Fire and Emergency Services Administration Chapter 3 PDF

CHAPTER 3 Management LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to: ∎ Understand the role of managem...

CHAPTER 3 Management LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, the student will be able to: ∎ Understand the role of management in fire services and emergency medical service (EMS) (pp 38–39). ∎ Know the four key managerial tasks of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling (p 39–49). ∎ Discuss the value of experience and intuition in decision-making (pp 39–40). ∎ Describe techniques managers can use to increase staff compliance with rules an regulations (pp 45–46). ∎ Explain techniques for motivating staff members (p 45). ∎ Apply the three-step control process to accomplish organizational goals by measurin performance, comparing against a standard, and taking corrective action (pp 47–49). ∎ Discuss the management strategies of technology-based management, total qualit management, leading by example, broad-based empowerment, and managing by walkin around (MBWA) (pp 49–52). ∎ Comprehend managerial performance standards and methods of performance assessmen  (pp 52–53). Case Study The Devil’s Advocate at Work A fire prevention program manager would like to increase the number of home fire inspections performed by station personnel. The station personnel have reported that they do not have any time available as a result of emergency calls, in-service training, physical fitness, and station and apparatus maintenance. Firefighters work a 24-hour shift during which the required nonemergency duties are performed during daylight hours. The time after dinner until the morning, by tradition, is reserved for personal time or call response. However, the prevention manager would like to suggest that the time after dinner (and during weekends) be used to do these inspections. The manager believes that this would be a good time because many residents who work would be at home during the evening hours and weekends. Because these inspections are voluntary, the requesting residents would be advised of the time of their appointment with the understanding that an emergency call would necessitate rescheduling. Discussion Questions 1. How popular would this idea be for most members in your departments? 2. Would proposing this idea be controversial or resisted by the members and their labor unions? 3. What type of information or justification would hopefully be able to lead the group to a progressive change? What Is Management? Management is the glue that holds an organization together on a day-to-day basis. Management is what enables an organization to achieve its goals, efficiently and effectively, with the necessary staff, equipment, and resources. As explained in the chapter Introduction to Administration, management and leadership skills are two very different components of fire and EMS administration. Leaders provide the vision and are change agents for an organization, whereas managers supervise and facilitate the work of others within the organization. Although many people may gravitate toward management for its status, being in a supervisory position comes with a great deal of responsibility. There are four main responsibilities of management: 1. Planning includes creating and defining goals, and making important decisions and establishing strategic plans to achieve these goals. Without proper planning and implementation, the change required to meet new goals can be painful for the organization, its members, and its customers. Planning is discussed in greater detail in the chapter Public Policy Analysis. 2. Organizing is the process of determining what tasks need to be done and who is to perform these tasks. The manager determines the organizational structure (who reports to whom) and which parts of the organization respond to day-to-day problems. A good organizational chart indicates the major groups and who they report to for direction. 3. Directing the organization involves many tasks such as motivating and supervising staff, communicating with members, spotting noncompliance, administering appropriate disciplinary action, and resolving conflicts. These actions are what most people think of when they picture a manager. 4. Controlling refers to monitoring performance, measuring outcomes and progress toward goals, and making any adjustments necessary to keep the agency moving toward those goals. As part of this process, managers also provide feedback for future planning. There is an old saying in management that to manage anything you must be able to measure it. Generally, effective management can be achieved if you set a clear goal and find something to measure that will indicate progress toward that goal. This may seem basic, but it is amazing how often it is not done and how hard it is to get right. A very simple example happens every day in many fire departments: At the beginning of each shift, the total number of firefighters present is reported to a manager. If a company is below minimum staffing, firefighters are detailed in or called back on overtime to meet the department’s goal. This is the basis for all management control functions: valid measures. These four responsibilities are discussed in greater detail in subsequent sections. Planning One of the key responsibilities that is critical to excellent service of a manager is to make day-to-day decisions to respond to situations that are not expected or planned for in the strategic plan. This section explores key aspects of the planning process—routine decision-making, including time sensitive decisions during emergency situations. Decision-Making In many cases of problems or identified issues needing change(s), the Fire and Emergency Services (FES) culture may default toward the use of intuitive decision-making by the chief officer. However, this approach generally is accompanied by a bias toward the tradition of the individual department. It also has been observed that the largest “big” city is imitated by the surrounding departments, which is another bias. In addition, a TV show such as Chicago Fire probably has an influence on many departments. Even the color scheme of the fire trucks is being copied by many departments (i.e., black top). This severely limits the potential to consider more innovative ideas. There are many techniques or analytical tools that can be used to identify and organize research toward finding solution(s). Managers should be careful at selecting these analytical tools because many have been derived for complex issues in “for profit” businesses. Because these unknown issues are relatively rare, the use of an outside management consultant may be helpful. 1. As noted throughout this text, many operational issues can be answered by reviewing professional standards such as those promulgated by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). When needed for issues not  resolved or addressed, a classical and very helpful process, used to organize decision-making, is listed below: a. Recognizing a critical need b. Defining the problem c. Collecting data and observations d. Analyzing the data e. Developing a hypothesis f. Testing the hypothesis multiple times to assure consistency and validity. Probably the most key item is “defining the problem.” It is very common to identity a symptom or not take into consideration that the problem may be the result of numerous causes. Also, in the FES it is not unusual to attempt to look for a quick and easy solution. This is the result of an action-oriented approach to everyday operations that requires immediate action to resolve an emergency incident. This process is not intuitive and can be very complex. There are numerous educational sources to help understand this process as well as municipal government professionals or outside consultants. Intuition in Decision-Making Standard operating procedures (SOPs) cannot cover every situation at the scene of an emergency, so managers must be able to make quick, critical decisions. One of the qualities of an effective manager is the ability to make the right decision in the face of unfamiliar circumstances. These successful officers are often described as having good instincts, intuitively sensing when something is dangerous or wrong, or listening to a “gut feeling.” Although intuition should not replace consideration of the facts, accepted knowledge, or prior experience, it can (along with common sense) contribute to decision- making. Many experts believe that a person’s subconscious mind holds all of the acquired knowledge, ethical values, past experiences, training, and skills that are used for complex problem solving. This has a large influence over what we call intuition. That is why it is always better when making an important decision to “sleep on it” if possible and allow the subconscious mind to process the information.  