 2. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time the ink has been on the paper. 2. **Age of paper** a. Through watermarks b. In certain case from the composition of paper OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION ==================================== EXAMPLES OF ILLIGIBLE WRITINGS ============================== 1. **Erasure** -- means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made chemically or mechanically. 2. **Obliteration** -- the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking material. 3. **Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink** -- substances used for invisible writing. 4. **Indented Writing** -- term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears. 5. **Writings on Carbon Paper --** used sheets of carbon paper can be made readable. 6. **Contact Writing** -- black paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with some writings CHAPTER 6 ========= GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES ======================================= COMPOSITION OF GLASS ==================== 1. **Spectrographic Test** -- an instrumental method of analysis that determines the presence of trace element. Shows the constituent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient information to establish the origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method for glass analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample. 2. **X-ray diffraction analysis** -- not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. Determines the type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass. 3. **Physical properties examination** -- the most sensitive method of determining differences of composition in glass samples and it depends upon the study of the physical properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity or density, refractive index. 4. **Ultraviolet light examination** -- determines the differences in the appearance of their fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical differences. 5. **Polish marks** -- optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing of glass fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes serve as a basis of comparison. GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME ========================== 1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run. 2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery. 3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other crimes of violence. ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES =============================== HOW GLASS BREAKS (How Glass Forms Cracks When a Blow or Pressure is applied on one of its Surface) ================================================================================================== ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS (Broken windows caused by bullet holes) ================================================================== 1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away giving the hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly distributed around the hole. 2. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than the right. 3. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the left. **BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE or HURLING PROJECTILE** The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the principles of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply. THE PRINCIPLE OF 3Rs RULE FOR RADIAL CRACK ========================================== THE PRINCIPLE OF RFC RULE FOR CONCENTRIC CRACK ============================================== WHERE THERE ARE TWO BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW PANE (One from Each Side) ====================================================================== FRACTURES ON SAFETY GLASS ========================= MOULAGE AND OTHER CASTING TECHNICS ================================== **Casting Material** -- is any material w/c can be changed from plastic or liquid state to the solid condition is capable of use as casting material. 1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied. 2. Must harder rapidly to a rigid mass 3. Must not be deformable nor shrink 4. Must be easy to apply 5. Must have no tendency to adhere to the impression 6. Should have of fine composition and surface 7. Should not inquire the impression 8. Should be easily obtainable 9\. Should be cheap. 1. **Hastening** -- add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster. 2. **Retarding** -- add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten-part water to be used in making the plaster. 3. **Hardening** -- to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a saturated solution of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution for some time. It is then removed and dried. 1. These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the area only once in producing the impression. a. b. 2. Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a repeated strokes over the same area. Cost of Human Body it is important that the temperature of the negative material should be below 110^O^F (43.3^O^C) a temperature higher than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject. CASTING MATERIALS ================= 1. **Plastic Material --** like plasticine and dental composition. Used for small impression. Dental composition is the best casting material for making the cast of tool marks. 