Food Processing Technology - Principles and Practice

FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY Principles and Practice Second Edition P. Fellows Director, Midway Technology and Visiting Fellow in Food Technology at Oxford Brookes University Published by Woodhead Publishin...

FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY Principles and Practice Second Edition P. Fellows Director, Midway Technology and Visiting Fellow in Food Technology at Oxford Brookes University Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited Abington Hall, Abington Cambridge CB1 6AH, England Published in North and South America by CRC Press LLC 2000 Corporate Blvd, NW Boca Raton FL 33431 USA First edition 1988, Ellis Horwood Ltd Second edition 2000, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2000, P. Fellows The author has asserted his moral rights. Conditions of sale This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials. 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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Woodhead Publishing Limited ISBN 1 85573 533 4 CRC Press ISBN 0 8493 0887 9 CRC Press order number: WP0887 Cover design by The ColourStudio Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Markyate, Hertfordshire Typeset by MHL Typesetting Ltd, Coventry, Warwickshire Printed by TJ International, Cornwall, England For Wen Contents Acknowledgements........................................................... xvii Glossary...................................................................... xix List of symbols............................................................... xxvii List of acronyms............................................................. xxx Introduction.................................................................. 1 The food industry today.................................................... 1 About this book............................................................ 3 Note on the second edition................................................. 4 PART I BASIC PRINCIPLES 7 1 Properties of foods and processing theory............................. 9 1.1 Properties of liquids, solids and gases.............................. 9 1.1.1 Density and specific gravity................................ 10 1.1.2 Viscosity................................................... 13 1.1.3 Surface activity............................................. 14 1.1.4 Rheology and texture....................................... 16 1.2 Material transfer.................................................... 18 1.3 Fluid flow.......................................................... 21 1.3.1 Fluid flow through fluidised beds.......................... 26 1.4 Heat transfer........................................................ 26 1.4.1 Energy balances............................................ 27 1.4.2 Mechanisms of heat transfer................................ 27 1.4.3 Sources of heat and methods of application to foods....... 37 1.4.4 Energy conservation........................................ 38 1.4.5 Effect of heat on micro-organisms......................... 40 1.4.6 Effect of heat on nutritional and sensory characteristics.... 43 1.5 Water activity...................................................... 44 1.5.1 Effect of aw on foods....................................... 47 1.6 Effects of processing on sensory characteristics of foods........... 48 viii Contents 1.6.1 Texture..................................................... 49 1.6.2 Taste, flavour and aroma................................... 49 1.6.3 Colour..................................................... 50 1.7 Effects of processing on nutritional properties...................... 50 1.8 Food safety, good manufacturing practice and quality assurance... 52 1.8.1 HACCP.................................................... 55 1.8.2 Hurdle technology......................................... 57 1.9 Acknowledgements................................................. 59 1.10 References......................................................... 59 2 Process control.......................................................... 63 2.1 Automatic control.................................................. 64 2.1.1 Sensors..................................................... 65 2.1.2 Controllers................................................. 70 2.2 Computer-based systems........................................... 72 2.2.1 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs).................... 72 2.2.2 Types of control systems................................... 74 2.2.3 Software developments..................................... 75 2.2.4 Neural networks............................................ 77 2.3 Acknowledgements................................................. 78 2.4 References......................................................... 78 PART II AMBIENT-TEMPERATURE PROCESSING 81 3 Raw material preparation.............................................. 83 3.1 Cleaning............................................................ 83 3.1.1 Wet cleaning............................................... 84 3.1.2 Dry cleaning............................................... 85 3.1.3 Removing contaminants and foreign bodies................ 85 3.2 Sorting............................................................. 87 3.2.1 Shape and size sorting..................................... 88 3.2.2 Colour sorting.............................................. 92 3.2.3 Weight sorting............................................. 93 3.3 Grading............................................................ 95 3.4 Peeling............................................................. 95 3.4.1 Flash steam peeling........................................ 95 3.4.2 Knife peeling.............................................. 96 3.4.3 Abrasion peeling........................................... 96 3.4.4 Caustic peeling............................................. 96 3.4.5 Flame peeling.............................................. 96 3.5 Acknowledgements................................................. 97 3.6 References......................................................... 97 4 Size reduction........................................................... 98 4.1 Size reduction of solid foods....................................... 99 4.1.1 Theory..................................................... 99 4.1.2 Equipment................................................. 102 4.1.3 Effect on foods............................................. 108  Contents ix 4.2 Size reduction in liquid foods (emulsification and homogenisation) 110 4.2.1 Theory..................................................... 110 4.2.2 Equipment.................................................. 112 4.2.3 Effect on foods............................................. 114 4.3 Acknowledgements................................................. 116 4.4 References.......................................................... 116 5 Mixing and forming.................................................... 118 5.1 Mixing.............................................................. 118 5.1.1 Theory of solids mixing.................................... 119 5.1.2 Theory of liquids mixing................................... 122 5.1.3 Equipment.................................................. 125 5.1.4 Effect on foods............................................. 132 5.2 Forming............................................................ 132 5.2.1 Bread moulders............................................. 134 5.2.2 Pie and biscuit formers..................................... 134 5.2.3 Confectionery moulders.................................... 138 5.3 Acknowledgements................................................. 139 5.4 References.......................................................... 139 6 Separation and concentration of food components.................... 140 6.1 Centrifugation...................................................... 141 6.1.1 Theory..................................................... 141 6.1.2 Equipment.................................................. 142 6.2 Filtration............................................................ 146 6.2.1 Theory..................................................... 146 6.2.2 Equipment.................................................. 149 6.3 Expression.......................................................... 150 6.3.1 Theory..................................................... 150 6.3.2 Equipment.................................................. 151 6.4 Extraction using solvents........................................... 153 6.4.1 Theory..................................................... 153 6.4.2 Equipment.................................................. 155 6.5 Membrane concentration (hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration)........ 157 6.5.1 Theory..................................................... 162 6.5.2 Equipment.................................................. 164 6.6 Effect on foods..................................................... 167 6.7 Acknowledgements................................................. 168 6.8 References.......................................................... 168 7 Fermentation and enzyme technology.................................. 170 7.1 Fermentation........................................................ 171 7.1.1 Theory..................................................... 