In part, intuition comes from experiences and acquired knowledge. In his bestselling book Outliers: The Story of Success (2008), author Malcolm Gladwell claims that the key to success in any field is, to a large extent, a matter of training, education, and about 10,000 hours of professional experience. Although a lot of experience is needed, it is not necessary to get all the experience oneself; the experience can be acquired from others through the review of case studies and writings of those with years of experience. Learning from others allows managers to gain knowledge of difficult situations without having to put themselves or their staff in danger, which is especially advantageous in emergency operations. To gain knowledge, managers can learn from textbooks, reports of actions at emergency incidents, visits to other FES agencies, investigations into emergency responder deaths and injuries, articles about incidents, interviews with other emergency responders, professional websites, and professional qualifications and safety standards. CASE STUDY Fire Prevention An example of group decision-making can be found in in the following case. In the 1980s, the Prince Georges County, Maryland, Fire Department was experiencing numerous large-scale fires in garden-style apartment buildings and identified this situation as a critical problem because they were very difficult to extinguish, often resulting in firefighter injuries, and would culminate in whole rows of buildings burning down. These multi-dwelling structures were either three or four stories with four apartments per floor. They were accessed by a single central stair and the buildings were of combustible construction. Many of these buildings had two uninhabitable basement areas that were used as shared laundry and storage rooms for the tenants. These areas were below grade and had no windows; therefore, the only method of attacking a fire in these areas was to extend hose lines down a half story of stairs and into the door leading to these rooms—a tough and unsafe tactic. The storage areas were commonly used to store combustible items, such as renters’ personal items, furniture, and even car tires. Most of these fires were deliberately set and would, without rapid extinguishment, spread to floors above via voids in the walls. The end result would find fire in the attic and lead to complete destruction of the entire building and in many cases adjoining buildings. The fire department had gathered computerized fire data for many years, and one of the items captured was whether there was a delayed or immediate notification of the fire. After analyzing the data, a strong correlation appeared  between the ultimate property loss and the detection stage. As one might suspect, delayed detection (caused by the lack of heat or smoke detectors) resulted in higher property losses. By analyzing this data, the department was able to identify a problem along with a solution and implement special fire code requirements to address the problem. The owners were either required to install a limited water supply sprinkler system using the domestic water supply or vacate and lock the storage rooms and install a smoke detector tied to the buildings’ fire alarm. This change resulted in the significant reduction in these large-loss fires. In this case, the data identified a measurable problem that was analyzed and used to ultimately improve fire safety for both the occupants and firefighters extinguishing these large fires. Mission accomplished. Managers may wish to make decisions on their own as individuals, or they may make decisions based on group input. Group decision-making occurs when individuals, typically those that are affected by the decision, collectively study and make a choice from the potential realistic options. In most cases, the chief manager provides a definition of the problem, some background information, and any limitations on the group’s decisions before the decision is handed over to the assigned group. When to Use Group Decision-Making When the final decision directly impacts organizational activities, members’ benefits, or performance benchmarks, group decision-making may make acceptance easier, particularly when sacrifice is required. Groups may find unique solutions to problems; for example, unions have voted to accept pay decreases instead of layoffs. With group decision-making, managers are less likely to feel blindsided by a lack of information about possible (or preferred) solutions. One of the major reasons noted for bad decisions made by management is lack of factual information. Group decision-making ensures that many diverse opinions are discussed. This process also results in the collection, verification, and analysis of a lot of background information regarding the problem, dramatically reducing the chance of a poor decision being made. The collection of verified background information from reliable sources is especially important in today’s world, when major media communications organizations have been found to misrepresent facts and in some cases promote outright propaganda. For example, social media platforms are struggling with blocking “hate speech” or falsehoods that can inadvertently or deliberately exclude real truths as a result of their new policies. In order to make effective decisions, managers must be aware of information from biased organizations or advocacy groups. Rigorously check any facts or data you use for veracity. There is no easy method to this process; it just requires decision researchers to be very conscientious and diligent. CHIEF OFFICER TIP Emergency Incident Research When conducting emergency incident research, consider using the following Internet resources: ∎ Firehouse Magazine, https://www.firehouse.com/ ∎ Fire Engineering Magazine, https://www.fireengineering.com/ ∎ The Fire Chief, https://www.firechief.com/ ∎ JEMS: Journal of Emergency Medical Services, https://www.jems.com/ ∎ EMS World Magazine, https://www.emsworld.com ∎ Fire Fighter Close Calls, http://www.firefighterclosecalls.com/ ∎ U.S. National Institute of Science and Technology, Fire Research Division ∎ NFPA, https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research ∎ U.S. Department of Homeland Security, https://www.ready.gov/preparedness-research ∎ Disaster Information Management Research Center https://disasterinfo.nlm.nih.gov/ ∎ U.S. Fire Administration, https://www.usfa.fema.gov/data/DisasterInformationManagementResearchCenter ∎ CSB Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, https://www.csb.gov/ How to Select Group Members Effective group decision-making should include a group of individuals from all levels of the organization. Outside experts such as elected officials or other agency representatives can also contribute to the process. Group members need to be selected carefully based on their openness to discussion, absence of bias, expertise, and ability to come up with rational solutions. Managers must be cautious not to be predisposed toward selecting group members who are in favor of the administration’s preferred solution. The advantage of increased acceptance is lost if members believe the decision-making process was manipulated. Group members should have a minimum amount of experience, because there are some idiosyncrasies of the profession that simply take time to learn; however, they should also not be near retirement. Members nearing retirement may not have a stake or interest in solving the problem. One common policy is to allow groups, such as the union, to appoint one or more members to the decision-making group. These selections should be accepted by the administration even if these members might be biased and would not otherwise have been selected. Optimal Group Size Although there is no unanimously accepted number, groups of 5–15 members seem to be the most effective size for timely group decision- making. Whatever number is chosen, it should be an odd number to enable the group to reach a final decision using a simple majority of members. Some organizations that use group decision-making to determine consensus standards (e.g., the NFPA) may have committees with up to 30 members. Larger groups may have greater difficulty arranging in-person meetings, and in most cases all members will not be able to attend. Although electronic audio-video conferencing can help, ideally meetings should be in person. With the COVID-19 virus, temporary video conferencing meetings may be the only option. Techniques to Aid Group Discussions Several different techniques may be useful in group decision-making. Understanding Limitations Managers are responsible for communicating any limitations of resources or other relevant areas (e.g., specific laws or regulations) to the group members. This may include mandates from elected officials, legal restraints, and state or federal regulations. In addition, the manager may wish to outline possible solutions and describe any that will not be accepted by the administration. Gathering Information Managers may wish to encourage group members to consider ideas for solutions that have demonstrated success in other departments. Group members may wish to consult research articles or visit departments that have had similar problems. This allows group members to gain insight into what has been tried elsewhere and what has succeeded or failed. Managers should encourage members to have an open mind; just because a solution failed somewhere else does not mean it will not be successful in their department. Newer technologies and communication sources are almost infinite. Research using https://duckduckgo.com/ and https://www.google.com/ will serve up a large list of Internet resources. First, it is a good idea to use more than one search engine because some edit online content. Be cautious and review as many as you can to find truthful nonbiased information. For larger very dispersed departments, video conferencing combined with face-to-face meetings can be very effective and travel time advantageous. This takes a little planning that should include background research information. Also, any limitations on any suggestions that would not be acceptable need to be revealed to the participants. And finally, the old fashioned phone can be very helpful. Using the Internet, find phone numbers of members in other departments that may have experienced the same issue. For example, in a suburban highly populated county, a new indoor sports arena was being planned in the early 1970s. Because this department had no experience with the fire protection features or fire prevention rules for this type of venue, they sent fire prevention officers to visit the fire departments in major cities that had these buildings. They were welcomed by fire officials in these jurisdictions and were provided tours and conversations on effective fire prevention procedures for the safety of inhabitants. This turned out to be a critical help. Reviewing National Consensus Standards Fire services and EMS may be required to meet standards defined by national organizations, state governments, or local contracts to ensure quality and accountability. The guidelines provided by federal agencies, state authorities, professional organizations (e.g., NFPA, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration [NHTSA], Occupational Health and Safety Administration [OSHA]), and union agreements should be considered when determining company policies. For example, it can be argued that if a department complies with NFPA 1500, Standard for Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, it will be empowered to deliver superior emergency service to the customer. Brainstorming In the process of brainstorming, members may suggest any solutions without initial judgments; this is essentially a technique to generate ideas FIGURE 3-1. Anonymous input should be arranged, if possible, to encourage those members who may not want to publicly advocate their ideas for fear of criticism. However, this may not be necessary because only ideas—not criticism—should be allowed during brainstorming sessions. After all of the suggestions have been documented, the group should be given time to consider the available options before discussing them, ideally until the next meeting.  