2. **Negocoll** -- is a rubbery gelatinous material consisting essentially of colloidal magnesium scaps. 3. **Hominit** -- is a resinous material used for making positives from Negocoll negatives. It is a flesh color and is used for external surfaces. 4. **Celerit** -- is brown and is used for backing and strengthening the hominit. CHAPTER 7 ========= METALLURGY (As Applied to Crime Detection) ========================================== APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION =================================================== 1. Robbery 2. Theft 3. Hit and run 4. Bomb and explosion 5. Nail Examination 6. Counterfeit coins 7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers COUNTERFEIT COINS ================= 1. CAST COINS **--** coins made in molds or coins made by casting method. An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of plaster of Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds bearing the image of a good coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp. 2. STRUCK COINS -- made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made by means of dies. Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity, composition may all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the designs with those of the genuine should be made. RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS ====================================== Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid. 1. For cast iron and cast steel -- 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate 2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1: hydrochloric acid + water + cupric chloride + alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid 3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid 4. For lead -- 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one-part water 5. For stainless steel -- dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol for copper, brass, silver, and other copper alloys-ferric chloride + hydrochloric acid + water 6. For Zinc -- 10% sodium hydroxide 7. For Tin -- 10% hydrochloric acid 8. For Silver -- concentrated nitric acid 9. For Gold and Platinum -- 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one-part nitric acid SOIL (Petrography as Applied to Crime Detection) ================================================ 1. **Alluvial Soil** -- formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. deposited by moving water. 2. **Colluvial Soil** -- formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the decomposed particles moved by gravity. 3. **Sedentary Soil** -- inactive, not migratory soil. 1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and furniture. 2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory. 3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box. 4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point of reference. CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL ==================== 1. **Primary Minerals** -- includes under composed rock fragments ranging from stone down thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important minerals include quartz (silica), calcite (limestone, CaCO~3~), feldspar (silicate of A1, Na, Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica. 2. **Clay Mineral** -- a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all soils and is the major constituents of heaviest soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and adherent on heating. 3. **Organic constituents** -- one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar importance in the identification of soil. ANALYSIS OF SOIL ================ OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL ================================== APPLICATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME DETECTION ========================================================== DUST AND DIRT ============= COMPOSITION OF DUST =================== a. **Dust Deposited from the Air** − extremely fine dust particles present in the air everywhere. More in thickly populated and industrial region. Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is significant. b. **Road and Footpath Dust** − produced by the wear and tear of the road surface be vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining regions. c. **Industrial Dust** − Industries; like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of Paris factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves industrial processes like grinding, milling or beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate products which in the process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on the neighboring roads and buildings. d. **Occupation Dust** − Some of the finely powdered material may be found on the clotting and foot wears of employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this for example, coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes, bricklayer will yield brick duct, sand and lime on his clothes. 1. Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported should be left in site. The whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and hipped to the laboratory. 2. If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresses, the specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if present in large quantity. 3. Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper bags used in the dust sack to collect the dirt. ARSON ===== 1. **Under the Old Common Law** 2. **Under the Revised Penal Code** 1. Kind and character of the building 2. Its location 3. Extent of damage or value 4. Its state of being inhabitant or not 3. **According to Webster:** 4. **Arson Is Fire Set Internationally.** 1. **Willfulness −** means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally. 2. **Intent −** is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will. An essential element of crime, motive is not. 3. **Motive** − is the moving cause which includes the commission of a crime. Something that leads or influence a person to do something. 4. **Malice** − denotes hatred or will or a desire for revenge. Is the intent to do injury to another. 1. 2. a. b. 5. **Burning −** to constitute burning, there must be burning or charring, i.e. the fiber of the wood must be destroyed, its identify change. It is not necessary that the building be seriously damaged. A mere smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is not sufficient. 1. origin of fire 2. motive 3. identification of prime suspect 4. identification of the fire setter ORIGIN OF FIRE ============== CAUSES OF FIRE ============== 1. Natural causes without human intervention a. Lightning b. Explosion c. Spontaneous combustion d. Miscellaneous Cause 2. Accidental cause with or without human intervention e. Faulty Wiring f. Careless handling of inflammables g. Children playing with match h. Careless smokers i. Careless handling of electric stoves, candles, cigarettes, butts, mosquito coils. 3. Arson or Touch of fires (a set fire) − when all natural and accidental causes have been eliminated, then the fire is classified as suspicious. 1. **Burned building** − a type of building may indicate a set fire under some circumstances. 2. **Separate fire** − when two or more separate fires breaks out within a building the fire is certainly suspicious. 3. **Color of smoke** − when fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The observation of the smoke must be made at the fire since once the fire has assumed a major proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke will not indicate the materials used by the arsonist. a. b. c. d. 4. **Color of flame −** the color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of fire and sometimes of the nature of the combustible substance present. Burning petroleum products -- red flame 5. **Size of fire** − rapid extension of the fire is indicative of the use of accelerants. 6. **Direction of travel** − fire normally sweeps upward, the travel of fire is predictable from a knowledge of the construction of the building. 7. **Intensity** − the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicates that some accelerants has been added to the material normally present in the building. 8. **Location of flame** − investigator should not whether there is more than one apparent point of origin and should try to estimate the approximate location of turpentine, alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline. 9. **Odors** − many accelerants emit characteristic odors especially liquid like turpentine, alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline. POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE =========================== FIRE SETTING MECHANISM ====================== An arsonist may use the simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an elaborate means to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical method to start the fire. TWO METHODS TO START THE FIRE ============================= 1. **Mechanical Method** a. Matches b. Candles, cigarette c. Mechanical devices a clock mechanism, animals tied to ignition device like portable lamp or stove. d. Electrical system e. Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers f. Explosives 2. **Chemical Method** g. Hot water or ice bag used a receptacle for phosphorus and water ignition device h. Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water i. Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid j. Chemical devices as termite bombs, phosphorus a. Arson Chemical − incendiary materials often used by arsonist as accelerants. Examples are alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene, naphtha, turpentine. b. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane c. Solids as chlorates, perchlorate, chromates, bichromates, nitrates permanganates MOTIVE ====== 1. economic gain 2. concealment of crime 3. punitive measure 4. intimidation and economic disabling 5. pyromania 1. **Person with motive** a. Those with desire to defraud the insurer b. Employees or such other persons who have grievance c. Those who desire to conceal evidence of their crimes d. Those who set fire for purpose of intimidation 2. **Person without motive** e. Mental case f. Pathological fire-setters g. Pyros h. Psychos DEVELOPMENT / IDENTIFICATION OF PRIME SUSPECT ============================================= 1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence 2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other person having major interest in the fire. 3. Interviews and interrogations of the person who discovered the fire, the one turned the first alarm, fireman, eyewitness 4. Surveillance IDENTIFICATION OF FIRE SETTER ============================= GUIDES IN THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FIRE SCENE ============================================= 1. the scene must be protected so that the evidence is not destroyed or removed either by careless persons or the guilty party. 