171 7.1.2 Types of food fermentations................................ 174 7.1.3 Equipment.................................................. 183 7.1.4 Effect on foods............................................. 184 7.2 Enzyme technology................................................. 184 7.2.1 Enzyme production from micro-organisms................. 186 7.2.2 Application of enzymes in food processing................. 187 x Contents 7.3 Acknowledgements................................................. 193 7.4 References......................................................... 193 8 Irradiation.............................................................. 196 8.1 Theory............................................................. 198 8.2 Equipment.......................................................... 199 8.2.1 Measurement of radiation dose............................. 200 8.2.2 Dose distribution........................................... 200 8.3 Effect on micro-organisms......................................... 200 8.4 Applications........................................................ 201 8.4.1 Sterilisation (or ‘radappertisation’)......................... 202 8.4.2 Reduction of pathogens (or ‘radicidation’)................. 202 8.4.3 Prolonging shelf life (or ‘radurisation’).................... 202 8.4.4 Control of ripening......................................... 203 8.4.5 Disinfestation.............................................. 203 8.4.6 Inhibition of sprouting..................................... 203 8.5 Effect on foods..................................................... 203 8.5.1 Induced radioactivity....................................... 203 8.5.2 Radiolytic products........................................ 204 8.5.3 Nutritional and sensory value.............................. 204 8.6 Effect on packaging................................................ 205 8.7 Detection of irradiated foods....................................... 205 8.7.1 Physical methods........................................... 206 8.7.2 Chemical methods......................................... 207 8.7.3 Biological methods......................................... 207 8.8 Acknowledgement.................................................. 208 8.9 References......................................................... 208 9 Processing using electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, light or ultrasound.............................................................. 210 9.1 Pulsed electric field processing..................................... 211 9.1.1 Theory..................................................... 215 9.1.2 Equipment................................................. 216 9.2 High pressure processing........................................... 216 9.2.1 Theory..................................................... 217 9.2.2 Processing and equipment.................................. 218 9.2.3 Effect on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components 221 9.3 Processing using pulsed light....................................... 222 9.3.1 Theory..................................................... 222 9.3.2 Equipment and operation................................... 223 9.3.3 Effect on micro-organisms and foods...................... 223 9.4 Processing using ultrasound........................................ 224 9.4.1 Theory..................................................... 224 9.4.2 Application to processing.................................. 225 9.5 Other methods...................................................... 226 9.6 References......................................................... 226  Contents xi PART III PROCESSING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT 229 A. Heat processing using steam or water 231 10 Blanching................................................................ 233 10.1 Theory.............................................................. 233 10.2 Equipment.......................................................... 234 10.2.1 Steam blanchers............................................ 235 10.2.2 Hot-water blanchers........................................ 236 10.3 Effect on foods..................................................... 238 10.3.1 Nutrients................................................... 238 10.3.2 Colour and flavour......................................... 239 10.3.3 Texture..................................................... 239 10.4 Acknowledgement.................................................. 239 10.5 References.......................................................... 240 11 Pasteurisation........................................................... 241 11.1 Theory.............................................................. 241 11.2 Equipment.......................................................... 242 11.2.1 Pasteurisation of packaged foods........................... 242 11.2.2 Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids....................... 244 11.3 Effect on foods..................................................... 248 11.3.1 Colour, flavour and aroma................................. 248 11.3.2 Vitamin loss................................................ 248 11.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 249 11.5 References.......................................................... 249 12 Heat sterilisation........................................................ 250 12.1 In-container sterilisation............................................ 250 12.1.1 Theory..................................................... 250 12.1.2 Retorting (heat processing)................................. 261 12.1.3 Equipment.................................................. 262 12.2 Ultra high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes.................... 264 12.2.1 Theory..................................................... 264 12.2.2 Processing.................................................. 267 12.2.3 Equipment.................................................. 268 12.3 Effect on foods..................................................... 273 12.3.1 Colour...................................................... 273 12.3.2 Flavour and aroma......................................... 273 12.3.3 Texture or viscosity........................................ 274 12.3.4 Nutritive value............................................. 275 12.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 275 12.5 References.......................................................... 276 13 Evaporation and distillation............................................ 278 13.1 Evaporation......................................................... 278 13.1.1 Theory..................................................... 278 13.1.2 Equipment.................................................. 285 13.2 Effect on foods..................................................... 290 xii Contents 13.3 Distillation......................................................... 291 13.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 293 13.5 References......................................................... 293 14 Extrusion................................................................ 294 14.1 Theory............................................................. 296 14.4.1 Rheological properties of the food......................... 296 14.1.2 Operating characteristics................................... 297 14.2 Equipment.......................................................... 299 14.2.1 Single-screw extruders..................................... 299 14.2.2 Twin-screw extruders...................................... 300 14.2.3 Ancillary equipment....................................... 302 14.3 Applications........................................................ 304 14.3.1 Cold extrusion............................................. 304 14.3.2 Extrusion cooking.......................................... 304 14.4 Effect on foods..................................................... 307 14.4.1 Sensory characteristics..................................... 307 14.4.2 Nutritional value........................................... 307 14.5 Acknowledgements................................................. 307 14.6 References......................................................... 308 B. Heat processing using hot air 309 15 Dehydration............................................................. 311 15.1 Theory............................................................. 311 15.1.1 Drying using heated air.................................... 313 15.1.2 Drying using heated surfaces............................... 321 15.2 Equipment.......................................................... 323 15.2.1 Hot-air driers............................................... 323 15.2.2 Heated-surface (or contact) driers.......................... 331 15.3 Effect on foods..................................................... 334 15.3.1 Texture..................................................... 335 15.3.2 Flavour and aroma......................................... 336 15.3.3 Colour..................................................... 337 15.3.4 Nutritional value........................................... 338 15.4 Rehydration........................................................ 339 15.5 Acknowledgements................................................. 339 15.6 References......................................................... 