FIGURE 3-1 Brainstorming allows any and all solutions to be recommended without any initial judgments. © ASDF_MEDIA/ShutterStock. Discussion At the next meeting, members may discuss the options and offer criticisms of the proposals. Members or staff should be selected to research the ideas, including all previous successful or unsuccessful experiences. Pros and cons should have solid data or reasoning behind them and should not be dismissed just because they have not been done before. Going through all the available options may take several meetings, but it is time well spent to ensure that group members have examined all possible solutions. Devil’s Advocate Only through questioning the status quo (e.g., the culture or tradition) does real change occur in organizations. For this reason, one or more group members may be assigned or voluntarily take on the role of “devil’s advocate” during the decision-making process. The devil’s advocate is a person who pretends, in an argument or discussion, to be against an idea or plan that a lot of people support, and is an effective way to make other group members justify their support of a preferred idea. This role is not for everyone; the desire to be liked by others and not take an unpopular stance is one of the most challenging issues a person may face in his or her private and professional life. To express one’s concerns without angering others, it is best to keep the focus on how the customer, member, or department will benefit from the new policy or decision and how alternate solutions may be harmful for the safety of the customer or efficiency of the department. The devil’s advocate is someone who thinks outside the box, is a risk taker, and is not afraid of change. In many respects, the devil’s advocate is a true leader who may lead the department through substantial, controversial, or progressive changes. He or she should aim to present input without angering the group, because this could lead to ostracism and being excluded from future group decision-making processes. CASE STUDY Examples of Group Decision-Making Techniques The following case studies provide examples of the previously described group decision-making techniques. Gathering Information  One major metropolitan fire department appointed a committee to design a new fire station. It had been many years since they had the funding for a station, and all of the existing stations were built by volunteer companies before the county consolidated. Because there was no uniformity in these designs and they were outdated, the committee decided to visit newly built stations in adjoining departments. Eventually, they found a station that was almost perfect for their needs. They obtained permission from the other department to use the same architect, which saved a great deal of time and money by eliminating the need for new engineering and architectural plans. Delayed Implementation A department adopted a physical fitness program and testing system; they used delayed implementation to allow incumbents (who may not have exercised for years) extended time to comply. For example, in the first year, physical fitness equipment would be purchased for each station, and medical evaluations and physical fitness testing would be completed. A plan for improvement would be given to each member. During the second year, members would start exercising at work using their individual goals as a guide. Between years 2 and 10, the existing members would be expected to achieve a percentage of the stated goal starting at 20% and increasing at 10% per year. At the end of 10 years, all members would meet the same fitness requirements, achieving the desired goal. Forward Thinking A large ambulance company purchased hydraulic gurneys for all its ambulances across the country. It was a monumental expense on the front end, but the company realized the gurneys would all but eliminate career-ending back injuries caused by incorrect lifting. The future goal was that hugely expensive worker’s compensation, and possibly patient lawsuits, would be significantly reduced. Field personnel were happy with the decision, which would help protect their backs and extend their careers. Consensus At the end of the discussion, members may determine if there is sufficient support for any of the ideas. It is possible that a combination of proposals may be the best solution. Managers should encourage group members to compromise; sometimes the best compromise includes some form of future implementation (e.g., allowing several months or years to achieve the required change). Group members may determine how they will reach a consensus at their first meeting, or this process may be designated by the administration. Consensus may be reached by unanimous decision-making, a simple majority, or a specified majority (e.g., the NFPA requires a two-thirds majority and the U.S. Senate requires a three-fifths majority for most important laws). Although not necessary, having a majority consensus is preferable. It is easier to obtain as opposed to unanimous agreement, and it indicates that most members agree with the group’s decision. Delayed Implementation A delay in initiating the new decision may be necessary because of funding or some other practical limitation. Delayed implementation is sometimes combined with a “phased-in implementation” to smooth out the adverse consequences of some projects that create substantial change. Forward Thinking This technique is used to ensure that the decision takes into consideration what may happen in the future. Many decisions do not consider the future, and, therefore, it is common to have unintended consequences. Disadvantages of Group Decision-Making Group decision-making offers many benefits; however, it does have some disadvantages. For example, groups almost always take substantially longer than an individual to reach a decision. Also, as demonstrated by the saying “a camel is a racehorse put together by a committee,” groups do not always reach ideal decisions. Poor results can be caused by failure to focus on the customer or department’s goals, or by a lack of leadership, organization, or preparation. Even if the results of the group process are valid, they may be unnecessarily complex and have internal inconsistency. For example, if a department’s procedure for the first due engine on a structural fire contains more instructions and decision points than an officer could realistically complete in the typical 7 to 10 seconds before action must be taken, this may be the result of poor group decision-making. Because meetings occur in a nonemergency setting, the group has plenty of time to discuss and analyze all possible actions, often resulting in overthinking and complications. There is also a danger of minority domination in group processes. A charismatic group member or several members representing a particular group may dominate decision-making.  Other members may feel a need to go along with the crowd to avoid conflict. This is called “group think” and can be very influential. This desire to go along with the group can be very strong in emergency response agencies where strong personal bonds often exist between members. Managers can help avoid this situation by providing clear direction and limitations, as well as by providing every member of the group an opportunity to express themselves. Each group member should be called upon by the chairperson to make a comment. Organizing In addition to planning and decision-making, another key task of most managers is determining the organizational structure. Departmental organization in FES is usually very similar in all departments, although there may be some minor variation in job titles based on tradition or department size, simplifying this task FIGURE 3-2. Budgetary considerations have led a few organizations to create alternative departmental structures, but this is rare. FIGURE 3-2 Example of a basic fire and rescue department. Description The typical department is organized based on a principle called unity of command—the idea that each individual reports to only one manager. This clear hierarchical structure is especially necessary to ensure order at the emergency scene. Unity of command becomes even more critical at large incidents where there are several different departments providing mutual aid. In national emergency incidents, the National Incident Management System (NIMS), discussed more thoroughly in the chapter Introduction to Administration, is used to ensure unity of command at catastrophic emergency incidents. FES organizations that use this system at everyday incidents will be comfortable with it and better prepared when large-scale incidents occur. Making anything a routine is more likely to result in it being done and done correctly. At the top of the department, managers may report to individuals outside of the organization. In municipal departments, managers report to a mayor, another elected official, or the appointed public safety director. In special taxing districts, a committee of elected officials is formed to oversee the FES department and represent the public interest. However, these elected officials may not have sufficient knowledge or expertise to judge the service, which can present a challenge for department managers. Unlike municipal departments, many volunteer departments do not report to anyone. This lack of accountability is usually offset by the high degree of commitment and motivation volunteers have to provide high-quality emergency service. However, managers must keep in mind the following quote from historian and politician John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton: “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” Directing