Field Work Regarding ST Communities PDF

Scheduled Communities: A social Devlopment profile of SC/ST's (Bihar, Jharkhand & W.B) Content Chapter 1 Schedule Communities 1 Chapter 2: The Study 7 Chapter 3: The Fi...

Scheduled Communities: A social Devlopment profile of SC/ST's (Bihar, Jharkhand & W.B) Content Chapter 1 Schedule Communities 1 Chapter 2: The Study 7 Chapter 3: The Field: Introducing the Scheduled Communities 29 Chapter 4: Livelihood Status 59 Chapter 5: Quality of Life: Housing and Health 148 Chapter 6: Literacy and Education 175 Chapter 7: Conclusion: Whither Scheduled Communities? 210  CHAPTER - I Scheduled Communities The scheduled communities evolved out of the British colonial concern for the Depressed Classes who faced multiple deprivations on account of their low position in the hierarchy of the Hindu caste system. The degrading practice of untouchability figured as the central target for social reformers and their movements. The issue acquired strong political overtones when the British sought to combine the problems of the Depressed Classes with their communal politics. The Communal Award of August 4, 1932, after the conclusion of two successive Round Table Conferences in London, assigned separate electorates not only for the Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and several other categories, but also extended it to the Depressed Classes. This led to the historic fast unto death by Gandhi and the subsequent signing of the Poona Pact between B.R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malviya on September 24th 1932. According to this agreement a new formula was evolved in which separate electorates were replaced by reserved constituencies for the Depressed Classes. The actual process of ‘scheduling’ of castes took place thereafter in preparation of the elections in 1937.* Ambedkar, who was the principal crusader against untouchability, assumed the historic role of drafting the Indian Constitution of free India. He introduced the famous Article 11 of the Drafting Committee on 1st November 1947 which carried through the following resolution : _________________________________________ As per Government of India (Scheduled Castes) Order of 1936 read with Article 26(i) of the First Schedule to Government of India Act 1935, Scheduled Castes meant `such castes, races or tribes, or parts of or groups within castes, races or tribes, being castes, races, or tribes, or parts or groups which appear to His Majesty in Council, to correspond to the classes of persons formerly known as `the depressed classes’, as His Majesty in Council may specify’. (Cited in Chatterjee 1996 vol. : 162). 1  Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of ‘untouchability’ shall be an offence which shall be punishable in accordance with law (Rao 1966 : 298). Unlike the British pre-occupation with the scheduling of castes in preparation for separate communal electorates, which mainly entailed, by stages, the elimination of tribal communities from the fold of Depressed Classes, the proper task of scheduling of tribes took place in 1950 with the new Constitution. This is hardly surprising in view of numerous tribal insurrections against British exploitation and domination. A series of 12 Constitution (Scheduled Tribes Orders) and amendments were passed between 1950 and 1991 covering various States and Union Territories. In 1991 the Scheduled Caste (henceforward SC) population was 138,223,000 (nearest ‘000), accounting for 16.48 percent of the total population of the country. Four important demographic features draw our attention at this stage : 1) The States which exceeded the national proportion of SCs and consequently had the highest concentration of SCs were : Punjab (28.31%), Himachal Pradesh (25.34%), West Bengal (23.62%), Uttar Pradesh (21.05%), Haryana (19.75%), Tamil Nadu (19.18%), Delhi (19.05%), Rajasthan (17.29%) and Chandigarh (16.51%). 2) States which have substantial SC population (more than 10m) are : Uttar Pradesh (29.3m) contributing 21.18% of national SC population; West Bengal (16.1m) contributing 11.63%; Bihar (12.6m) contributing 9.10%; and Tamil Nadu (10.7m) contributing 7.75% of the SC population of India. A State may be amongst those having the most numerous SC population, and yet its proportion to the total population (of the State) may be lower than the national average. For example, erstwhile Bihar was a populous SC state, yet only 14.55% of its population was SC. 2 3) The State having the highest number of SC communities is Karnataka (101) with an SC population below 10m. (7.4,), with proportion of SCs to the population of the State slightly below the national proportion (16.38%) and contributing only 5.33% of the total country’s SC population. Karnataka is followed by Orissa with 93 SC communities; Tamil Nadu with 76; Kerala with 68; Uttar Pradesh with 66; Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and West Bengal with 59; and Himachal Pradesh with 56. Thus States with the largest multiplicity of SC communities, need not be amongst the most populous SC States, nor among those whose contribution to the national SC population are among the highest. 4) Conversely, States making the largest contributions of SC populations to the national SC total need not have the highest proportions of SCs or the largest number of SC communities within their States. These States are Uttar Pradesh (21.18%), West Bengal (11.63%), Bihar (9.10%), Tamil Nadu (7.75%), Andhra Pradesh (7.66%), Madhya Pradesh (6.96%) and Maharashtra (6.34%). Table 1.1 : Ranking of States by concentration of SCs; SCs with more than 10m ; States with largest number of SC communities; and States contributing highest percent to national SC total. States/Uts having highest States with more than Highest % contribution to States with highest no. of concentration of SCs (%) 10m SC population India SC population SC communities (1976) (>16.48%) (‘000) 1 2 3 4 Punjab (28.31) U.P. (29,276) U.P. (21.18) Karnataka (101) Himachal (25.34) West Bengal (16,081) West Bengal (11.63) Orissa (93) West Bengal (23.62) Bihar (12,572) Bihar (9.10) Tamil Nadu (76) U.P. (21.05) Tamil Nadu (10,712) Tamil Nadu (7.75) Kerala (68) Haryana (19.75) Andhra Pradesh (10,592) Andhra Pradesh (7.66) U.P. (66) Tamil Nadu (19.18) M.P. (6.96) Andhra Pradesh| (59) Delhi (19.05) Maharashtra (6.34) Maharashtra (59) Rajasthan (17.29) Rajasthan (59) Chandigarh (16.51) West Bengal ( 59) Himachal Pradesh (56) Source : Cols. 1, 2 and 3 : Chakrabarty and Ghosh 2002 : Table 1.1 pg.5 Col.4; Chatterjee 1991, Vol.4 : 1180-1283 3  The Scheduled Tribe (henceforward ST) popula tion of India is almost 50 percent less (67,758,000, nearest ‘000), than the SC population of India, constituting 8.08 percent of the country’s total population. The picture here is quite interesting. In sharp contrast to SCs, a number of States/Union Territories have extraordinarily high concentrations of tribal population (i.e. tribal population as proportion of total population of the States/Union Territories (henceforward UTs). These States/UTs are : Mizoram (94.75%) with a population of only 654,000; Lakshadeep (93.15%) with a meagre population of 48,000; Nagaland (87.70%) with a population of 1,061,000; Meghalaya (85.53%) with a population of 1,518,000; Dadra and Nagar Haveli (78.89%) with a population of 109,000; and Arunachal Pradesh (63.66%) with a population of 550,000. Then there is a steep drop with Manipur (34.41%) having a population of 632,000; Tripura (30.95%) with a population of 853,000. These eight States/UTs having tribal concentrations varying from 30.95% to 94.75%, have a total population of 5.5m, which is only 8.1 percent of the total tribal population of the country. Conspicuously, in the most populous tribal States, the concentration of ST population is very much lower, though substantially higher than the national proportio n. The largest tribal population is in Madhya Pradesh (15.4m) constituting 23.27 percent of the population of the State and 22.73 percent of the tribal population of the country. This is followed by Maharashtra (7.3m), Orissa (7.0m), Bihar (6.6m), Gujarat (6.1m), Rajasthan (5.5m), Andhra Pradesh (4.2m), West Bengal (3.8m) and Assam (2.9m). Finally, the States/UTs with the highest number of tribal communities are : Orissa (62); Karnataka and Maharashtra (49); Madhya Pradesh (46); West Bengal (38), Tamil Nadu (36); Kerala (35); Andhra Pradesh (33); and Bihar (30). 4  Table 1.2 : Ranking of States/Union Territories by concentration of STs; STs with more than 2m. population; STs with highest number of tribal communities. States/UTs having highest Most populous tribal States (2m States with highest number of concentration of STs (%) (1991) and above) (1991) tribal communities (1981) 1 2 3 Mizoram (94.75) Madhya Pradesh (15.4m) (22.7%) Orissa (62) Lakshadeep (93.15) Maharashtra (7.3m) (10.8%) Karnataka (49) Nagaland (87.70) Orissa (7.0m) (10.4%) Maharashtra (47) Meghalaya (85.53) Bihar (6.6m) ( 9.8%) Madhya Pradesh (46) Dadar & N Haveli (78.99) Gujarat (6.2m) ( 9.1%) West Bengal (38) Arunachal Pradesh (63.66) Rajasthan (5.5m) ( 8.1%) Tamil Nadu (36) Manipur (34.41) Andhra Pradesh (4.2m) ( 6.2%) Kerala (35) Tripura (30.95) West Bengal (3.8m) ( 5.6%) Andhra Pradesh (33) Assam (2.9m) ( 4.2%) Bihar (30) Note: Figures in percentage in Col.2 refer to the proportion of ST population of the States to national ST population. Source: Cols. 1 & 2 : Chakrabarty and Ghosh 2000 : Table 1.2 , pg.6 Col. 3 Sachchidanand and Prasad 1996 : XXXVIII – LVIII. What is extraordinary in this overall pattern is that none of the States with the largest tribal population (2m and above) and those having the most numerous tribal communities, figure among States/UTs having the highest concentration of STs. Few, if any, countries can parallel this complex ethno-demography. What is unique in India, is the existence of the least populous self governing, politically empowered, tribal States mostly in the north east, together constituting a negligible proportion of the tribal population of India, nevertheless being protected through Constitutional safeguards against ethnic swamping by the other communities in a country with a bursting, burgeoning billion population. They have evolved out of their specific historical circumstances which had posed basic problems of their integration with the rest of the country. It is, by and large, the bulk of the tribal population in the more populous heterogeneous States that have encountered the serious problems of social and economic derivation and development. 5 References Rao, Shiva The Framing of India’s Constitution, New Delhi, IIPA, 1966. Chatterjee, S.K. Scheduled Castes in India Vol.1, New Delhi, Gyan Prakashan, 1996. -do- Scheduled Castes in India, Vol..4, New Delhi, Gyan Prakashan, 1996. Chakraborty G. Human Development Profile of Scheduled Castes and Tribes in and Selected States, New Delhi, NCAER, 2000. P.K. Ghosh Sachidanand Encyclopaedic Profile of Indian Tribes, New Delhi, Discovery and Publishing House, 1996 R.R. Prasad 6  CHAPTER – II The Study At the time the project was sanctioned by the Planning Commission only two States were to be studied : Bihar and West Bengal. In 1991, Bihar had an SC population of 12,571,700 (14.55% of the total SC population of the State), and a ST population of 6,616,914 (7.66% of the total ST population of the State), out of a total Bihar population of 86,374,465. Correspondingly in West Bengal, there was a larger population of SCs at 16,080,611 (accounting for 23.6% of the total SC population of the State), and a smaller population of STs at 3,808,760 (accounting for 5.59% of the total ST population of the State), out of a total West Bengal population of 68,077,965. Table 2.1 : Scheduled Caste and ScheduledTribe population in Bihar, West Bengal (our Sample Universe) and All India (1991 Census) Population (‘000) States SC % ST % Total % Bihar 12,572 14.55 6,617 7.66 86,374 100 West Bengal 16,081 23.62 3,809 5.59 68,078 100 All India 138,223 16.48 67,758 8.08 838,584 100 Source: Chakrabarty and Ghosh 2000 : 5-6. 