339 16 Baking and roasting.................................................... 341 16.1 Theory............................................................. 341 16.2 Equipment.......................................................... 343 16.2.1 Direct heating ovens....................................... 343 16.2.2 Indirect heating ovens...................................... 343 16.2.3 Batch ovens................................................ 345 16.2.4 Continuous and semi-continuous ovens.................... 345 16.3 Effect on foods..................................................... 348 16.3.1 Texture..................................................... 348 16.3.2 Flavour, aroma and colour................................. 349  Contents xiii 16.3.3 Nutritional value........................................... 350 16.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 352 16.5 References.......................................................... 352 C. Heat processing using hot oils 353 17 Frying................................................................... 355 17.1 Theory.............................................................. 355 17.1.1 Shallow (or contact) frying................................. 356 17.1.2 Deep-fat frying............................................. 357 17.2 Equipment.......................................................... 358 17.3 Effect on foods..................................................... 360 17.3.1 Effect of heat on oil........................................ 360 17.3.2 Effect of heat on fried foods............................... 361 17.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 362 17.5 References.......................................................... 362 D. Heat processing by direct and radiated energy 363 18 Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating................................. 365 18.1 Dielectric heating................................................... 366 18.1.1 Theory..................................................... 366 18.1.2 Equipment.................................................. 369 18.1.3 Applications................................................ 370 18.1.4 Effect on foods............................................. 373 18.2 Ohmic heating...................................................... 373 18.2.1 Theory..................................................... 374 18.2.2 Equipment and applications................................ 377 18.3 Infrared heating..................................................... 380 18.3.1 Theory..................................................... 380 18.3.2 Equipment.................................................. 382 18.3.3 Effect on foods............................................. 383 18.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 383 18.5 References.......................................................... 383 PART IV PROCESSING BY THE REMOVAL OF HEAT 385 19 Chilling.................................................................. 387 19.1 Theory.............................................................. 388 19.1.1 Fresh foods................................................. 388 19.1.2 Processed foods............................................ 392 19.1.3 Cook–chill systems......................................... 395 19.2 Equipment.......................................................... 396 19.2.1 Mechanical refrigerators.................................... 396 19.2.2 Cryogenic chilling.......................................... 399 19.3 Chill storage........................................................ 400 19.3.1 Control of storage conditions............................... 400 xiv Contents 19.4 Effect on foods..................................................... 402 19.5 Acknowledgements................................................. 403 19.6 References......................................................... 403 20 Controlled- or modified-atmosphere storage and packaging.......... 406 20.1 Modified- and controlled-atmosphere storage (MAS and CAS).... 407 20.2 Modified-atmosphere packaging.................................... 409 20.2.1 MAP for fresh foods....................................... 409 20.2.2 MAP for processed foods.................................. 411 20.2.3 Packaging materials for MAP.............................. 413 20.2.4 Active packaging systems.................................. 413 20.3 Acknowledgement.................................................. 416 20.4 References......................................................... 416 21 Freezing.................................................................. 418 21.1 Theory............................................................. 419 21.1.1 Ice crystal formation....................................... 420 21.1.2 Solute concentration....................................... 421 21.1.3 Volume changes........................................... 422 21.1.4 Calculation of freezing time............................... 423 21.2 Equipment.......................................................... 425 21.2.1 Cooled-air freezers......................................... 425 21.2.2 Cooled-liquid freezers...................................... 427 21.2.3 Cooled-surface freezers.................................... 429 21.2.4 Cryogenic freezers......................................... 430 21.3 Changes in foods................................................... 432 21.3.1 Effect of freezing.......................................... 432 21.3.2 Effects of frozen storage................................... 433 21.3.3 Thawing................................................... 438 21.4 Acknowledgements................................................. 439 21.5 References......................................................... 439 22 Freeze drying and freeze concentration............................... 441 22.1 Freeze drying (lyophilisation)...................................... 441 22.1.1 Theory..................................................... 442 22.1.2 Equipment................................................. 446 22.1.3 Effect on foods............................................. 448 22.2 Freeze concentration............................................... 449 22.2.1 Theory..................................................... 449 22.2.2 Equipment................................................. 450 22.3 Acknowledgements................................................. 450 22.4 References......................................................... 451 PART V POST-PROCESSING OPERATIONS 453 23 Coating or enrobing.................................................... 455 23.1 Coating materials................................................... 455 23.1.1 Batters, powders and breadcrumbs......................... 456  Contents xv 23.1.2 Chocolate and compound coatings......................... 456 23.2 Enrobers............................................................ 458 23.3 Dusting or breading................................................. 459 23.4 Pan coating......................................................... 459 23.4.1 Hard coatings............................................... 460 23.4.2 Soft coatings............................................... 460 23.4.3 Chocolate coating.......................................... 460 23.5 Acknowledgements................................................. 461 23.6 References.......................................................... 461 24 Packaging............................................................... 462 24.1 Theory.............................................................. 466 24.1.1 Light....................................................... 466 24.1.2 Heat........................................................ 467 24.1.3 Moisture and gases......................................... 467 24.1.4 Micro-organisms, insects, animals and soils................ 471 24.1.5 Mechanical strength........................................ 472 24.2 Types of packaging materials....................................... 474 24.2.1 Textiles and wood.......................................... 474 24.2.2 Metal....................................................... 474 24.2.3 Glass....................................................... 478 24.2.4 Flexible films.............................................. 481 24.2.5 Rigid and semi-rigid plastic containers..................... 487 24.2.6 Paper and board............................................ 490 24.2.7 Combined packaging systems.............................. 496 24.2.8 Active packaging technologies............................. 497 24.3 Printing............................................................. 498 24.3.1 Bar codes and other markings.............................. 499 24.4 Interactions between packaging and foods.......................... 501 24.5 Environmental considerations....................................... 502 24.5.1 Packaging costs............................................ 503 24.5.2 Manufacture of packaging materials........................ 503 24.5.3 Distribution of packaging materials and ingredients for food production.................................................. 505 24.5.4 Distribution to retailers and consumers..................... 506 24.5.5 Consumer recycling........................................ 506 24.6 Acknowledgements................................................. 507 24.7 References.......................................................... 