The third major responsibility of managers—directing—can take many forms, such as orders, controls, and instructions. Directing is the process of a manager instructing the members under his or her authority to accomplish an organizational objective. Instruction may occur from person to person or take the form of written procedure or policy. At its simplest level, it is the verbal order of an officer to their crew on an emergency scene. Directing can occur through direct supervision or voluntary compliance and varies with the objective to be accomplished. For example, fire inspectors normally operate under voluntary compliance (self-direction) as a result of the nature of the role. Generally, they are specially trained and educated members who operate individually when performing a fire inspection. When members are motivated and informed, enforcement methods are seldom needed. However, to ensure total compliance, mandatory methods of direction, including follow-up and discipline, may be necessary. In addition, managers can achieve compliance through the use of rewards, positive role modeling, supervision, and a general culture of compliance. Ideally, managers would not have to closely supervise every member, because this opens the very real possibility that members are noncompliant when they are not being watched. Self- discipline is preferable for functional and safety issues. Close supervision may be needed when a new change is implemented, but this level of supervision is not needed after the culture and individual behaviors are changed. Managers can use several of the following techniques together to achieve compliance. Creating Rules and Regulations Rules and regulations are the backbone of directing. They achieve consistency by ensuring that all managers are following the same guidelines and policies. Important organizational rules and regulations should be in line with the goals of the organization, measurable, and written down. In creating an agency’s SOPs, a manager should strive to limit the number of SOPs required and to ensure that they are simple and easy to understand. Creating SOPs is often a complex process that identifies relevant state or federal regulations, local laws, traditions, and emergency practices affecting the department. Other departments’ SOPs can be a great resource to help check the accuracy and completeness of new or existing SOPs for your department. Motivating Staff One of the goals of management is to motivate members to achieve certain tasks or goals. Ideally, members should be motivated to the point that they no longer require direct supervision. Motivated members are more inclined to cooperate, complete tasks willingly, and follow departmental rules than dissatisfied or unmotivated members. Members who are self-motivated can also add to the motivation of those around them. These members might be good candidates for management positions because they demonstrate management skills and leadership traits. Fire and EMS providers can be motivated by many considerations, including a desire to gain security in their membership status, obtain the respect and trust of supervisors, or safety. They may also be motivated by the administration’s commitment to their well-being, increased salary and benefits, or pride they have in the organization. Members may be self-motivated by their job duties, a sense of achievement, or a desire for recognition. For example, external motivation can take the form of public recognition or ceremonies that recognize heroic actions FIGURE 3-3. However, managers should be careful when defining heroic acts; unsafe actions should not be rewarded because receiving a reward or recognition elevates the act to an aspirational goal. In addition, appreciating employees through recognition of non-emergency actions has great motivational benefits that can last the entire year or more. These rewards should be for actions that are measurable. Some corporations have used goals exhibiting success by up to 85% of employees for recognition. Listed below are several possible categories: Number of smoke detectors installed Number of home fire safety inspections Citizens instructed in CPR Members meeting minimum physical fitness criteria Fire officers becoming nationally credentialed Fire companies evaluated for emergency operations proficiency such as those complying with stated time goals in NFPA 1410 Standard on Training for Emergency Scene Operations CHIEF OFFICER TIP The chief officer may find some of the characteristics of younger generations challenging to manage. Page (1999) explains this generation gap in the article Your 21st Century Firefighter: “Our future firefighter will have precious little experience with teamwork, self-sacrifice, personal organization and respect for authority. It’s not necessarily his fault. Young people have grown up in the soft, affluent society that was created for them. We sold our farms to corporations and won the Cold War so our kids didn’t have to bale hay or get drafted.” Although a disparity does exist, blame should not be placed on the younger generation. As Page goes on to acknowledge, the ultimate question is, should the fire service change to accommodate the  differences between generations, or should the new generation change to meet the traditional fire service standards? FIGURE 3-3 Awards are opportunities for excellent public relations, but be careful that the acts rewarded are not unsafe actions. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Additional vacation time or other incentives can also be a great tool to encourage members, especially when sacrifice may be needed. For example, it is common to offer incentive pay for advanced certifications that require many hours of studying to achieve, for example, becoming a certified paramedic. Furthermore, if a potential policy would be met with a great deal of opposition, incentives may help smooth its acceptance. However, according to David Javitch from Entrepreneur.com, managers often make the mistake of assuming that workers are motivated by money alone. Studies show that recognition and status have a more lasting impact on output than raises or bonuses. Furthermore, although employers may not worry about motivating their smartest employees, it is often these employees who are the most vulnerable to boredom and frustration (Javitch, 2009). Money may not be an effective motivator for these employees or professionals, who typically already have good pay and benefits; instead, they may be looking for increased responsibilities, challenging work, or professional growth opportunities. Motivating Diverse Generations This can be extremely complex because there are essentially five different generations that need to be supervised as follows: Traditionalists: 2% (1925–1945) Baby Boomers: 25% (1946–1964) Generation X: 33% (1965–1980) Generation Y: 35% (1981–2000) Generation Z: 5% (2001–2020) Each has the same non-inclination to money as a motivator that Javitch discusses; however, they have many differences in motivating items and preferred communication. There is not a simple answer to be found. These differences can be very important to take into consideration, especially when they involve major changes. In addition, when having one-on-one conversations with employees, supervisors, or elected or appointed officials, including personal relationships, these differences can make your communications either understood or not make any sense, almost like you are speaking a foreign language to the other person. For a detailed and comprehensive explanation of these idiosyncrasies, the Purdue University web page at https://www.purdueglobal.edu/education-partnerships/generational- workforce-differences-infographic/ is a great place to start. This complex subject is presented in a bulleted format as a result of reviewing extensively many scholarly studies on these generations. One system that encourages professional growth and responsibility at the firefighter level is a tiered promotion ladder (e.g., recruit firefighter, firefighter, and senior firefighter). This system is based on professional standards for training, education, and experience, and includes salary increases. Because managing is about getting the most and best out of each member regardless of rank, not every member should be encouraged to seek promotion. Promotions should be evaluated based on clearly defined requirements and responsibilities of the new position. Promoting the wrong person can easily lower morale and upset other members of the organization. Furthermore, not everyone can be an officer, and many members are more comfortable not being one. However, every department needs well-trained professional firefighters, and there should be a system that recognizes and rewards these vital members. This system can lead to improvement in the quality of the service provided to the public. Controlling Controlling is the management function that ensures completion of all steps to accomplish the organization’s goals and provide feedback when unintended consequences occur. If managers do not control, there would be no way to know if policies, plans, and procedures are being achieved correctly and on time. The control process is made up of three steps: (1) measuring performance, (2) comparing the performance results to a standard, and (3) taking corrective action to ensure compliance to the standard. For example, an EMS company requires that all patient care reports be completed within 24 hours of the call or before the end of the member’s shift. To control compliance with this requirement, the supervisor researches the time that patient care reports are completed and the time of the corresponding incidents. These results are compared to the standard of 100% compliance, although the company might allow time variances for certain complications such as technical difficulties, multiple late calls, vehicle breakdowns, computer aided dispatch issues, and so forth. Corrective action occurs when the manager identifies a crew member not in compliance with the policy; the manager determines the reason why the patient care reports were not completed and provides an opportunity for the provider to correct the problem. Disciplinary action is taken for multiple infractions