2. Mechanics of search 3. Collection and preservation of physical evidence 4. Laboratory aids TOXICOLOGY ========== **TOXIC --** means poison **OLOGY --** means science 1. **According to kingdom** A. Animal -- ex. Cantharide B. Vegetable -- ex. Strychnine 2. **According to chemical properties** a. Volatile and Non-volatile -- ex. Bromine, chlorine, iodine, sulfuric acid b. Mineral Acid -- ex. Hydrochloric Acid c. Mineral Alkalies -- ex. Sodium hydroxide a. Volatile -- ex. Alcohol, chloroform b. Alkaloids -- are nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter taste containing usually oxygen that occurs specially in seed plants, ex. Strychnine c. Animal Poison -- ex. Snake venom d. Bacterial -- ex. Ptomaine e. Organic Poison -- ex. Salicylic Acid f. Glucosides -- ex. Digitalis 3. **According to Psychological Action** a. Corrosives -- highly irritant poisons which causes local destruction of tissues and characterized by nausea, vomiting, great local distress. Ex. Strong Acids and Alkalies b. Irritants -- one which produces irritation or inflammation of the mucus membrane and characterized by vomiting, pain in abdomen, and purging. c. Narcotics -- poisons which produce stupor, complete insensibility, or loss of feeling. d. Neurotics -- one which acts chiefly on the nervous system producing delirium convulsion, and respiration as the outstanding symptoms. e. Tetanics-- substance which act directly upon the spinal columns producing such spasmodic and continuous f. Depressants or Sedatives -- agents which retard or depress the psychological action of an organ. g. Asthenics or Exhaustive -- agents which produce exhaustion, marked loss of vital or muscular power. Ex. Hydrocyanic Acid 4. **According to Pharmacological Action** a. b. c. 5. **According to Methods of Isolation** a. Volatile Poisons and those isolated by distillation with or without current of steam. b. Non Volatile Poisons -- those that are isolated by extraction with organic solvents. c. Metallic Poisons -- Ex. Arsenic, mercury d. Substances for which special method of isolation are required. Ex. Acids and alkali metals are extracted with water. A. From medical point of view B. From the Legal point of view TYPES OF POISONING FROM THE MEDICAL POINT OF VIEW ================================================= 1. **Acute Poisoning --** one which there is prompt and marked disturbance of function or death within a short time. Due to either taking a strong poison in excessive single dose or several doses at a short interval. 2. **Sub-acute Poisoning --** Cases of short duration and extreme violence which may include symptoms of chronic poisoning 3. **Chronic Poisoning --** Kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of function of tissues and mayor may not result in death. It is produced by either taking several small doses at long intervals or taking only toxic doses of the drug. TYPES OF POISONING FROM THE LEGAL POINT OF VIEW =============================================== 1. **Accidental Poisoning --** those in which the poison was taken without the intention to cause death. It may be taken by mistake or without knowing that it is poisonous. 2. **Suicidal Poisoning --** those in which the poison was taken by the victim voluntarily for the purpose of taking his own life. 3. **Homicidal Poisoning --** those in which the poison was given willfully, want only, and with intent to cause death to the victim. 4. **Undetermined --** those in which the history is hazy as to how the person was obtained and why it was administered. ACTION OF POISON ================ A. **Local --** the changes or disturbance produced on the part with which the poison comes in contact. B. **Remote --** the changes or disturbance produced in distant parts away from the site of application. C. **Combined --** the effect of the poison is not only localized at the site but also affects remote organs. CONDITIONS MODIFYING THE ACTION OF POISONS ========================================== 1. Those attributed to the individual 2. Those which are attributed to the poisons 1. Age and sex 2. Health 3. Habit -- repeated taking of small dose of drug 4. Idiosyncrasy -- a term applied to the individuals who exhibit unusual reactions to certain substances 5. Diseases 6. Food 7. Sleep 8. Exhaustion 1. Physical State or form of the poisons 2. Dilution 3. Solubility of the poisons 4. Modes of administration 5. Chemical combination 6. Mechanical combination 7. Dose -- is the quantity of a poison to be administered at one time. KINDS OF DOSE ============= 1. **Safe Dose --** one that does not cause harmful effect 2. **Toxic or Poisonous Dose --** one that is harmful to both healthy and sick 3. **Lethal Dose --**one that kills 4. **Minimum Dose --** is the smallest amount that will produce the therapeutic effect without causing harm 5. **Maximum dose --** is the largest amount that will cause no harm but at the same time produce the desired therapeutic effect. ENTRANCE OF POISON ================== 1. Mouth and are absorbed into the circulation after passing through the stomach and intestinal wall. 2. Nose and enter the blood from the upper respiratory passages or lungs. 3. Eyes 4. Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ereter by injection 5. Hypodermic injection 6. Intravenous injection ELIMINATION OF POISONS ====================== 1. Emesis 5. Milk 2. Respiration 6. Saliva 3. Feces 7. Sweat 4. Urine 8. Tears 1. The large number of poisons and the factors modifying them 2. Some of the symptoms observed in cases of poisoning are also seen in certain diseases. 1. Symptoms of poisoning come suddenly upon a person who previously has been in good health, while disease is usually preceded by a number of hours, days or even weeks of local or general disposition. 2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make their appearances after taking of foods or medicine. 3. If several persons take the same food and drinks, they should all show similar symptoms. 4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress and are preceded by circumstances as exposure, recognized symptoms and general of local indisposition of longer duration. 1. Vomiting (frequently associated with purging and abdominal pain) 2. Convulsion **Poison:** cyanide, strychnine **Disease:** tetanus, epilepsy, uremia 3. Coma 4. Dilation of pupils 5. Contraction of pupils 6. General and partial paralysis 7. Slow respiration 8. Rapid respiration 9. Delirium 10. Cyanosis 1. Removal of poison from the stomach 2. Administration of antidotes 3. Elimination of poisons by excretion 4. Stimulation and other symptomatic treatment 5. Special treatment REMOVAL OF POISON FROM THE STOMACH ================================== 1. Inducing vomiting using emetics 2. Use of stomach pump or stomach tube ADMINISTRATION OF ANTIDOTES =========================== 1. Mechanical antidote 2. Chemical antidote 3. Physiological antidote 1. **MECHANICAL ANTIDOTES-** an agent that removes the poison without changing it or coats the surface of the organ so that absorption is prevented. 1. Stomach tubes or pumps 2. Emetics 3. Cathartics 4. Demulcents 5. Precipitants 1. **Local Emetic --** produce their effects by their irritation of the terminal nerve filaments of the pharynx, esophagus or stomach 2. **System or General Emetics --** produce their effects through the medium of circulation - **Cathartics-** agents which produce intestinal evacuation o **Demulcents-** substance which soothe and protect the part which they are applied - **Precipitants-** these are substances which prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and rendering them soluble. 2. **CHEMICAL ANTIDOTES --** substances that make the poison harmless by chemically altering it. 3. **PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTIDOTES-** sometimes called ANTAGONIST. An agent that ELIMINATION OF POISONS BY EXCRETION =================================== 1. for excessive pain- morphine or another analgesic 2. for convulsion- chloroform 3. for shock- oxygen inhalation a. if the poison is gas- immediate need is fresh air and artificial respiration b. if poisoning is external, like burn on the hand by concentrated acid- wash with plenty of water or with alcohol, sodium bicarbonate, lime water, milk of magnesia c. if alkali burn- wash with lemon or other citrus fruits d. if the poison has come from a bite or injection- the poison can be checked from spreading through the body by applying tourniquet or a restricting band tightly above the wound. This retard the absorption of poison by the blood. The poison may then be removed by sucking**.** INVESTIGATION OF FATAL CASES ============================ In the investigation of fatal poisoning cases, it is not necessary that an investigator should be an expert on the poisons, since he will be assisted in his investigation by a medico-legal officer and a toxicologist, but it is important and will be of great help to him if he knows the following: 1. symptoms of various kinds of poisoning 2. the lethal dose of the poison 3. the length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before death occurs 4. where the poison was obtained 5. the chemical formula of the poison 6. other names it is known in the market 7. uses of poison 8. antidote for the poison EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE LIVING BODY ======================================== EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE DEAD ================================= In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal, fatal or not, the presence of poison must be proved and proofs of poisoning in the dead may be obtained from: 1. **Post-Mortem Examination or Autopsy-** an examination of a dead body specially to determine the cause of death 2. **Evidence from Chemical Analysis of the Organs Taken from the Body-** the most important proof of poisoning is the detection of the poison within the body. In some cases, however, on account of the decomposition of the tissue, the lapse of time between death and examination, and the instability of some poisons, negative results may be obtained even if at the time of death certain poisons are present. 1. Was the death or illness of the subject caused by the poison? 2. What poison produced the illness or death? 3. When and how was the poison administered? 4. Could the substance have administered cause illness or death? 5. Was the poison found by the toxicologist in the body the poison which caused death? 6. Is the substance given in minute quantity a poison? 7. Was the poison taken sufficient quantity to produce death? 8. May poisoning have occurred and the poison either be or become undetectable? 9. May the poison extracted from the body have an origin other than that of poisoning? 