508 25 Filling and sealing of containers........................................ 511 25.1 Rigid and semi-rigid containers..................................... 511 25.1.1 Filling...................................................... 512 25.1.2 Sealing..................................................... 513 25.2 Flexible containers.................................................. 519 25.3 Types of sealer..................................................... 519 25.3.1 Form–fill–seal (FFS) equipment............................ 521 25.4 Shrink-wrapping and stretch-wrapping.............................. 524 25.5 Tamper-evident packaging.......................................... 525 25.6 Labelling........................................................... 526 xvi Contents 25.7 Checkweighing..................................................... 527 25.8 Metal detection..................................................... 527 25.9 Acknowledgements................................................. 528 25.10 References......................................................... 528 26 Materials handling, storage and distribution.......................... 530 26.1 Materials handling.................................................. 531 26.1.1 Handling equipment for raw materials and ingredients..... 532 26.1.2 Handling equipment for processing........................ 532 26.2 Waste management and disposal................................... 540 26.3 Storage............................................................. 542 26.4 Distribution......................................................... 544 26.5 Acknowledgements................................................. 547 26.7 References......................................................... 547 Appendices A Vitamins in foods.................................................. 549 B Nutritional and functional roles of minerals in foods............... 551 C EEC permitted food additives....................................... 554 D Units and dimensions............................................... 560 Index............................................................... 563 Acknowledgements I am indebted to the large number of people who have given freely of their time and experience, provided me with information, checked the text and gave support during this revision of Food Processing Technology. My particular thanks to Dr Mike Lewis of Reading University for his support and technical editing skills; to Dr Mike Dillon of MD Associates for his assistance with Section 1.8 (Quality Assurance); to Francis Dodds of Woodhead Publishing for ideas, suggestions and references to new information; to staff and colleagues at Oxford Brookes University, particularly Professor Jeya Henry and Dr Neil Heppell for their advice and ideas; and to Dr Jeremy Selman at Campden Food RA. for his information. My thanks also to the many companies that responded positively to my requests for information about their equipment, machinery and products. They are listed individually at the end of each chapter. I should also not forget my parents, Jack and Gwen, who have always given unquestioning support to my efforts, and finally, but not least, my special thanks to my partner, Wen, for her constructive thoughts, encouragement and forbearance at my long hours in front of the computer screen over the best part of a year. Related titles from Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition list: Bender’s dictionary of nutrition and food technology Seventh edition (ISBN: 1 85573 475 3) ‘This valuable book continues to fulfil the purpose of explaining to specialists in other fields the technical terms in nutrition and food processing.’ Chemistry and Industry The classic work of reference for all those working in the food industry, studying or researching at university or college. Physical properties of foods and food processing systems (ISBN: 1 85573 272 6) ‘... an excellent choice as textbook.’ Food Technology A standard text for students and professionals on the key physical properties of foods during processing. Principles and practices for the safe processing of foods (ISBN: 1 85573 362 5) ‘... it is such a comprehensive text on safe processing – a must have.’ Food Engineering The standard guide on safe process design and operation, both for students and the food industry. Lawrie’s Meat Science Sixth edition (ISBN: 1 85573 395 1) ‘Overall this is one of the best books available on the subject of meat science, and is ideal for all students of food science and technology.’ Chemistry in Britain Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s food science, technology and nutrition titles can be obtained by: visiting our web site at www.woodhead-publishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: [email protected]; fax: +44 (0)1223 893694; tel: +44 (o)1223 891358 ext. 30; address: Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AH, England) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles in this area, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel. and fax as above; e-mail: [email protected]). Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in. Glossary Absorption Uptake of moisture by dry foods. Acid food A food with a pH of less than 4.6 and a water activity (aw) equal to or greater than 0.85. Additives Chemicals added to food to improve their eating quality or shelf life. Adiabatic Changes to the humidity and temperature of air without loss or gain of heat (in drying). Adiabatic process Processing in which no heat is added or removed from a system. Adulterants Chemicals that are intentionally added to food which are forbidden by law. Agglomeration The production of granules from powder particles. Algorithms Software building blocks used to construct control sequences in computerised process control. Alkaline phosphatase An enzyme in raw milk having a similar D-value to heat-resistant pathogens, used to test for effectiveness of pasteurisation. Annealing Heating to control the ductility of a material. Aseptic processing Heat sterilisation of foods before filling into pre-sterilised (aseptic) containers. Atomiser A device to form fine droplets of food (e.g. in a spray drier). Bacteriocins Naturally produced peptides that inhibit other micro-organisms, similar in effect to antibiotics. Baroresistance Resistance to high pressure. Barosensitivity Sensitivity to high pressure. Biological oxidation A measure of the oxygen requirement by micro-organisms when demand (BOD) breaking down organic matter, used as a measure of the polluting potential of materials in water. Black body A theoretical concept for a material that can either absorb all the heat that lands on it or radiate all of the heat that it contains. Blancher Equipment used to blanch foods. Blanching Heating foods, especially vegetables, to below 100ºC for a short time, to both inactivate enzymes which would cause a loss of quality during storage and to remove air and soften the food. Blinding Blocking of a sieve by food particles. xx Glossary Bloom A thin layer of unstable forms of cocoa fat that crystallise at the surface of a coating to produce dullness or white specks. Botulin An exotoxin produced by Cl. Botulinum, able to cause fatal food poisoning. Bound moisture Liquid physically or chemically bound to a solid food matrix which exerts a lower vapour pressure than pure liquid at the same temperature. Boundary film (or surface Film of fluid next to the surface over which a fluid flows that causes a film) resistance to heat transfer. Breading The application of pre-prepared breadcrumbs to the surface of a food. Calandria Heat exchanger used in an evaporator. Carborundum An abrasive material made from silicon and carbon. Case hardening Formation of a hard impermeable skin on some foods during drying, which reduces the rate of drying and produces a food with a dry surface and a moist interior. Cashflow The balance of money at a given time entering and leaving a business. Cavitation Production of bubbles in foods by ultrasound and their rapid expansion/ contraction. Centrifugation The separation of immiscible liquids or solids from liquids by the application of centrifugal force. Chelating agents Chemicals which sequester trace metals. Chemical oxidation A chemical method used to measure the polluting potential of materials demand (COD) in water. Chilling Reduction in the temperature of a food to between 1ºC and 8ºC. Chilling injury Physiological changes to some types of fruits and vegetables caused by low temperatures which result in loss of eating quality. Choke Restriction of the outlet to a mill to retain particles until sufficiently small (or restriction of the outlet in an extruder). Climacteric Abrupt increase in respiration rate in some fruits during ripening. Clinching Partial sealing of can lids. Coating A generic term to describe the application of a viscous covering (such as batter, chocolate, starch/sugar mixtures) to the surface of a food. Co-extrusion The simultaneous extrusion of two or more films to make a co-extruded film or the extrusion of two foods in which a filling is continuously injected into an outer casing in an extruder. Cold shortening Undesirable changes to meat caused by cooling before rigor mortis has occurred. Collapse temperature The maximum temperature of a frozen food before solute movement causes a collapse of the food structure and prevents movement of water vapour during freeze drying. Commercial sterility A term used in heat sterilisation to indicate that processing inactivates substantially all micro-organisms and spores which, if present, would be capable of growing in the food under defined storage conditions. Common Object Resource Computer software that acts as an information broker to link process Based Architecture control systems with other computerised company information. (CORBA) Compound coating A coating material in which cocoa solids and hardened vegetable oils are used to replace cocoa butter. Conduction The movement of heat by direct transfer of molecular energy within solids. Constant-rate drying The drying period in which the rate of moisture loss is constant when surface moisture is removed. Continuous phase The medium that contains the dispersed phase in an emulsion.  