7  As noted earlier, the SC population in Bihar contributed 9.10% and West Bengal 11.63% of the total SC population of India at 138,223,000 (nearest ‘000). For the ST population the corresponding figures were 9.77% (Bihar) and 5.62% (West Bengal) out of a total tribal population of India at 67,758,000 (nearest ‘000) (Chakrabarty and Ghosh 2000 : 5-6). By the time field study was initiated, the new 28th State of Jharkhand had been carved out of Bihar on 15th November 2000. This reduced the population of Bihar by 21,846,325, and its territory of 173,877 sq. kms. by 79,714 sq. kms. The erstwhile Jharkhand Area Autonomous Council formed on 9th August, 1995, with 18 districts of Bihar including Ranchi, Lohardaga, Gumla, East Singhbhum, West Singhbhum, Palamau, Garhwa, Dumka, Sahebganj, Pakur, Godda, Hazaribagh, Chatra, Giridih, Koderma, Dhanbad, Bokaro and Deoghar, eventually constituted the new State of Jharkhand. The emergence of Jharkhand was the outcome of a protracted struggle initiated by the adivasis (tribal population) since the formation of Adivasi Mahasabha in 1938 and it transformation into Jharkhand Party in 1949. The demand for a separate State was placed before the States Reorganisation Commission by its leader Jaipal Singh as early as in 1954, but was rejected. Notwithstanding, the triumph of the movement led predominantly by the adivasis, the tribal population in Jharkhand is 6,044,010, which is only 28 percent of the total population of the new State. However, this population is 91.3 percent of the total tribal population of undivided Bihar (ADRI 2000 : 3). 8 Objectives The study was originally planned as a sequel to (a) an overview of the last 50 years of social development in India and the emerging issues; and (b) a secondary source analysis of social development profile of Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the States of Bihar (undivided) and West Bengal, followed by a pilot field study. It was expected that these studies would help identify the various components of human and social development, as also, data needs and gaps that could be covered by a subsequent primary survey. However, these studies were not available in time to kick start this empirical field survey. Consequently, it was decided to conduct the primary field study by designing it afresh. The basic objective of the study is to portray a social development profile of Scheduled Castes and Tribes in Bihar, the newly formed State of Jharkhand (carved out of Bihar), and in West Bengal. It was decided to design the survey in a manner such that it would yield data for analysis of SC and ST communities in terms of social development attributes that characterise them. Social development was not conceived in narrow non- economic terms. Our intention was to assess their capabilities and life chances with a view to project their performance and prospects in the society they inhabit. Eight panchayat sites spread over the three States and two urban settlements, one within the industrial town and capital of Jharkhand, and the other, within a district town of Jhargram in West Bengal, provided the urban sample for our survey. However, the sample households in Jhargram ame mainly from the urban fringe bordering the rural area. Jhargram does not remotely compare with the level of urbanisation of Ranchi, the capital of the newly formed State of Jharkhand. Framework This report focusses on two major ‘secular’ aspects of social development of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the three States of Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The first deals with the material basis of the secular domain. Essentially this relates to : 9  1) Livelihood, which explores the levels at which these castes and tribal communities are reproducing themselves through productive labour. We have in this context, attempted to examine their occupational/employment patterns and the levels of their well-being in terms of consumption, assets etc.; 2) Housing, which reflects the quality of life of these communities in terms of amenities available to them; 3) Health, which is so important in the reproduction of labour and consequent efficient pursuit of livelihood. The other important ‘secular’ aspect pursued in this study, relates to literacy/educattion. We are all aware that education is one of the most important factors of empowerment. It is through education that value additions to human resource takes place in a most fundamental way. This, in turn, is expected to provide the basis for social and economic development in the conditions of the lives of the deprived castes and tribal communities. It was our intention to explore the ‘sacred’ domain of rituals and socio-cultural transactions. We realised that such data were not satisfactorily forthcoming through the survey instrument. This requires a qualitative, inter-subjective back-up level of study by the conceptualisers of the phenomena. Likewise, in our attempt at assessing the political ramifications of relations of power relating to these castes and tribal communities, we realised that this too could not be satisfactorily circumscribed within the fold of a survey on social development profile, given the constraint of time. The political aspect of empowerment had to be kept in abeyance. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are basically social categories, within which fall a large number of castes and tribal groups. It is obvious that all castes and tribes are unlikely to develop at the same pace. It follows that both castes and tribes will be internally differentiated within these categories. We have therefore attempted to keep in view the factor of differentiation. The number of castes and tribes which could be 10 analysed, per force, had to be limited to those which had 20 or more households in the sample. There is a basic assumption that State policies of protective discrimination for the upliftment of SCs and STs are in operation in all the three States. We have not attempted to investigate systematically the nature and quality of delivery systems of State interventions. We have rather concentrated on the end products that emerge from the profiles. It is not possible to distinguish strictly between the contributions of the State, and variables other that the State (market, mobility, etc.). Notwithstanding the resources specially made available by the State through pro- active, protective discrimination, there is no denying that some castes and tribes give evidence of greater dynamism in negotiating with the instruments of State intervention, as well as with non-State factors. More so in a democratic polity. When the