10. May the poisoning be stimulated? 1. Blood **--** place in test tube with a sodium oxalate or anticoagulant 2. Refrigerated with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) good for 72 hrs. 3. Chemical Preservative -- 100 cc of ethyl alcohol (95%) for each 100 grams of sample and extra 250 cc for analysis. 4. Do not uses denatured alcohol, rubbing alcohol or similar preservative sine denaturants will give false and misleading results in the analysis. 5. Formalin -- extremely undesirable as preservative of specimen for toxicological examination since it will seriously interfere with the test for most organic poisons. 1. Physical Test 2. Crystalline Test 3. Chemical Test 4. Spectrophotometric Test 5. Chromatographic Test 1. **Sec. 755 --** Provisions relative to dispensing of violent poisons like arsenic, cyanide, atropine, cocaine, morphine, strychnine 2. **Sec.756 --** Provisions relative to dispensing of less violent poisons like aconite, belladonna, cantharides, digitalis, ergot, carbolic acid, chloroform 3. **Sec.757 --** Receptacle for poisonous drugs. 1. Stage of excitement 2. Stage of surgical anesthesia 3. Stage of Paralysis 1. **Benzene --**also called Benzol. A solvent for rubber, gums, resins, fats 2. **Carbon Disulfide --** a solvent for sulfur. Burns with bluish flame giving carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. 3. **Nitrobenzene --** a pale yellow, oily liquid with sweet odor. Resembles oil of bitter almond. 4. **Acetone --** used as solvent for cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose. Colorless liquid of characteristic fruity color. 5. **Ether --** highly volatile and inflammable liquid. Transparent, odorless, mobile liquid. 6. **Caffeine --** found in coffee. 7. **Salicylic Acid --**found in "ap-ap" solution. 8. **Formalin --** an embalming fluid. 9. **Cocaine --** found in coca leaf. 10. **Picrotoxin --** derived from fish berries (the fruit of Picrotoxin). Locally known as "lagtang" 11. **Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol --** alcohol find in wine. Also called grain alcohol. 12. **Ergot-** develops on rye plants. A fungus that grows on kernels of rye and order cereal grains. 13. **Barbiturates --** sleeping pills. A derivative of malonyl urea or barbituric acid. Examples: secobarbital, Phenobarbital, amobarbital 14. **Strychnine --** an alkaloid found in dried ripe seeds of nux vomica. 15. **Nicotine --** found in leaves of tobacco plants. 16. **Morphine --** found in poppy plant (papaver somniferum). An alkaloid present in opium By about 9%. A white crystal. 17. **Physostigmine --** also called serine. Found in calabar beans. 18. **Chloral hydrate --** use as "knock-out" drops. 19. **Carbolic acid or Phenol --** obtained from coal tar. 20. **Arsenic --** a rat poison, brittle, steel gray. 21. **Lysol --** a disinfectant. A brown liquid from cresol and soup emulsion. 22. **Methyl Alcohol or Methanol --** causes blindness. A solvent for varnish. An antifreeze in automobiles. Also called wood alcohol. 23. **Chloroform --** colorless liquid with a sweet taste and suffocating odor. An anesthesia. 24. **Carbon Tetrachloride --** a dry clean agent. Found in "Pyrene" fire extinguisher. 25. **Formic Acid --** acid founds in ants and spider. 26. **Hydrogen Cyanide --** found in kamoteng kahoy. Also called hydrocyanic acid or prussic acid. 27. **Acetic Acid --** acid found in vinegar. In pure form is called glacial acetic acid or prussic acid. 28. **Aspirin --** an analgesic. Its chemical name is aceto- salicylic acid. 29. **Atropine --** obtained from the plants group "SOLANACEAE" 30. **Amygdalin --** white crystalline substance found in bitter almond. 31. **Phosphorous --** glows in the dark. 32. **Peyote --** same as mascaline. Found in cactus. 33. **Ptomaine --** found in dead or decaying matter like spoiled meat. 34. **Isopropyl Alcohol --** present in rubbing alcohol. 35. **Cannabinoids --** found in marijuana and hashish. 36. **Methamphetamine Hydrochloride --** a stimulant. Commonly called "shabu". A dangerous drug. 37. **Heroine --** also called diacetylmorphine. A derivative of morphine. A light brown powder. 38. **Potassium Cyanide --** called jeweler's solution. 39. **Opium --** the milky exudates from the unripe capsule of the poppy plants (papaver somniferum) which has been dried. Dark, chocolate brown, has characteristic coffee odor. It is found in poppy plant. Contains the alkaloids morphine, codeine, the baine, papaverine. 40. **Mescaline --** crystalline alkaloidal drugs that produces hallucinogenic effect. 41. **Cyanides --** from kernels of various fruits in the form of amygdalin. 42. **Codeine --** methyl morphine. 43. **Conine --** most active poisonous alkaloid of common or spotted hemlock. 44. **Quinine --** an alkaloid of cinchona bark. 45. **Cantharide --** an aphrodisiac. Prepared from dried body of a beetle. 46. **Carbon Monoxide --** produced by the complete combustion of carbon. Found in exhaust of automobile. 47. **Bufotoxin, Bufotalin, Bufotonin --** poisonous substance isolated from the skin of poisonous frog. 48. **Scopolamine --** poisonous alkaloid found in some plants of the nightshade family and used as "truth serum". 49. **Toluene --** colorless, mobile, inflammable liquid which burns with smoky flame. Found in "Rugby". 50. **Hydrogen sulfide --** a poisonous substance with odor like that of a rotten egg. - end - =======