Glossary xxi Convection The transfer of heat in fluids by groups of molecules that move as a result of differences in density or as a result of agitation. Critical control point A processing factor of which a loss of control would result in an (CCP) unacceptable food safety or quality risk. Critical moisture content The amount of moisture in a food at the end of the constant-rate period of drying. Crumb Pre-prepared breadcrumbs used to cover food pieces, or the porous inner part of baked foods. Crust Hard surface layer on baked foods. Cryogen A refrigerant that absorbs latent heat and changes phase from solid or liquid to a gas, e.g. subliming or evaporating carbon dioxide or liquid nitrogen. Cryogenic freezers Equipment that uses subliming or evaporating carbon dioxide or liquid nitrogen directly in contact with food to freeze it. Cryogenic grinding Mixing liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide with food to cool it during grinding. Dead-folding A crease or fold made in a material that will stay in place. Decimal reduction time The time needed to destroy 90% of micro-organisms (to reduce their numbers by a factor of 10). Depositor Machine for placing an accurate amount of food onto a conveyor or into a mould. Desorption Removal of moisture from a food. Detergents Chemicals that reduce the surface tension of water and hence assist in the release of soils from equipment or foods. Dew point Temperature at which an air–water vapour mixture becomes saturated with moisture, marking the onset of condensation. Diafiltration A process to improve the recovery of solutes by diluting the concentrate during reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration. Die A restricted opening at the discharge end of an extruder barrel. Dielectric constant The ratio of the capacitance of a food to the capacitance of air or vacuum under the same conditions. Dielectric heating A generic term that includes heating by both microwave and radio frequency energy. Dilatant material Food in which the consistency increases with shear rate. Direct heating ovens Ovens in which products of combustion are in contact with the food. Dispersed phase Droplets in an emulsion. Dosimeter A device that qualitatively or quantitatively measures the dose of irradiation received by a food. Dry bulb temperature Temperature measured by a dry thermometer in an air–water vapour mixture. Effective freezing time The time required to lower the temperature of a food from an initial value to a pre-determined final temperature at the thermal centre. Electrical conductivity The capacity of a material to conduct electricity. Electrodialysis The separation of electrolytes into anions and cations by the application of a direct electrical current and the use of ion-selective membranes. Emulsification Creation of an emulsion by the dispersion of one immiscible liquid (dispersed phase) in the form of small droplets in a second immiscible liquid (continuous phase). Emulsifying agent Chemical that forms micelles around each droplet in the dispersed phase of an emulsion to reduce interfacial tension and prevent droplets from coalescing. Enrobing The unit operation in which food pieces are coated with chocolate or other materials. xxii Glossary Entrainment Oil droplets that are carried over in steam produced by vigorously frying foods, leading to loss of oil, or loss of concentrated droplets of product with vapour during evaporation by boiling. Equilibrium moisture The moisture content of a food at which it neither gains nor loses content moisture to its surroundings (at a given temperature and pressure, the food is in equilibrium with the air vapour mixture surrounding it). Equilibrium relative Relative humidity of the storage atmosphere in equilibrium with the humidity moisture content of food. Eutectic temperature The temperature at which a crystal of an individual solute exists in (in freezing) equilibrium with the unfrozen liquor and ice. Exhausting Removal of air from a container before heat processing. Expeller A horizontal barrel, containing a helical screw, used to extract oil from seeds or nuts. Expression The separation of liquids from solids by applied pressure. Extractors Equipment used to extract food components using solvents. Extruder One or more screws rotating in a barrel with restricted apertures at the discharge end, used for producing extruded foods. Extrusion A process that involves the combination of several unit operations including mixing, cooking, kneading, shearing, shaping and forming to produce extruded foods. F-value The time required to destroy a given percentage of micro-organisms at a specified reference temperature and z value. Falling-rate drying The drying period in which the rate of moisture loss declines. Feedback control Automatic control of a process using information from sensors to adjust processing conditions. Feed-forward control Comparison of processing conditions with a model system, used in automatic process control. Field heat Heat within crops when they are harvested. Filter cake Solids removed by filtration. Filter medium Porous material through which food is filtered. Filtrate The liquor remaining after solids are removed by filtration. Filtration The separation of solids from liquids by passing the mixture through a bed of porous material. Final eutectic temperature The lowest eutectic temperature of solutes in equilibrium with unfrozen (in freezing) liquor and ice. Flash pasteurisation Heat treatment involving temperature greater than 72ºC for 15 s for milk. (Also known as higher-heat shorter-time processing.) Flash-over Arcing of electricity between electrodes without heating taking place. Fluence Energy imparted by light to the surface of a material. Flux Flow of liquid through reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration membranes. Foam A colloidal system with a liquid or solid continuous phase and a gaseous dispersed phase. Forming Moulding of doughs and other materials into different shapes. Fouling Deposits of food or limescale on surfaces of heat exchangers. Free moisture Moisture in excess of the equilibrium moisture content at a particular temperature and humidity, and so free to be removed. Freeze concentration Concentration of liquid foods by freezing water to ice and removal of ice crystals. Freeze drying Dehydration of food by freezing water to form ice, followed by removal of ice by sublimation. Freezing plateau The period during freezing when the temperature of a food remains almost constant as latent heat of crystallisation is removed and ice is formed.  Glossary xxiii Friability The hardness of a food and its tendency to crack. Grading The assessment of a number of attributes to obtain an indication of overall quality of a food. Grey body A concept used to take account of the fact that materials are not perfect absorbers or radiators of heat. Half-life The time taken for an isotope to lose half of its radioactivity. Hazard analysis The identification of potentially hazardous ingredients, storage conditions, packaging, critical process points and relevant human factors which may affect product safety or quality. Headspace The space in a container between the surface of a food and the underside of the lid. Heat sterilisation Destruction of the majority of micro-organisms in a food by heating. Hermetically-sealed A package that is designed to be secure against entry of micro- container organisms and maintain the commercial sterility of its contents after processing. Heterofermentative Micro-organisms that produce more than one main metabolic product. micro-organisms Homofermentative Micro-organisms that produce a single main byproduct. micro-organisms Homogenisation The reduction in size and increase in number of solid or liquid particles in the dispersed phase. Humectants Chemicals (e.g. salt, sugar, glycerol) that are able to lower the water activity in a food by depressing the vapour pressure. Hydrocooling Immersion of fruits and vegetables in chilled water. Hydrophile-lipophile The ratio of hydrophilic to hydrophobic groups on the molecules of an balance (HLB value) emulsifier. Hygroscopic foods Foods in which the partial pressure of water vapour varies with the moisture content. Hydrostatic head The pressure resulting from the weight of a column of liquid. Hyperfiltration Reverse osmosis. Impact strength The force required to penetrate a material. Indirect heating ovens Ovens in which heat from combustion is passed through a heat exchanger to heat air which is then in contact with the food. Inventory The stored accumulation of materials in an operation. Ion exchange The selective removal of charged molecules from