same caste/tribe is performing in more then one State, it gives us an opportunity to assess the environment each of these States provide for the caste/tribe. Above all, aggregate analysis at the level of each State gives us some scope to make a comparative assessment of how the SCs and STs have faired in the three different political dispensations. Finally, gender has entered into our survey analysis through a deliberate strategy of introducing large number of female respondents. The original resolve to have equal number of male and female respondents could not be actualised because of practical considerations of the field. While the introduction of female respondents, per se, did not make much of a difference on the nature of the data relating to households, it has, we feel definitely contributed to their greater accuracy. A female respondent, once in a while would fall back on kins for data on the ‘secular’ details of material assets and position. The same would be true of male respondents. In a less obvious way, female respondents provided a greater sense of balance to the interviewers. Although gender issues in the 11 subjective – cultural sense has not figured in our study, structurally, gender differentials could be captured, particularly when it came to literacy /education. Methodology Given the constraints of time and resources, the methodology included a sample survey of eight panchayats and two urban settlements. Four panchayats were selected from West Bengal, two from Bihar and two from Jharkhand. As for the urban settlements, one was selected from West Bengal (Jhargram) and the other from Jharkhand (Ranchi). The study was done in two stages. The major part of the study was done through field survey on the basis of a schedule. The first step was to identify the eight panchayats. The major criteria for selection was that the panchayats should have substantial numbers of SC/ST households. For this the district censuses were utilised. The second consideration was that, wherever possible, we locate panchayats which had both SC and ST populations. It was realised that howsoever we may try, there was not much point in seeking a representation of the State through such limited number of panchayats. So a combination of convenience, accessibility and persons with prior knowledge of the field, guided the selection of the panchayats. Once, however, the panchayats were selected, the selection of villages within the panchayat followed the criteria of convenience on the basis of knowledgeable persons who were going to cooperate in helping establish contacts and rapport. It was accepted that without such cooperation it would not have been possible to get data collected by investigators efficiently within the specified short period of time. 12  Once the villages were identified with satisfactory concentration of SC and/or ST populations, we attempted to be more systematic. Listing of households in the villages and selection of 200 households from each panchayat was resorted to by simple random sample method. By and large, we expect our surveys to be at least representative of the panchayats. While we cannot claim any representativeness of the States, we have nevertheless engaged in inter-State comparisons with respect to our selected panchayats. We hope to gain valuable insights from this exercise even if our generalisations cannot be accepted as representative. They will, hopefully throw valuable hypotheses which could be considered serious and important enough to be pursued with greater rigour on a larger scale with more time and resources at command. Further, we can assert that the patterns that emerge out of these States are true with respect to select castes/ tribes in the selected villages in the eight panchayats. The survey was conducted in Jharkhand and West Bengal with the collaborative efforts of the reputed survey organisation, Economic Information Technology, Kolkata. The experienced and honest team of research investigators were subjected to several training sessions, including mock interviews. In Bihar, the situation was more amorphous. Consultative link was established with a distinguished retired professor and Head of the Department of Patna College, Patna University. The cooperation of an NGO, Arogyam Centre for Health and Development, Chapra, Bihar, was also established for the selected panchayat in North Bihar.. After the survey was completed, another rapid appraisal field study was undertaken by the Director of the survey project and his colleague, who are the co-authors of this study. The purpose was two-fold. It helped as a cross-check on the surve y concluded earlier through investigator interviewing. In this regard some specific repeat test interviews were conducted. Secondly, this field exposure provided an opportunity for some independent qualitative understanding of the field surveyed. This, we believed, 13 would provide a 'feel' of the field, and hence prove conducive to writing the report without being entirely mechanistic. Trials and tribulations of field work: The schedule was finalised after several rounds of discussions sessions with persons having considerable grass roots experience. The schedule went through several stages of editing at the initial stages of trials. In the process, it became quite a comprehensive survey instrument. As mentioned earlier, we realised, that given the constraint of time, certain kinds of data could not be pursued to our satisfaction. The planning of survey in Bihar was not without hiccups. There were at least two false starts. In turn, the decision to survey the districts of Aurangabad and later. Barh, had to be abandoned, as they turned out to be super-sensitive Naxalite areas, suspicious of any kind of survey.* Assembling the team and training them was more time consuming in Bihar with a high turnover of investigators. Data collection stretched for undue lengths of time in the complex circumstances of Bihar. ________________________________________________________________________ * We came to learn that mass massacres took place in these districts by warring class enemies subsequent to some surveys. Whether or not these surveys had anything to do with the retaliatory and counter retaliatory massacres, the people in these regions did not rule out a linkage. Ever since, surveys aroused serious suspicions and were boycotted. 