or those that were clearly misfeasance, nonfeasance, and malfeasance. Facts and Figures Incident Command System One method of controlling can be found in the Incident Command System, now a subcomponent of NIMS, which is the original model of command used at local emergency incidents. It contains all four main responsibilities of management discussed previously. With the exception  of large disasters, all emergencies start as local emergencies. When the situation gets more complex and starts to involve multiple local, state, or federal jurisdictions, then an expanded, more contemporary model of management is necessary. NIMS compliance is required of a wide variety of first responders, including EMS, and is the official emergency management system of the Federal government. NIMS establishes a uniform set of processes, protocols, and procedures for all responders, and works with the National Response Framework. NIMS provides the template for incident management, whereas the National Response Framework provides structure and mechanisms for national-level policies. Key incident command functions include: ∎ Incident command ∎ Operations ∎ Planning ∎ Logistics ∎ Finance and administration A NIMS-compliant Incident Command System should be used on every incident involving more than one resource. Initial command is assumed by the first arriving unit. This could be a police vehicle, private ambulance, or fire engine. As other agencies appear on scene, command should be transferred to the most appropriate and qualified person and agency. Which agency takes that role depends on the type of incident and also on local structure and resources. © Smeby Jr, Charles L/Jones & Bartlett Learning Measuring Performance The first step in the control process—measuring actual performance —seems relatively straightforward. However, managers must determine the correct outcome to measure to avoid unintended consequences. For example, if a manager monitors and measures the time it takes for turnout, members will likely show improvement in this area but may resort to unsafe methods to shorten turnout times or falsely report shorter times. Some outcomes can be measured quantitatively (e.g., a specific number); others may be measured categorically (e.g., yes or no); and others may be measured qualitatively (i.e., no absolute answer but a general measure of several different criteria). However, most “outcomes” should be measurable. What managers measure can determine what members will focus on to improve their performance. See the chapter on Public Policy Analysis for more examples. Comparing Results to a Standard If comparing the results of the case study presented in this section to a standard, data would need to be collected. These data would need to note the total number of fire incidents and the property lost per incident over a calendar year for storage room fires in garden- style apartments, and would have to be collected for several years before and after full implementation. The results would need to be compared to the historical data before improvement was confirmed. Furthermore, in that particular example, there was also anecdotal evidence of success because many firefighters openly lamented the lack of multi-alarm fires. The data supported these observations. Taking Corrective Action When a manager finds it is necessary to take corrective action, the first step may be a feedback session with the employee. Feedback is an important part of a manager’s responsibilities because it can help correct the performance of an individual or identify problems with a policy. Regular feedback meetings can be used for managers to get complete and honest information. Feedback meetings are like a form of counseling and should be scheduled in advance to discuss specific concerns in private at a time with minimal interruptions. In these meetings, the manager notifies the employee member of the issue and cites an example of when the issue occurred. The goal of these meetings is to discuss the concern and possible solutions. The manager must determine if the employee’s noncompliance is the member’s responsibility or indicates a problem with the rule, policy, or SOP. Although disciplinary action may be necessary later, the manager should aim to put the member at ease during these sessions and establish a supportive atmosphere in which positive feedback is given to help correct noncompliance. During feedback sessions, a manager should focus on the facts of the issue and not generalize or use subjective comments FIGURE 3-4. The purpose of the meeting is to correct job-related behavior; personal judgments or criticisms have no place in these sessions. Any negative feedback should be directed toward the job-related behavior and noncompliance backed by examples, facts, and verifiable observations of the inappropriate actions. The member should be encouraged to present his or her side of the story and explain any extenuating circumstances. The manager should listen to what the member has to say even if it is not factual or accurate. Excuses should be acknowledged, because they may point to issues that the member needs to correct to ensure that the infraction does not happen again; however, the facts should carry more weight than excuses. After presenting the issue, the manager should explain in clear terms what the member can do to correct the negative job- related behavior. If the member cannot correct the problem, the manager may need to discuss disciplinary action. Although rare, there are members who are not able to meet job performance requirements; these members should be quickly separated from the department because this is a safety issue for the other members and the team. Job performance requirements (JPRs) are those detailed in NFPA Professional Qualification Standards or EMS certification standards and may be based on failure to perform certain skills, medical issues, or physical fitness. The feedback session should end with a clear understanding of the issue and any solutions necessary. Some discipline policies require a written report of the conclusion.  FIGURE 3-4 Private counseling meeting. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. When feedback sessions do not provide the desired result, disciplinary action may be necessary. For example, consider the use of the three-step control process to address the concern of firefighter safety. The manager would first collect data on firefighter death and injury. (This information is well documented by the U.S. Fire Administration and the NFPA.) Next, the manager would work to determine a standard of comparison for safety goals (NFPA 1500 Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program and the National Fallen Firefighters Foundation sponsored “Everyone Goes Home” 16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives may provide useful guidelines to develop these goals). After the data are compared to the goal, the manager would take corrective action to work toward the goal. The manager could start by creating a policy or SOP in consultation with a group of members. After the policy was created and approved by the administration, then compliance with this policy could be measured. For example, if the policy required an annual physical examination, members might be required to submit verification that they had completed the examination or face disciplinary action. Generally, this is something the management schedules and arranges, then notifies the member. Unfortunately, many FES and EMS disciplinary systems are ineffective because managers do not take appropriate disciplinary actions or employees are not aware of what constitutes rule infractions. For a disciplinary system to be effective, a manager should be appointed as the point person, or for larger organizations, a small staff on all disciplinary issues; selection should be based on an exceptional reputation of ethical behavior in the manager’s personal and professional life. Having one person ultimately responsible for all discipline negates any unfair actions by subordinate officers and ensures consistency. This manager must be trained on issues regarding discrimination, sexual harassment, and employee rights. A list of common rule violations and appropriate consequences should be created and given to all members. For example, the following would be a good start: Not arriving at the shift on time Use of or under the influence of illegal drugs or alcohol Stealing from homes of victims or the department Failure to accomplish JPRs Failure to meet minimum physical fitness standards Insubordination Aggressive behavior on duty Any serious criminal act off duty Numerous or serious failures to comply with SOPs The consequences should be developed in consultation with legal and labor representatives. It may also be useful for the manager to compare the policy to those of neighboring departments. Most disciplinary policies involve progressive consequences, requiring more severe disciplinary actions for repeat violations or serious offenses. These steps should be followed precisely without deviation. A formal training session on the disciplinary system should be presented to all new employees and, when first implemented, to all existing members. Chief officers should watch for violations of the rules and regulations by walking around to visit stations and emergency incidents. Any employee who violates a rule should be reported to the manager for disciplinary action. The manager should aim to be fair and consistent in applying disciplinary action. If it is obvious that a company officer is deliberately not paying attention to violations by members of their crew, the officer should be disciplined by the supervisor. This situation can be a special problem in the fire service, where officers may be close friends with members they supervise. CASE STUDY The Control Process In Florida, an applicant for a firefighter position must sign an affidavit that states that he or she has not used tobacco for 1 year before the date of application. In the state, a diagnosis of heart or lung disease can be considered a job-related illness. Requiring applicants to sign this affidavit reduces the possibility that heart or lung disease was caused by smoking tobacco rather than job-related factors. The goal