a liquid by electrostatic adsorption, followed by their transfer to a second liquid using an ion-exchange material. Ionisation Breakage of chemical bonds (e.g. during irradiation). Irradiation The use of c-rays to preserve foods by destruction of micro-organisms or inhibition of biochemical changes. Isostatic Uniform pressure throughout a food. Isotope A source of c-rays from a radioactive material such as cobalt-60 or caesium-137. Just-in-time Management system in which goods are ordered as they are required and stocks are not held in warehouses. Kinetic energy Energy due to motion. Lamination Bonding together of two or more packaging films, papers or foods. Latent heat Heat taken up or released when a material undergoes a change of state. Leaching Washing out of soluble components from the food. Lethality Integrated effect of heating temperature and time on micro-organisms. Loss factor A measure of the amount of energy that a material will dissipate when subjected to an alternating electric field (in microwave and dielectric heating). (Also termed the ‘dielectric loss’ or ‘loss tangent’.) xxiv Glossary Low acid food A food with a pH greater than 4.6 and a water activity (aw) equal to or greater than 0.85. Manufacturing resource Computer-based systems used to control distribution networks by using planning forecasted demand for and actual orders to assist management decisions. Material requirement A single integrated computer system, containing a database that can be planning accessed by all parts of the company for management planning. Mechanical refrigerators Equipment which evaporates and compresses a refrigerant in a continuous cycle, using cooled air, cooled liquid or cooled surfaces to freeze foods. Metallisation A thin coating of aluminium on plastic packaging. Microfiltration A pressure-driven membrane process using membranes with a pore size of 0.2–2 m at lower pressures than ultrafiltration. Microwaves Energy produced commercially at frequencies of 2450 MHz for domestic ovens, 896 MHz for industrial heating in Europe and 915 MHz for industrial heating in the USA. Mimetics Low calorie fat substitutes. Mimic panel A graphical display of a process. Moulders Machines that form dough or confectionery into different shapes. Multiple effect The re-use of vapour from boiling liquor in one evaporator as the heating medium in another evaporator operating at a lower pressure. Nanofiltration A membrane process to separate particles with molecular weights from 300–1000 Da, using lower pressures than reverse osmosis. Neural networks Computer systems that are able to analyse complex relationships in a process and ‘learn’ from experience. Nip The gap between rollers in a mill or a moulding/forming machine. Nominal freezing time The time between the surface of the food reaching 0ºC and the thermal centre reaching 10ºC below the temperature of the first ice formation. Non-hygroscopic foods Foods that have a constant water vapour pressure at different moisture contents. Non-Newtonian liquid Food in which the viscosity changes with rate of shear. Nucleation The formation of a nucleus of water molecules that is required for ice crystal formation. Ohmic heating Direct electrical heating of foods. Overall heat transfer The sum of the resistances to heat flow due to conduction and coefficient (OHTC) convection. Panning The process of building up thin layers of sugar, sweetener or other coatings in a controlled way onto solid cores of nuts, fruit, etc. Pasteurisation A relatively mild heat treatment in which food is heated to below 100ºC to preserve it without substantial changes to sensory characteristics or nutritional value. In low acid foods, the main reason for pasteurisation is destruction of pathogens. Pinholes Small holes in can seams or flexible packaging. Plasticiser Chemicals added to plastic films to make them more flexible. Polymorphic fat A fat that can crystallise into more than one form. Potential energy Energy due to position of an object. Preforms Small dense pellets made in an extruder from pre-gelatinised cereal dough, which are suitable for extended storage until they are converted to snackfoods by frying, toasting or puffing. (Also known as ‘half- products’.) Press cake Solid residue remaining after extraction of liquid component from foods. Process inter-locking Linking different parts of a process so that one cannot operate until a  Glossary xxv second is correctly set up. Programmable logic A microcomputer that is used in process control to replace electrical controllers (PLCs) relays and to collect and store process data. Pseudoplastic material Food in which the viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. Psychrometrics The study of inter-related properties of air–water vapour systems. Radiation The transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. Radio frequency energy Energy produced commercially at frequencies of 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz or 40.68 MHz for industrial heating. Radiolysis Changes to a food material caused by ionising radiation to produce chemicals that destroy micro-organisms, etc. Recrystallisation Physical changes to ice crystals (changes in shape, size or orientation) which are an important cause of quality loss in some frozen foods. Redox potential Oxidation/reduction potential of a food or microbial substrate. Refrigerant A liquid that has a low boiling point and high latent heat of vaporisation so that it can change phase and absorb or lose heat in a refrigerator. Refrigerators Equipment that evaporates and compresses a refrigerant in a continuous cycle, using cooled air, cooled liquid or cooled surfaces to freeze foods. Relative humidity The ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in air to the pressure of saturated water vapour at the same temperature, multiplied by 100. Respiration Metabolic activity of living animal or plant tissues. Retort A pressurised vessel used to heat foods above 100ºC during canning. Reverse osmosis Unit operation in which small molecular weight solutes (with molecular weights of approx. 100 DA) are selectively removed by a semi-permeable membrane under high pressure. Screen A sieve. Sensible heat Heat used to raise the temperature of a food or removed during cooling, without a change in phase. Sequence control A type of process control in which the completion of one operation signals the start of the next. Soils A generic term used for all types of contaminating materials on foods or equipment. Sorption isotherm A curve produced from different values of relative humidity plotted against equilibrium moisture content. Sorting The separation of foods into categories on the basis of a measurable physical property. Specific electrical Electrical resistance of a food between two 1 cm2 electrodes that are resistance located 1 cm apart (i.e. the resistance of 1 cm3 of product), having units of ohms cm 2 cm 1. Specific growth rate The slope of the curve when the natural logarithm of microbial cell concentration is plotted against time. Specific heat The amount of heat that accompanies a unit change in temperature by a unit mass of material. Stabilisers Hydrocolloids that dissolve in water to form viscous solutions or gels. Steady-state heat transfer Heating or cooling when there is no change in temperature at any specific location. Sterilants Chemicals that inactivate micro-organisms. Streamline (or laminar) Flow of liquids in layers without significant mixing between layers. flow Sublimation A change in state of water directly from ice to water vapour without melting. Substrate A growth medium for micro-organisms. xxvi Glossary Supercooling A phenomenon in which water remains liquid although the temperature is below its freezing point. Supercritical carbon Liquid CO2 used to extract food components. dioxide Supervisory Control and A type of computer software that collects data from programmable Data Acquisition logic controllers and displays it as graphics to operators in real-time. (SCADA) Surface heat transfer A measure of the resistance to heat flow caused by a boundary film of coefficient liquid. Susceptor A packaging material that is used to create a localised high temperature in microwave ovens; usually made from lightly metallised polyethylene terephthalate. Tempering Cooling food to close to its freezing point, or a process of re-heating, stirring and cooling chocolate to remove unstable forms of polymorphic fats. Tensile elongation A measure of the ability to stretch. Tensile strength The force needed to stretch a material. Thermal centre The point in a food that heats or cools most slowly. Thermal conductivity A measure of the heat transfer properties of solid materials. Thermal death time The time required to achieve a specified reduction in microbial (TDT) or F-value numbers at a given temperature. Thermal diffusivity The ratio of thermal conductivity of a product to specific heat, multiplied by the density. Thermal shock Heating: fracture to a glass container caused by rapid changes in temperature; freezing: a rapid reduction in temperature that causes foods to fracture. Ultra high temperature Processing heat sterilisation at above 135ºC for a few seconds. (UHT) Ultrafiltration Unit operation in which solutes having molecular weights in the range of 1–200 kDA are selectively removed using a semi-permeable membrane operating at lower pressure than reverse osmosis. Ultrasonication Treatment of foods using ultrasound. Unitised