14  Sample Coverage: Panchayat and Villages The following panchayats and villages were covered in our study in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Table 2.2 : Bihar District Block Panchayat Village Sample Total Saran Baniapur Pirauta Baraopur 30 Pirauta 71 Pithouri 82 Repura 9 192 Patna Masaurhi Tineri Basaur 13 Chakia 26 Dhanauti 22 Gopalpur 40 Tineri 99 200 Total 392 Table 2.3 : Jharkhand District Block Panchayat Village Sample Total Ranchi Ranchi town - 200 200 Dumka Dumka Ghasipur Andipur 17 Ghasipur 62 Mahashlity 03 Panjanbona 36 Karma 48 Sinkhajuri 34 200 West Sadar Singh- Gumdipa 86 Singhbhum Chaibasa pokhariya Singpok- 51 hariya Kundubera 63 200 Total 600 15  Table 2.4 : West Bengal District Block Panchayat Village Total Darjeeling Naxalbari Moniramjote Hatiram 52 Rokomjote 71 Mirajamla 77 200 Bardhaman Kanksha Gopalpur Bamunara 31 Bandra 49 Gopalpur 95 Birudia 25 200 Bankura Khatra-1 Gorabari Baraghutu 29 Dhagara 54 Fulhari 29 Paripatha 44 Susunia 44 200 Birbhum Murarai-1 Mahurapur Battala 38 Birnagar 21 Chandpur 25 Kanaipur 37 Kotapahari 23 Madhupur 27 Shimiljuri 29 200 Medinipur Jhargram (Town) Town 200 Total 1000 Sample Coverage : Scheduled Castes and Tribes : In Bihar, in the two districts of Patna and Saran there were no Scheduled Tribes. Of the 392 households in Bihar the following Scheduled Castes figured in our analysis. 16  Table 2.5 : Bihar : Scheduled Castes Sl.No. Caste Number of Household M F Households Population 1. Bauri 1 6 3 3 2. Bhoogta 1 3 2 1 3. Chamar 159 1005 535 470 4. Dusadh 113 623 342 281 5. Musahar 69 259 140 119 6. Dhobi 8 71 41 30 7. Chaupal 29 182 96 86 8. Nat 10 60 37 23 9. Dom 6 20 11 9 Total 392 2229 1207 1022 In Jharkhand, our sample has captured 7 Scheduled Castes and 8 Scheduled Tribes spread over 600 households. Table 2.6 : Jharkhand : Scheduled Castes and Tribes Sl.No. Caste Number of Household M F Households Population 1. Bauri 2 12 5 7 2. Bhuiya 6 36 15 21 3. Chamar 16 95 48 47 4. Dom 21 128 66 62 5. Dhobi 3 18 9 9 6. Dabgar 1 5 4 1 7. Pan 7 35 14 21 Total 56 329 161 168 Tribe 1. Mahali 48 224 117 107 2. Santal 150 729 365 364 3. Lohara 58 310 158 152 4. Munda 37 200 98 102 5. Oraon 63 343 165 178 6. Ho 184 1034 506 528 7. Bhumij 3 31 17 14 8. S. Paharia 1 3 1 2 Total 544 2847 1427 1447 17  In West Bengal our sample of 1000 households has captured 19 Scheduled Castes with 443 households and 12 Scheduled Tribes with 557 households. Table 2.7 : West Bengal : Scheduled Castes and Tribes Sl.No. Caste Number of Household M F Households Population 1. Bagdi 65 381 202 179 2. Bauri 47 234 132 102 3. Bhuiya 30 141 70 71 4. Chamar 48 330 120 110 5. Chaupal 1 8 6 2 6. Damai 2 13 8 5 7. Dhobi 34 183 86 97 8. Doai 1 4 3 1 9. Dom 20 106 50 56 10. Kami 23 121 66 55 11. Kaora 1 3 2 1 12. Konai 21 131 61 70 13. Lohar 8 34 21 13 14. Mahar 8 40 18 22 15. Mal 70 343 178 165 16. Namasudra 2 12 5 7 17. Pan 1 4 3 1 18. Patni 30 148 85 63 19. Sarki 30 153 76 77 20. Other 1 3 1 2 Total 443 2392 1193 1099 Tribe 1. Asur 6 30 14 16 2. Bhumij 72 440 231 209 3. C. Baraik 3 17 7 10 4. Kisan 7 39 21 18 5. Kora 3 13 5 8 6. Lodha 44 188 101 87 7. Mahali 22 109 57 52 8. Munda 22 99 52 47 9. Nagesia 1 6 3 3 10. Oraon 78 429 220 209 11. Santal 298 1540 785 755 12. Sarvar 1 2 1 1 Total 557 2912 1497 1415 18  The sizeable Scheduled Castes covered in our analysis in the three states with 20 households or more, are : Chamar (223), Dusadh (113), Mal (70), Musahar (69), Bagdi 65),Bauri (50), Dom (46), Dhobi (45), Bhuiya (36), Pan (36), Chaupal (30), Patni (30), Sarki (30), Kami (23) and Konai (21). Amongst the Scheduled Tribes covered, the sizeable tribes with 20 households or more are: Santhal (448), Ho (184), Oraon (139), Bhumij (75), Mahali (70), Munda (59), Lohora (58), and Lodha (44). 19 Household Structure Scheduled Caste Bihar After the bifurcation of Jharkhand from the undivided Bihar, the tribal population of Bihar became insignificant. In the two panchayats that we have studied in Bihar, we came across only nine SCs and no STs. They include Bauri, Bhoogta, Chamar, Chaupal, Dusadh, Dhobi, Dom, Musahar and Nat. These constitute 392 households.* Of the nine castes there is predominance of Chamar (159 households), Dusadh (113 households), Musahar (69 households), and Chaupal (29 households)1. The rest have ten or less households each. The total household population of all the nine SCs in 392 households is 2229, of whom 1207 are males and 1022 are females. The average size of all the sample households of SCs in Bihar is 5.69. While the average household size among the Chamar, Chaupal, Dhobi and Nat is six and above, that of the Musahar is only 3.75. Among the Chamar, Dusadh and Chaupal, the percentage of households belonging to household size of five and above varies between 74.2 and 62.8, whilst amongst the Musahar, this is only 33.3. The predominance of small households and nuclear households amongst the Musahar indicate that they approximate the small family size norm. _____________________________ * 400 household schedules were canvassed. Eight schedules were rejected. 1 The four castes – Chamar, Chaupal, Dusadh and Musahar constitute 370 households. The rest five castes are distributed amongst 22 households. Their frequencies being too small, they are not generelisable and donot figure in our analysis. An exception has been made in the case of the Dhobi with eight households. 20  Table 2.8 : Size and Type of Households among Scheduled Castes in Bihar Sl.No. Caste Avg. HH Less than five Five and above Nuclear Extended Size 1. Chamar 159 41 118 104 55 (6.32) (25.8) (74.2) (65.4) (34.6) 2. Chaupal 29 10 19 20 9 (6.28) (34.5) (65.5) (69.0) (31.0) 3. Dusadh 113 42 71 85 28 (5.51) (37.2) (62.8) (75.2) (24.8) 4. Musahar 69 46 23 67 2 (3.75) (66.7) (33.3) (97.1) (2.9) All 9 370 144 248 291 101 castes (5.69) (36.7) (63.3) (74.2) (25.8) Jharkhand In Jharkhand there are only 56 Scheduled Caste sample households (9.3%) percent as against 544 tribal households (91.7%), in the two selected panchayats and one town. The total population of these 56 households is 329, of whom 161 are males and 168 are females. There are seven SCs, namely, Bauri, Bhuiya, Chamar, Dom, Dhobi, Dabgar and Pan. The Chamar and Dom are represented by 16 and 21 households respectively2. The remaining five SCs have seven or less number of households each. The average size of all the sample households is 5.88. The average household size of Chamar and Dom is 5.94 and 6.01 respectively. Both these SCs have 70-75 percent of their households comprising five or more members. Though both the castes have almost similar household size, the percentage of extended households among the Dom is 47.6 as 2 The other five SCs are distributed among 19 households, hence not generalisable. 