behind this initiative was to reduce the number of firefighters who were smokers with the hope that firefighters would remain smoke-free for the length of their careers. However, in more than one fire department, the managers observed several new firefighters smoking. The manager wondered if they had started smoking after joining the department or had not been honest in signing the affidavit. The process of control (measuring outcomes, comparing to standards, and taking corrective action) could be used to solve this issue. The manager would measure new firefighters’ compliance with this condition of employment by an initial nicotine test, followed by subsequent random tests (possibly combined with illegal drugs). The results of the testing would be compared to the tobacco-free standard. Any new firefighters found in violation of the non-tobacco use policy would be counseled about the policy on the first occurrence. If still noncompliant when tested again, they could face job separation. Management Tactics Several different strategies may be used by managers to help their organization achieve its goals. Technology-based Programs There are many technology-specific programs that are helpful for the manager. The use of technology is one of the most effective approaches to providing safety. Although not exhaustive, the following are some examples: Some of the best examples of the use of technology in FES have been implemented in the area of fire prevention. For example, residential occupancies are attributed with the greatest number of fire deaths. Although humans are the most sensitive detectors of smoke, they can be unreliable at times, such as when sleeping. That is why the simple and inexpensive smoke alarm (a measuring device) has been so effective. It is always ready to perform its life-saving function. Therefore, if the manager’s goal is fire safety for residential occupants, this electronic device significantly and reliably makes progress toward this goal. Human resource systems software cover a vast amount of ground these days, including not only employee management, but policy and compliance management, shift scheduling, performance management, and even payroll. It is not uncommon for FES departments to have rules and SOPs that need to be enforced to be effective, because this is the only method to guarantee 100% compliance. For example, one popular mandate is to require all firefighters to  be seated and belted before responding to a call. This is not easy to measure because the officer is always looking forward with firefighters riding in a back compartment. Recently, the NFPA standard for fire apparatus was updated to require a Seat Belt Monitoring System. This system provides an audible and visual warning when a seat is occupied without a fastened seat belt. Driving is the most dangerous part of an emergency response. Because some driving laws are suspended or altered for emergency response driving, the process of “due regard” must be honored. An intersection accident where the agency is held liable can cost them not only in money, but in lives, reputation, apparatus loss, and rising insurance rates. However, it is impossible for managers to monitor emergency vehicles every time they are running “hot.” Therefore, some agencies have outfitted vehicles with “black boxes”; the information the devices provide has saved companies from losing lawsuits and provides a measure of the driver’s adherence to driving regulations. Total Quality Management Total quality management is a quality improvement approach that was first extensively used in Japan’s auto industry. It was created under the assumption that customers are more likely to buy products that are high in quality. Therefore, this approach strives for 100% perfection. It has been defined as consisting of efforts to have a situation where employees continuously improve their ability and ideas to provide products and services that customers will find of particular value. Generally, it is not in use in FES because it is business oriented. Jeff Dewar, quality consultant of QCI International in Red Bluff, California, further argues for the need to eliminate defects altogether. To make his point, Dewar came up with various cases of what life would be like if things were done right 99.9% of the time. For example, being just 0.1% less than 100% would result in 500 incorrect surgical operations per week in the United States (Dewar, 1989)! This approach emphasizes the importance of striving for zero defects and is a good safety goal. Leading by Example Leading, or rather managing, by example is one of the most powerful methods of encouragement a manager can offer. For example, a manager who always uses a seat belt when responding to calls encourages others to do the same. If a manager does not lead by example, management efforts can be sabotaged and, in many cases, change will not be institutionalized, creating the possibility for efforts to be overturned in the future. As mentioned in the chapter Introduction to Administration, a manager is not necessarily a leader. A leader embodies special behavioral traits that help achieve new and innovative changes. However, managers can strive to be leaders. Successful leaders are courageous risk takers who do not fear the criticism that often accompanies significant change. Leadership means speaking up before there is consensus on an issue or problem. Also, a leader has the courage to admit mistakes and adjust plans accordingly. For management, job-relevant knowledge—one of the key traits of leadership—can be gained through higher education. Continued learning increases a person’s confidence and intuition. In selling new ideas to others, confidence is extremely important. Another trait that could be added to this list is the ability to listen. An important skill for all leaders, listening helps managers gain vital knowledge about the support or opposition to their proposals. Listening also helps define any problems, which is the first step of solving any management difficulties. Managers can be leaders by setting a positive example for others to follow. By serving as a role model, managers can gain voluntary compliance of members. Leading by example can also help managers create a positive reputation and gain the trust of their staff. Managers should always strive to: Be honest Display competency in professional knowledge and skills Be loyal to the organization and to subordinates Be fair and consistent Show a commitment to sharing ideas and information Keep promises Keep confidences of superiors and subordinates CHIEF OFFICER TIP Traits Associated with Leadership 1. Drive. Leaders are self-starters with high energy. They are persistent and strive for success. 2. Desire to lead. Leaders enthusiastically take on new responsibilities and enjoy influencing others to accomplish enlightened goals. 3. Honesty and integrity. The personal and professional ethics of leaders are above reproach. 4. Self-confidence. Leaders believe in themselves and have faith in their own beliefs. 5. Intelligence. Leaders must be intelligent enough to analyze large quantities of data and ideas. Perseverance and hard work make up for any lack of knowledge. 6. Job-relevant knowledge. Leaders have extensive knowledge about the agency and the profession from practical experience, training, and formal education.  7. Extraversion. Leaders are generally happy, optimistic, and energetic. When needed, they can be socially outgoing; but they also take time to be alone for deep thought. Data from Judge, T. A., J.E. Bono, R. Ilies, and M.W. Gerhardt. 2002. Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 767. Broad-Based Empowerment In some industries, empowering low-level supervisors can be helpful for the organization to run smoothly and achieve its goals. This management technique may work best in dynamic fields such as technology firms. However, broad-based empowerment is not appropriate for FES organizations, which require direct supervision and adherence to rules and regulations for efficiency, safety, and consistency of the overall emergency response. The only time when broad-based empowerment can be used effectively in FES or EMS is when employees are given a voice in decisions that might benefit the department, such as purchasing equipment, organizing training sessions, developing SOPs, or scheduling shifts. In these situations, acceptance of change increases with employee empowerment. As discussed in the sections on group decision-making, people who believe they are a part of the decision-making process tend to be more productive and committed to the change. However, besides these types of decisions, direct hierarchical decision-making is necessary, especially in emergency operations. Independent decisions at the company level can reduce the quality of response provided and create chaos at large-scale incidents where there are specific expectations of the capabilities and operations of all companies involved. The individuals within a fire or emergency service often do not have a sufficient understanding of the larger picture to make appropriate decisions. For example, in one major metropolitan fire department, a manager empowered company officers to develop their own in-service training program after making a local assessment of the hazards in their first due areas. One officer in a rural area devised a yearly schedule of drills that did not include the use of fire department standpipes used in high-rise firefighting. In the officer’s mind, this decision made sense because the first due area did not have any high-rise buildings. However, what the officer overlooked was that members of the company could be asked to fill in at another station that did respond to calls in high- rise buildings. By empowering company officers to make the decisions, this manager reduced the quality of the department’s service and put firefighters into a situation where they were not adequately trained. Broad-based empowerment can be equally dangerous in EMS situations. Processes and protocols are required for ambulance maintenance, patient care, and operational safety; there can be no flexibility. This is especially true when EMS, fire, law enforcement, and other agencies are working together at an incident. Managing by Walking