loads Grouping of packages into larger loads. Usage value The rate of usage of individual materials in an inventory multiplied by their individual value. Unsteady-state heat Heating or cooling where the temperature of the food and/or the transfer heating or cooling medium are constantly changing. Venting Removal of air from a retort before heat processing. Viscoelastic material Food materials which exhibit viscous and elastic properties including stress relaxation, creep and recoil. Voidage The fraction of the total volume occupied by air (the degree of openness) of a bed of material in fluidised-bed drying. Water activity The ratio of vapour pressure of water in a solid to that of pure water at the same temperature. Web A packaging film. Wet bulb temperature Temperature measured by a wet thermometer in an air–water vapour mixture. Yield Weight of food after processing compared to weight before processing. Young’s modulus (also modulus of elasticity) = stress/strain and is a measure of the hardness of a material. Symbols A Area a Thermal diffusivity a Throttling factor (extrusion) aw Water activity B Time of heating (canning) Bi Biot number b Permeability b Slope of sorption isotherm Cd Drag coefficient (fluid dynamics) c Concentration c Internal seam length (canning) c Specific heat capacity cp Specific heat at constant pressure D Diameter (pipe, vessel) D Dilution rate (fermentation) D Decimal reduction time D Diffusion coefficient d Diameter (sphere, size of sieve aperture) d Differential operator E Electrical field strength E Energy (size reduction, radio frequency heating) F Feed flow rate (sorting, fermentation) F F-value (canning) F Shape factors (extruders) Fr Froude number f Slope of heat penetration curve (canning) f Frequency (microwaves) G Geometric constants (extruders) G Air mass flowrate (dehydration) g Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m s 2) g Retort temperature minus product temperature (canning) H Humidity xxviii Symbols h Heat transfer coefficient hc Convective heat transfer coefficient hs Surface heat transfer coefficient I Light intensity I Electrical current Ih Retort temperature minus product temperature (canning) J Flux (membrane concentration) j Heating/cooling factor (canning) K Mass transfer coefficient (dehydration, membrane concentration) K Constant Kk Kick’s constant (size reduction) KR Rittinger’s constant (size reduction) Ks Substrate utilisation constant (fermentation) k Thermal conductivity L Length L Equivalent thickness of filter cake l Come-up time (canning) M Moisture content, dry-weight basis M Molar concentration m Mass m Mass flow rate m Moisture content (wet-weight basis) N Speed N Rate of diffusion Nu Nusselt number n Number P Pressure P Product Row rate (sorting) P Power P Productivity (fermentation) Po Power number (mixing) Po Vapour pressure of pure water Q Rate of heat transfer Q Volumetric flowrate qp Specific rate of product formation (fermentation) R Universal gas constant R Reject flowrate (sorting) R Resistance to flow through a filter R Fraction of reflected light (packaging) R Electrical resistance Re Reynolds number r Radius r Specific resistance to flow through a filter S Substrate concentration (fermentation) s Compressibility of filter cake T Absolute temperature T Fractional transmission of light (packaging) t Time t Metal thickness (canning) U Overall heat transfer coefficient U Thermal death time at retort temperature (canning) V Volume V Voltage  Symbols xxix Vc Fractional volume of filter cake v Velocity ve Air velocity needed to convey particles vf Air velocity needed for fluidisation W Work index (size reduction) x Thickness, depth x Direction of heat flow x Mass fraction x Average y Cover hook length (canning) Y Yield or yield factor (fermentation) z Height z z-value (canning) Absorbance, absorptivity Coefficient of thermal expansion
Difference, change  Half dimension tan Loss tangent (microwaves)  Porosity  Voidage of fluidised bed  Emmisivity (infrared radiation) 0 Dielecric constant (microwaves) 00 Loss factor (microwaves)  Temperature  Latent heat  Wavelegth  Viscosity  Specific growth rate (fermentation)  Osmatic pressure  Constant ˆ 3:142  Density  Sum  Standard deviation  Electrical conductivity  Stefan-Boltzmann constant (infrared radiation) ! Angular velocity Acronyms AGV Automatically guided vehicle AQL Acceptable quality limit CAP Controlled atmosphere packaging CAS Controlled atmosphere storage CBE Cocoa butter equivalent CIP Cleaning in place CCP Critical control point CFC Chlorofluorocarbon CORBA Common Object Resource Based Architecture DCS Distributed control systems DDE Dynamic data exchange EDI Electronic data interchange EMA Equilibrium modified atmosphere EPSL Edible protective superficial coating ESR Electron spin resonance GEP Gas exchange preservation GMP Good manufacturing practice HACCP Hazard analysis critical control point HLB Hydrophile-lipophile balance HTST High-temperature short-time IBC Intermediate bulk container IQF Individual quick frozen/freezing JIT Just in time MAP Modified atmosphere packaging MAS Modified atmosphere storage MRP Material resource planning NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance NVDP Non-volatile decomposition products OLE Object linking and embedding ODBC Open data base connectivity OPC Object linking and embedding for process control PAM Passive atmosphere modification  Acronyms xxxi PCS Process control system PLC Programmable logic controller PPP Product processing packaging PSL Photostimulated luminescence PSL Practical storage life PVdC Poly vinylidene chloride RDA Recommended daily allowance REPFED Ready-to-eat-products-for-extended-durability (also refrigerated-pasteurised-foods- for-extended-durability) SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition TDT Thermal death time TQM Total quality management TTT Time temperature tolerance UHT Ultra high temperature VDP Volatile decomposition products VOC Volatile organic compounds VP Vacuum packaging VSP Vaccum skin packaging WHO World Health Organisation WOF Warmed over flavour WTO World Trade Organisation Introduction The food industry today The aims of the food industry today, as in the past, are fourfold: 1. To extend the period during which a food remains wholesome (the shelf life) by preservation techniques which inhibit microbiological or biochemical changes and thus allow time for distribution, sales and home storage. 2. To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive flavours, colours, aromas and textures in food (collectively known as eating quality, sensory characteristics or organoleptic quality); a related aim is to change the form of the food to allow further processing (for example the milling of grains to flour). 3. To provide the nutrients required for health (termed nutritional quality of a food). 4. To generate income for the manufacturing company. Each of these aims exists to a greater or lesser extent in all food production, but the processing of a given product may emphasise some more than others. For example, frozen vegetables are intended to have sensory and nutritional qualities that are as close as possible to the fresh product, but with a shelf life of several months instead of a few days or weeks. The main purpose of freezing is therefore to preserve the food. In contrast, sugar confectionery and snackfoods are intended to provide variety in the diet, and a large number of shapes, flavours, colours and textures are produced from basic raw materials. All food processing involves a combination of procedures to achieve the intended changes to the raw materials. These are conveniently categorised as unit operations, each of which has a specific, identifiable and predictable effect on a food. Unit operations are grouped together to form a process. The combination and sequence of operations determines the nature of the final product. In industrialised countries the market for processed foods is changing, and in contrast to earlier years, consumers no longer require a shelf life of several months at ambient temperature for the majority of their foods. Changes in family lifestyle, and increased ownership of freezers and microwave ovens, are reflected in demands for foods that are convenient to prepare, are suitable for frozen or chilled storage, or have a moderate shelf 2 Food processing technology life at ambient temperatures. There is now an increasing demand by consumers for foods that have fewer synthetic additives, or have undergone fewer changes during processing. These foods more closely resemble the original raw materials and have a ‘healthy’ or ‘natural’ image. Correspondingly, growth in demand for organic foods has significantly increased in Europe during the 1990s. These pressures are an important influence on changes that are taking place in the food processing industry, and manufacturers have responded by reducing or eliminating synthetic additives from products (particularly colourants and flavours) and substituting them with natural or ‘nature-equivalent’ alternatives. They have also introduced new ranges of low-fat, sugar-free or low-salt products in nearly all sub-sectors (Anon., 1999). New products that are supplemented with vitamins, minerals and probiotic cultures (or ‘functional’ foods) have appeared in recent years, and products containing organic ingredients are now widely available. At the time of writing (2000), a debate over the safety of genetically modified (GM) food