21 against 25.0 among the Chamar. From this we can conclude that the average households size of SCs in Bihar and Jharkhand is more or less the same. Table 2.9 : Size and Type of Households among Scheduled Castes in Jharkhand Sl.No. Caste No. of HHs Less than five Five and above Nuclear Extended (Avg. HH (%) (%) (%) (%) Size) 1. Chamar 16 4 12 12 4 (5.94) (25.0) (75.0) (75.0) (25.0) 2. Dom 21 6 15 11 10 (6.01) (28.6) (71.4) (52.4) (47.6) All 7 56 16 40 40 16 castes (5.88) (28.6) (71.4) (71.4) (28.6) West Bengal In West Bengal there are 11 Scheduled Castes in 443 sample households selected from four panchayats and one urban area. The total population of these sample households is 2392, of whom 1193 are males and 1097 are females. The major SCs are Bagdi, Bauri, Bhuiyan, Chamar, Dhobi, Dom, Konai, Kami, Mal, Patni and Sarki3. The number of households of these castes varies between 20 and 70. Their average size is 5.39. The average household size of Chamar, Konai and Bagdi is high. It is 6.87 for Chamar, 6.23 for Konai and 5.86 for Bagdi. It is interesting to find that inspite of 50 percent households among the Chamar having less than five members, its average household size is the highest. This is due to the much larger household size of the remaining 50 percent of the households. Among the Konai, the Bagdi and Dom, the percentage of households having five or more members is 76.2, 70.8 and 70.8 respectively. Among the other SCs, the percentage varies between 50 and 60. The 3 The remaining nine SCs have eight or less households. 22 percentage of nuclear households is highest among the Chamar(87.5%), followed by the Dom (87.1%). It is lowest among the Bagdi (69.2%). Table 2.10 : Size and Type of Households among Scheduled Castes in West Bengal Sl.No. Caste No. of HHs Less than five Five and above Nuclear Extended (Avg. size of (%) (%) (%) (%) HHs) 1. Bagdi 65 19 46 45 20 (5.86) (29.2) (70.8) (69.2) (30.8) 2. Bauri 47 19 28 40 7 (4.98) (40.4) (59.6) (85.1) (14.9) 3. Bhuiya 30 15 15 24 6 (4.70) (50.0) (50.0) (80.0) (20.0) 4. Chamar 48 24 24 42 6 (6.87) (50.0) (50.0) (87.5) (12.5) 5. Dhobi 34 12 22 24 10 (5.38) (35.3) (64.7) (70.6) (29.4) 6. Dom 20 6 14 14 6 (5.30) (30.0) (70.0) (70.0) (30.0) 7. Kami 23 9 14 17 6 (5.26) (39.1) (60.9) (73.9) (26.1) 8. Konai 21 5 16 15 6 (6.23) (23.8) (76.2) (71.4) (28.6) 9. Mal 70 28 42 61 9 (4.90) (40.0) (60.0) (87.1) (12.9) 10. Patni 30 15 15 23 7 (4.93) (50.0) (50.0) (76.7) (23.3) 11. Sarki 30 13 17 22 8 (5.10) (43.3) (56.7) (73.3) (26.7) Total of 443 177 266 348 95 all 20 (5.39) (40.0) (60.0) (78.6) (21.4) castes 23  Scheduled Tribe Jharkhand The major Scheduled Tribes in the sample areas of Jharkhand are Ho, Lohara, Mahali, Munda, Oraon and Santhal. The others are Bhumij and Sauriya Paharia. The maximum number of ST households is represented by Ho with 184 households, followed by Santhal with 150 households. While Lohara (58) and Oraon (63) have more than 50 households. The remaining tribes have less than 20 households each. The total household population of the eight STs with 544 households in Jharkhand is 2874. Of the total population, 1427 are males and 1447 are females. The average size of all ST households is 5.28. While the average household size of Mahali and Santhal is less than five, that of the Lohara, Munda, Oraon and Ho is more than the average household size of all ST households. However, none of these tribes have reached the average household size of six or above. Except among the Mahali and the Santhal, where the percentage of households having household size of five or more numbers is 50 and 55 respectively, for the others, it varies between 62(Lohara) and 68(Munda). The percentage of nudear ho useholds varies from 76(Oraon) to 90 (Mahali). 24  Table 2.11 : Size and Type of Households among Scheduled Tribes in Jarkhand Sl.No. Tribe No. of HHs Less than five Five and above Nuclear Extended (Avg. HH (%) (%) (%) (%) Size) 1. Ho 184 60 124 152 32 (5.62) (32.6) (67.4) (82.6) (17.4) 2. Lohara 58 22 36 49 9 (5.34) (37.9) (62.1) (84.5) (15.5) 3. Mahali 48 24 24 43 5 (4.67) (50.0) (50.0) (89.6) (10.4) 4. Munda 37 12 25 29 8 (5.40) (32.4) (67.6) (78.4) (21.6) 5. Oraon 63 22 41 48 15 (5.44) (34.9) (65.1) (76.2) (23.8) 6. Santhal 150 67 83 129 21 (4.86) (44.7) (55.3) (86.0) (14.0) Total All 544 208 336 451 93 8 Tribes (5.28) (38.2) (61.8) (82.9) (17.1) We can conclude that the nuclear household is pervasive both for SCs and STs in Bihar and Jharkhand. But its prodominance is greater amongst the STs of Jharkhand. West Bengal In West Bengal, the total sample households of STs is 557. The total population of these households is 2912, of which 1497 are males and 1415 are females. There are as many as twelve tribes represented in the sample households. The major Scheduled Tribes are Bhumij, Lodha, Mahali, Munda, Oraon and Santhal4. The average size of the sample households of all the twelve Scheduled Tribes is 5.22. The average size of the households among the Lodha, Mahali, and Munda is less than five. While the average size of households among the Bhumij is highest at 6.11, it is as low as 4.27 among the Lodha. The average size of households among the Santhal and Oraon is 5.17 and 5.50 respectively. 4 The remaining six STs have six or less households. 