Around Managing by walking around (MBWA) is a management technique in which managers physically visit all areas of the organization. This can be extremely helpful for the typical FES organization whose stations are physically separate from headquarters. The chain of command can still be used to send and receive information from the different units, but MBWA allows for direct supervision and increased communication, because managers could spend up to 60% of their time out in the field. Information can become distorted or purposely suppressed as it travels from bottom to top and top to bottom through the communications lines of a large and dispersed organization. This opens up the possibility of honest feedback from frontline employees that is very difficult to obtain for the boss. To be an effective manager, helpful criticism and suggestions for improvement are necessary and should be encouraged. Using MBWA, FES and EMS managers can visit their stations to speak with personnel about issues they are having, make firsthand observations at emergency incidents, and create a formal critique procedure. Managers can more accurately assess emergency operations from these firsthand observations. However, for the few very large departments or companies, this can be very time consuming, but still should be the goal of the top manager. Many MBWA managers consider themselves facilitators who strive to listen carefully during their out-of-office visits for any signs of things that may not be going well. Managers can use their senior position to remove any roadblocks to enable members to accomplish their goals. In this way, MBWA sends a powerful message to members that the manager believes that the work being done is important to the mission of the organization. MBWA can also be effective in dealing with supervisors, local elected officials, neighboring officials, and other department heads in government. Using MBWA, the manager becomes personally and professionally acquainted with these influential officials and can increase support and cooperation from outside agencies. This is a very effective management technique both inside and outside the department. Assessing Managerial Performance A manager’s performance should be measured by the two key criteria of efficiency and effectiveness. This control process is used by senior administrators to judge the proficiency of an individual manager. Efficiency is measured by the ability to perform well using limited funds or resources, whereas effectiveness is measured by the manager’s success in attaining goals. Management effectiveness is directly related to the power, expertise, knowledge, ethical reputation, and personnel and professional relationships of the manager. Formal rank is the most obvious sign of power; however, power and relationships are codependent and rely on the manager’s ability to create an effective power base. Creating this support is one of the most important goals for a successful career in management. To do so, individuals can undertake the steps listed below: Show respect to everyone you meet and treat others like you would want to be treated. Sometimes just saying “I need help” is enough to get cooperation. Give people the benefit of the doubt; assume they are really trying their best. Get to know other influential managers or associations at local, regional, state, and national levels of your profession. Create good relationships with your neighboring departments and unions. Develop skills and information sources that make you a unique member, such as the go-to person to research issues, generate policy papers to support departmental goals, or know the right person that can help solve a problem. Reading and studying this text are information-gathering tasks that  add to expert knowledge. One word of caution, however. Tone down your level of pride and enthusiasm for your own self-worth; others may be resentful. Seek assignments in all segments of the department to gain a broad perspective of the entire organization. Never think you know everything and never stop learning and listening. Seek out a mentor; mentors are invaluable for helping you prepare for career advancements, new challenges, and other opportunities. Building a power base is a long-term project. Managers should seek out opportunities as they become available and always keep their eyes open for possibilities to learn something new, meet other managers, or embark on a new challenge. For managers to increase their efficiency, they can analyze basic tasks, seek to eliminate unnecessary motions or tasks, and aim to hire the best-qualified applicants. One of the most important management functions is selecting new members who meet or exceed minimum job performance levels. One of the most valuable assets a manager possesses is his or her staff, because a manager cannot be expected to perform every task that makes an organization run. Delegation is key to increasing efficiency. To delegate effectively, you must clearly define the task for your subordinates, state the time frame in which the task should be completed, and follow up to ensure that the task was completed in a satisfactory manner. For example, a chief officer sends the supervisors of each operations area a memo instructing them to check their snow chains. In the memo, the officer states a time for completion and requests a written reply that the task has been completed. The officer must record this deadline and set up a reminder system so that completion of the task can be verified within the appropriate time frame. Follow-up is absolutely necessary in all cases, and it should be done as inconspicuously as possible so that the members do not think they are viewed as untrustworthy. If the delegated task is a long-term or ongoing project, other management techniques, such as MBWA or leading by example, can be used to supplement a written report. Many managers believe that multitasking allows them to increase their efficiency. It would seem to make sense that the ability to perform multiple management functions at the same time would result in increased productivity. However, this is not necessarily true. A Stanford study compared two groups: one that engaged in extensive electronic multitasking and another that did not. Several experiments were conducted to test the capability of both groups to pay attention, remember information, and switch from task to task. The results showed that multitaskers do much worse in all three areas than those who focus on one thing at a time. In fact, the more the participants multitasked, the worse they did compared with the focus group (Gorlick, 2009). Multitaskers may be easily distracted and unable to perform well. Further, new studies conducted at Stanford University indicate that multitasking may damage your brain and career. Frequent multitaskers performed worse than those who were not frequent multitaskers because they had more trouble organizing their thoughts and filtering out irrelevant information (Gorlick, 2009). Researchers at the University of London found that, in addition to slowing you down, multitasking lowers your IQ. Managers should consider limiting their multitasking to improve their concentration and focus on the present problems, including personal communication (USC, 2020). Multitasking can also negatively affect communication. If you want to make someone feel important, give him or her your complete attention. When a manager is texting, emailing, or answering the telephone during a face-to-face conversation, it may be insulting to the other person in that conversation. The only interruption that should be allowed is an emergency call.  To be effective, managers must recognize that there is always room for improvement and should seek out opportunities for improving their managerial skills, such as self-study through books, courses, or seminars. They should also be open to receiving helpful criticism and suggestions for improvement. Nobody is perfect; everyone has room for improvement. A 360-degree performance review may be a useful tool to obtain this feedback from employees. This type of evaluation uses surveys sent to employees in all directions: those below the manager (who report directly to him or her), other managers on the same level, and the supervisor directly above the manager. Where this is not possible, feedback can be provided by other staff members or supervisors who have direct knowledge of the manager’s work. Through this review process, managers may gain information they can use for self-improvement and uncover criticisms that they need to address. The results of this evaluation may be part of annual performance reviews, but should also be substantiated by the supervisor’s own observations. Wrap-Up CHAPTER SUMMARY FES management and its application are explained by their need and use in the contemporary department. The first and a key function of management is Planning. The second is the Organizing function that requires a structured organization for FES. Thirdly, Directing has many of the same components as business and government. Fourth and last function is Controlling that is critical to successful management. Special organization tactics may be necessary to implement efficient and effective FES management.  