ingredients is unresolved. Consumer pressure for more ‘natural’ products has also stimulated development of novel ‘minimal’ processes that reduce the changes to sensory characteristics or nutritional value of foods. Improvements to food quality during the last 10–15 years have also been achieved through changes in legislation, including legal requirements on manufacturers and retailers to display ‘due diligence’ in protecting consumers from potentially hazardous foods. This has in part arisen from a series of highly publicised cases of food poisoning and food adulteration in Europe during the 1980s and 1990s, and the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE) in British cattle, which led to public pressure for improved food safety and quality. Legislation is now increasingly international in its focus and application, and international standards for both specific products and also for methods of achieving quality assurance are in force. Trends that started during the 1960s and 1970s, and accelerated during the last 10–15 years, have caused food processors to change their operations in four key respects. First, there is increasing investment in capital intensive, automated processes to reduce labour and energy costs. Second, there has been a change in philosophy from quality control, achieved by testing final products, to a more sophisticated approach to quality assurance, which involves all aspects of management. Third, high levels of competition and slowing of the growth in the food market in Europe and USA during the 1970s, has caused manufacturers to adopt a more proactive approach to creating demand, using sophisticated marketing techniques and large advertising budgets. Mergers or take-overs of competitors have resulted from the increased competition. Fourth, there has been a shift in power and control of food markets from manufacturers to large retail companies. The changes in technology have been influenced by a variety of factors: substantial increases in the costs of both energy and labour, by public pressure and legislation to reduce negative environmental effects of processing, particularly air or water pollution and energy consumption. Food processing equipment now has increasingly sophisticated levels of control to reduce processing costs, enable rapid change-overs between shorter production runs, to improve product quality and to provide improved records for management decisions. Microprocessors are now almost universally used to control food processing equipment. The automation of entire processes, from reception of materials, through processing and packaging to warehousing, has become a reality. This requires a higher capital investment by manufacturers but, together with improved quality assurance, reduces production costs and wastage. It increases production efficiency, uses less energy and often fewer operators, and generates increased revenue and market share from products that have higher quality.  Introduction 3 The food industry has now become a global industry, dominated by a relatively few multinational conglomerates. Many of the mergers and take-overs that created these companies took place in the 1980s and early 1990s when large companies bought their competitors in order to acquire brand names and increase their market share. In 1988 for example, a total of $42.5 billion was spent on the purchase of just three companies (Rowntree, Kraft and Nabisco) (Giles, 1993). Multinational com- panies are now focusing on development of new markets and are either buying up or forming alliances with local competitors in South East Asia, India, Eastern Europe and Latin America. Global sourcing of raw materials and ingredients has been a feature of some industries from their inception (spices, coffee, cocoa are a few examples), but this has now expanded to many more sectors, to reduce costs and ensure continuity of supply. These developments have in turn prompted increased consumer awareness of both ethical purchasing issues, such as employment and working conditions in suppliers’ factories, and also environmental issues, such as safeguards in countries which have less developed legislative controls, and the environmental impact of international transportation of foods by air. There has also been a resurgence of consumer interest in locally distinctive foods and ‘Fair-Traded’ foods in some European countries, but at the time of writing this is confined to higher value niche products. During the last decade or so, there has been a substantial increase in the power and influence of large retailing companies, especially in the USA and Europe. Much of the change in food quality and choice that has been witnessed during this time has arisen from competition between these retail companies and the pressures that they have exerted on manufacturers. Manufacturers are now responding to the shift in power to supermarkets by forming international strategic alliances with other large manufacturers. This enables them to develop pan-regional economies of scale and to focus on their own core products while sharing the benefits of joint marketing or research and development. They are also promoting ‘tele-shopping’, especially using the Internet, and developing other types of sales outlets (e.g. at sports or cultural venues) that by-pass existing retailers. About this book Heat has important influences on food processing in a number of respects: it is the most convenient way of extending the shelf life of foods by destroying enzymic and microbiological activity, or by removing water to inhibit deterioration; it changes the nutritional and sensory qualities of foods; and generation of heat is a major processing cost. The unit operations described in this book are therefore grouped according to the nature of heat transfer that takes place. After Part I, which describes some important basic concepts, Part II describes unit operations that take place at ambient temperature and involve minimum heating of foods; Part III includes those operations that heat foods to extend the shelf life or to alter the eating quality; Part IV describes operations that remove heat from foods to extend the shelf life with minimal changes in nutritional qualities and sensory characteristics; the final part, Part V, is concerned with operations that are integral to a food process but are supplementary to the main method of processing. In each chapter, the theoretical basis of the unit operation is first described. Formulae required for calculation of processing parameters and sample problems are 4 Food processing technology given where appropriate, and sources of more detailed information are indicated. Details of the equipment used for practical implementation of theoretical concepts are then described, and developments in technology that relate to savings in energy or labour, or to improvement in product quality are noted. Finally the effect of the unit operation on sensory characteristics and nutritional properties of selected foods is described. This book therefore aims to show how a knowledge of the properties of foods is used to design processing equipment and to control processing conditions on an industrial scale, to achieve the desired aims of altering the eating quality or extending the shelf life, with minimal changes to sensory characteristics and nutritional qualities. The book aims to introduce students of food science and technology, or biotechnology to the wide range of processing techniques that are used in food processing. It attempts to describe each topic at a level that is accessible without an advanced mathematical background, while providing reference to more detailed or more advanced texts. The book is therefore also suitable for students studying nutrition, catering or agriculture as an additional perspective on their subject areas. Note on the second edition There have been major developments in technology during the last decade which have justified new chapters on: computer control of processing (Chapter 2) novel food processes that have a minimal effect on food quality (Chapter 9 and ohmic heating in Chapter 18) modified atmosphere packaging (Chapter 20). Nearly all of the unit operations described in the first edition have undergone significant developments and these are reflected in additional material in each chapter. This is especially so for: sorting foods (Chapter 3) membrane separation technologies (Chapter 6) bacteriocins (Chapter 7) detection of irradiated foods (Chapter 8) UHT/Aseptic processing (Chapter 12) chilling (Chapter 19) packaging (Chapters 24 and 25) materials handling (Chapter 26). Additional material has also been included in Chapter 1 to both make the text more comprehensive and to include an outline of quality assurance and Hurdle Technology, and in Chapter 13 to include an outline of distillation. Where appropriate, the original text has been clarified and edited, and new photographs, illustrations and tables have been included to provide additional information and updated descriptions of technologies. All new developments have been fully referenced in each chapter, and a new glossary of technical terms and list of acronyms has been included.  Introduction 5 References ANON. (1999). 1989–1999 – a decade in the food and drink industry. GTI Food and Drink Industry Journal, 10, 2–7. GILES, M. (1993) The Food Industry. Economist, 4 December, pp. 3–18. Part I Basic principles 1 Properties of foods and processing theory 1.1