25  Table 2.12 : Size and Type of Households among Scheduled Tribes in West Bengal Sl.No. SC No. of HHs Less than five Five and above Nuclear Extended (Avg. size of (%) (%) (%) (%) HHs) 1. Bhumij 72 19 53 44 28 (6.11) (26.9) (73.6) (61.1) (38.9) 2. Lodha 44 26 18 36 8 (4.27) (59.1) (40.9) (81.8) (18.2) 3. Mahali 22 9 13 16 6 (4.95) (40.9) (59.1) (72.7) (27.3) 4. Munda 22 14 8 19 3 (4.50) (63.6) (36.4) (86.4) (13.6) 5. Oraon 78 32 46 58 20 (5.50) (41.0) (59.0) (74.4) (25.6) 6. Santal 298 120 178 216 82 (5.17) (40.3) (59.7) (72.5) (27.5) Total of 557 229 328 403 154 all 12 (5.22) (41.1) (58.9) (72.4) (27.6) tribes The percentage ST households having five or more members, is highest amongst the Bhumij with 74 percent and lowest among the Munda with 36 percent. Amongst the Oraon, Mahali and Santhal it is around 59 to 60 percent. Among the Bhumij the percentage of nuclear family is the lowest at 61.1, and among the Munda it is the highest at 86.4. Household Structure : Summary 1. The average household size of Scheduled Castess in Bihar and Jharkhand is more or less the same (5.69 and 5.88 reply). 2. The nuclear household is pervasive among Scheduled Castess and Scheduled Tribes in all the three States of Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. For the SCs it is 74.6 percent in Bihar, 62.2 percent in Jharkhand and 78.2 percent in West Bengal. 26 3. In West Bengal the incidence of nuclear households is more or less the same for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. But in Jharkhand it is conspicuously predominant among STs. 4. The relatively low incidence of nuclear households among the Scheduled Castes in Jharkhand is due to the much larger presence of extended households (47.6%). 5. The Chamar caste has almost uniformly the largest household size in all the three States. They are pervasively nuclear and their household size in Bihar and Jharkhand are comparable (75% large and 25% small). In West Bengal, they are predominantly nuclear (87.5%), but they are evenly distributed between small and large households (50% - 50%). 6. The Musahar caste (figuring only in Bihar) are conspicuous with the smallest average household size (3.75) which is almost entirely nuclear. Limits and Limitations Before conclud ing this chapter we must be clear about the scope of this study. 1) This study is limited to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the three States. Comparisons with non- Scheduled Caste and non Scheduled Tribe to simple statistical analysis.populatio ns do not fall within the purview of this study. 2) Our sample of purposively selected panchayats and urban settlements within the three States, cannot do considered as representative of the respective States. For example, populous castes like the Namasudras in West Bengal have not figured prominently in our sample. Besides, certain regions and many districts are not covered by the study. 3) Compared to the volume of data collected, the analysis is selective and restricted Notwithstanding these limitations, we can assert that our data do serve as pointers to trends which they reveal. These trends are not be generalisable for the States under study. Yet they are true for the areas studied. These should lead to valuable and serious hypotheses. 27 References: Asian Development Research : Jharkhand Development : Issues and Strategies, Institute (ADRI) Patna, Unpublished, 2000. Chakraborty G Human Development Profile of Scheduled Castes And and Tribes in selected States, New Delhi, P.K. Ghosh NCAER, 2000 28  CHAPTER - III The Field : Introducing the Scheduled Communities The Peoples’ of India (POI) Project identified 450 Scheduled Castes out of 471 listed by the office of the Registrar General of India in 1963-64. Of those identified along with their segments, as many as 751 communities of SCs were located and studied (Singh 1993:1). Correspondingly, out of 532 Scheduled Tribes identified by the Registrar General, 461 could be located. These, and their groups and segments, including territorial units, numbered 635 communities of tribals covered by the POI study (Singh 1994 :1-2). In our study we covered 891 households of Scheduled Castes and 1101 of households of Scheduled Tribes. Table 3.1 : Sample coverage of Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Households). State Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes Total Bihar 392 Nil 392 Jharkhand 56 544 600 West Bengal 443 557 1000 Total 891 1101 1992 We have already stated that castes/tribes which have at least twenty households in our sample will provide for any meaningful analysis. The only exception to this is the Dhobi in Bihar with only eight households. They figure in larger numbers in West Bengal. 29  To provide a context for the analysis of the Scheduled Castes/Tribes in our survey, it is necessary to provide brief introductions of them. We shall mainly depend on the Peoples of India project for this. Table 3.2 : Distribution of Scheduled Caste households in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal (Castes with 20 households and above) Sl no Castes Bihar Jharkhand West Bengal Total 1 Chamar 159 16 48 223 2 Dusadh 113 - - 113 3 Mal - - 70 70 4 Musahar 69 - - 69 5 Bagdi - - 65 65 6 Bauri 1 2 47 50 7 Dom 6 21 20 47 8 Dhobi 8 3 34 45 9 Bhuiya - 6 30 36 10 Chaupal 29 - 1 30 11 Patni - - 30 30 12 Sarki - - 30 30 13 Kami - - 23 23 14 Konai - - 21 21 SCHEDULED CASTES 1. CHAMAR The single largest caste in our sample is that of the Chamar with 223 households, constituting 25 percent of our sample. Probably they are the only pan-Indian SC. They and their segments or sub-groups are variously known as Chamar and Raidas in Uttar Pradesh; as Charmkar, Harijan and Ravidas in Bihar; as Joatia Chamar, Reghar, Raigar, Ramdasi and Ravidas in Chandigarh; Ravidas, Ramdasi, Arya and Mochi in Himachal Pradesh; as Jatavs or Jatias in Haryana; as Rishidas and Muchi in Tripura; as Cha mbhars and Hadis in Goa; in Gujarat they are grouped with Bhambi and similar names. They did not always inter-marry amongst each other, displaying regional variations. They also gave evidence of practising part of commensal restrictions in accordance with norms of 30 ritual hierarchy of the caste system. The set of castes from whom they accepted food and water, the castes from whom they did not, and the castes that did or did not accept food or water from them, varied regionally. Occupationally, their traditional association has been with hides, whether it is tanning or production of leather goods. It is, however, not necessary that their occupation be always associated with hides. They were cultivators and