KEY TERMS 360-degree performance review A type of performance evaluation that uses surveys sent to employees at all levels to obtain a more complete picture of a manager’s performance. Brainstorming A technique to generate ideas in which group members may suggest any solutions without initial judgments. Broad-based empowerment Empowering low-level supervisors to alter or change policies or procedures to achieve a better outcome such as better quality or less time to complete the task. Once this is determined to be successful, it is assumed that the new or improved policies and/or procedures will be distributed to the entire organization. Controlling Monitoring performance, measuring outcomes and progress toward goals, and making any adjustments necessary to keep the agency moving toward those goals. Compromise To compromise is to make a deal through negotiations between different parties where each party gives up part of their demand. Consensus Agreement reached by unanimous decision-making, a simple majority, or a specified majority. Delegation Delegation is the process of handing decision-making authority to lower-level employees and to be successful, an employee must be able to obtain the resources and cooperation needed for successful completion of the delegated task. Directing The process of a manager instructing the members under his or her authority to accomplish an organizational objective. Effectiveness The manager’s success in attaining goals. Efficiency A manager’s ability to perform well using limited funds or resources. Group decision-making Occurs when individuals, typically those that are affected by the decision, collectively study and make a choice from the potential realistic options. Group think When some members of a group go along with majority opinion to avoid conflict. Intuition Intuition is commonly thought of as instinctual or even magical phenomenon, but is formed in our subconscious from the influence of past experience and cumulative knowledge. Malfeasance Wrongdoing, including illegal actions or misconduct, especially by a public official. Managing by walking around (MBWA) A management technique in which managers physically visit all areas of the organization. Minority domination When a charismatic group member or several members representing a particular group disproportionately influence decision-making. Misfeasance The performance of a lawful action in an illegal or improper manner. Multitasking Performing multiple management functions at the same time. Nonfeasance Failure to do what ought to be done. Organizing The process of determining what tasks need to be done and who is to perform these tasks. Planning Creating and defining goals and making important decisions as well as establishing strategic plans to achieve these goals. Progressive consequences A disciplinary system requiring more severe repercussions for repeat violations or serious offenses. Total quality management Constant process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving the customer experience, and ensuring that employees are up to speed with training. Unity of command An organizing principle based on the idea that each individual reports to only one manager. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast individual versus group decision-making. Which do you believe is more effective in the long-term? Provide a specific example from your own experience. 2. Detail at least three ways a manager can ensure compliance with his or her directions. Which of these methods would be most likely to work for you as an employee as a form of self- motivation? 3. The control process is made up of three steps: (1) _______________________, (2) _______________________, and (3) _______________________. 4. Select from the following list of emerging technologies and describe in about 500 words how your chosen technology could help the FES managers of the future: A. Biometrics (e.g., facial recognition) B. Virtual reality applications C. Robotics and automation (e.g., drones) D. Three-dimensional printing 5. List the pros and cons of a 360-degree review format. CHAPTER ACTIVITY #1: MBWA A safety chief for a large metropolitan fire department was in a staff vehicle traveling to a meeting when he heard a dispatch for a townhouse fire over the radio. At this time, the department had just started a comprehensive safety program. General orders covering safety policies and SOPs had recently been signed and issued by the fire chief. According to the SOP, the safety chief was dispatched only to second- alarm and higher emergency incidents, but he was in the neighborhood and decided to proceed in a nonemergency mode to observe the companies arrive and operate at this fire. About two blocks from the scene, the safety chief was passed by the first due engine. After it passed, he noticed a firefighter standing on the back step—a violation of the department’s safety general order for emergency vehicle operations. After arriving on the scene, the safety chief continued to watch the firefighters work at the townhouse, which had heavy smoke pouring from the front door and second floor windows. He observed one firefighter place a ladder to the front of the structure, climb the ladder, and start breaking out the windows on the second floor from the outside. This is a common ventilation procedure to remove heat and smoke from the structure. However, this firefighter, who was the driver for the first due engine, had on a helmet and no other protective clothing—another violation of the safety rules. The fire was quickly extinguished by the first alarm assignment. After the fire was extinguished, the safety chief continued his trip to the meeting without speaking to anyone on the scene. The battalion chief in charge of this incident was a personal friend, so when the battalion chief returned to his office, the safety chief called to advise him of the observations. Formal disciplinary actions could have been initiated, but that would have breached the normal chain of command. As the two spoke, the battalion chief immediately volunteered that the firefighters had already admitted to the violations of the safety rules. The firefighters had recognized the safety chief and knew that they had been observed. As a result of this exchange, these individuals followed the safety rules more closely in the future. This commitment is a preferred result of MBWA—to gain compliance with rules and regulations while demonstrating support for the worker’s safety. Discussion Questions 1. If this behavior reoccurred, what actions should be outlined in the department’s disciplinary procedures? Be specific. 2. Would a comprehensive education safety program help to prevent these types of SOP violations, or is strong discipline the only effective method? Or a combination? CHAPTER ACTIVITY #2: GROUP EFFECTIVENESS In most FES agencies, groups are commonly assigned to make decisions regarding controversial or change-based issues. However, some management experts doubt the effectiveness of groups to make good management decisions. For example, the management expert Robbins states, “Research comparing participatively set goals with assigned goals has not shown any strong or consistent relationship to performance… Groups almost always stack up as a poor second in efficiency to the individual decision maker” (Robbins, 2011). Still, others continue to defend the value of group decision-making. Review the following resources, keeping in mind the comparative decision-making process of groups with the unilateral decision-making of the fire chief or other agency head. In 400–800 words, discuss the best way to determine the goals of your organization. A minimum of two reference sources is required. ∎ “Group Decision-Making” by Andrew E. Schwartz, https://www.questia.com/magazine/1P3-11347/group-decision- making ∎ “How to Help Groups Make Meaningful Decisions,” https://managementhelp.org/groups/group-decision-making.htm ∎ “Group Decision-Making,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_decision-making CHAPTER ACTIVITY #3: CONTROL SYSTEM One goal of the FES is to provide a professional level of fire suppression services to the public. As a management function, this service can typically be measured by looking at outcomes. However, as explained in this chapter and the chapter Public Policy Analysis, outcomes are hard to measure. Many of the measurements that are kept by the traditional FES organization are measurements only of workload, not of outcomes. For example, FES organizations keep accurate statistics on the number of emergency incidents to which they respond, but that does not show how many lives and how much property was saved, which are outcomes. Assessing the number of lives and properties saved is very difficult, if not impossible. For example, if the department responds to a small trash can fire in a high-rise building and extinguishes the fire quickly, could the department claim to have saved the entire dollar value of the high-rise building? Outcomes for a FES organization must be measured using other items that are easily and verifiably measured. For example, if it can be demonstrated that response times can be reduced by either changing existing procedures (e.g., streamlining the call-taking process) or adding new resources (e.g., increasing the budget for new staff or new facilities), the argument can be made that improved service to the public has been accomplished. Even in volunteer organizations, implementing a system to have members on duty in the station substantially reduces total response time, resulting in a better outcome. Use the following resources to research measurement control systems: ∎ https://www.inc.com/bruce-eckfeldt/you-cant-manage-what-you- dont-measure-here-are-11-ways-to-measure-any-aspect-of-your- business.html ∎ http://www.nfpa.org Then, devise a measurement control program that ensures that EMS providers are proficient in the skills and knowledge needed to provide outstanding EMS. CHAPTER ACTIVITY #4: POWER BASE CONTACTS Management effectiveness can be directly related to power, expert knowledge, and relationships. Identify a “power base” that could increase your influence and effectiveness as a manager: use references of your choice to create a list of at least three people and/or organizations that a chief officer should network with for management effectiveness at the local, regional, state, and national levels. CHAPTER ACTIVITY #5: TRUST Trust plays a large part in the ability to be an effective manager and leader. One of the best ways to understand this concept is to look at examples. Review the following articles for examples and descriptions of trust:  ∎ “The Supervising EMS Officer” by Tray Hagen, https://www.emsworld.com/article/10284162/leadership-best- practices-supervising-ems-officer ∎ “Mentoring Tomorrow’s EMS Leaders” by Jay Fitch, https://www.jems.com/articles/2010/08/mentoring-tomorrow-s- ems-leader.html After reviewing the articles, write a short story exemplifying four of the following eight items: 1. Practice openness. 2. Be fair. 3. Speak your feelings. 4. Tell the truth. 5. Be consistent. 6. Fulfill your promises. 7. Maintain confidences. 8. Demonstrate confidence. These stories may be from your personal or work life and can be either positive or negative examples.