agricultural labourers in much larger numbers (Singh 1993: 301-22). The Chamar caste has thrown up political leaders of national stature like Jagjivan Ram and Bhola Paswan Shastri (from Bihar) in the past, and Kansi Ram (from Punjab) in the present times. Bhola Paswan Shastri was thrice Chief Minister, and even held a cabinet rank at the Centre. Ms. Mayawati of Uttar Pradesh, was the first ever Scheduled Caste woman to become a Chief Minister of any State. In Bihar, they have been involved with the radical Maoist Naxalite Movement. There were nearly 3m Chamars in Bihar in 1981, of which overwhelming numbers of workers were agricultural labourers (77%) and substantial numbers were cultivators (13%). Only 3.5 percent were engaged in manufacturing and processing. This indicates a drastic decline in their traditional craft (Singh 1993: 304-6). Chamar, in Bihar, accepted water from Brahman, Rajput, Bania, Hajam, Turah and such other communities, but did not accept it from Dom and Muslim (306). The Census of 1981 reported a low literacy rate of 11.52 percent, with female literacy at 2.36 percent and male at 20.51 percent. They generally used firewood, kerosene oil and cowdung cakes as fuel resources. For credit, they showed depencence on moneylenders and shopkeepers. Though electricity was generally out of their reach, radio listening was common. For health and medical needs they continued to rely heavily on indigenous resources (306). 31 2. DUSADH All our 113 Dusadh households are from Bihar constituting 12.6 percent of our sample. The Dusadhs (Dusadhs, Dusada) are found in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and in the Purulia district of West Bengal. Risley described them in 1891 as a degraded or refined cultivating caste of Bihar and Chotanagpur, largely employed as village watchmen, messengers and palanquin bearers. The mother tongue of Patwar Dusadh is Hindi, whilst that of the Gope Dusadh (largely concentrated in Purulia) is Bengali. The Dusadhs in Bihar, claimed Gaihlot Chhatri status of the Kshatriya as descendents of Arjuna, the mythical hero of Mahabharata. In 1981, along with Dhari and Dharki castes associated with Dusadhs, they constituted nearly 2.7m, close to the Chamar population. Like the Chamar, they were overwhelmingly agricultural labourers (74.8%) and cultivators (15.2%). Their literacy rate was 12.43 percent (female 2.96%, male 21.47%) (Singh 1993: 505-510). In present times they have thrown up a leader of national stature in Ram Vilas Paswan. They accepted water from Brahman, Rajput, Yadav, Bania, Hojam, Turah and castes of similar standing, whilst refusing it from Chamar, Dom, Dhobi and Muslim (509). 3. MAL The Mal with 70 households are from West Bengal, constituting 7.86 percent of our sample. The origin of Mal is traced to Malla Kshatriyas. They are mainly to be found in Birbhum, but they are also distributed in other districts of West Bengal. Like the Dusadhs, they were employed as village watchmen. But they were basically a cultivating caste. The sub-groups amongst them were further differentiated by occupation. Thus 32 Chatradharis held umbrellas during marriages; Sapurias were snake-charmers; Paharias collected and sold firewood; others worked mainly as agricultural labourers. The Census of 1981 recorded 2.05 lakhs population of Mal. Nearly 67 percent of the workers were agricultural labourers and 16.3 percent were cultivators. Another 3.81 percent were in livestock and animal husbandry, whilst nearly 13 percent were in other services. Their literacy level was 12.16 percent (female 5.49% and male 18.55%) (Singh 1993: 870-71). 4. MUSAHAR We have 69 households of Musahars in our sample, all from Bihar. Musahar are a caste which is to be found in the districts of Bhagalpur, Monghyr, Purnea, Gaya, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran, Hazaribagh, Santal Parganas and other districts of Bihar. Risley thought that they were an offshoot of the Bhuiya tribe of Chota Nagpur. Musahar, literally, could either mean a flesh-seeker, i.e. hunter, or a rat catcher or eater. Their population, according to 1981 Census, was 1.39m. Their literacy was at an insignificant 2.2 percent (male 4.01% and female 0.32%). They were predominantly agricultural labourers (95.34%) with few cultivators (2.52%). Surprisingly, they were reported as accepting food and water from all except the Chamars (Singh 1993: 964-5). It is interesting that Musahar participation in agrarian conflict have found expression from their own leadership and they are supposed to have played an important part in the Naxalite Movement. 33 5. BAGDI There are 65 households of Bagdi in our sample. They are exclusively in the West Bengal sample. The Bagdi is concentrated mainly in western and central West Bengal. They regarded themselves as Byagra Kshatriya. Their traditional occupations have been fishing and cultivation. They were notified as Bagdi, Duley in West Bengal with a population of 1.8m. They too have been palanquin bearers. There were a larger proportion of cultivators compared to the above castes at 21.73 percent, whereas the larger population were agricultural labourers (64.5%). Only about 3 percent were in fishing, whilst around 11 percent were in services. Commensal restrictions practiced, if at all, were not reported (Singh 1993: 63-66). They had a literacy rate of 14.6% (male 21.7%, female 5.9%). 6. BAURI Our sample consisted of 50 households of Bauri. They figured mainly in West Bengal with a neligible few in Jharkhand (2) and Bihar (1). The Bauri is to be found mostly in Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum and Burdhaman districts of West Bengal. They are also to be found in Bihar and Orissa. Risley described them as cultivating, earth-working, palanquin-bearing caste of Western Bengal’. In 1981 their population in West Bengal was 7, 32, 205. As per 1981 Census, 69.10 percent of the workers were agricultural labourers, 13.11 percent were cultivators, 1.23 percent were in forestry or rearing live-stock, 4.29 percent were in mining and 12.27 percent were in other services. They were considered low in the caste hierarchy. They accepted water and food from castes such as Kayastha, Napit, Goala but not from Santhal, Bhumij and Bhuiyas, whom they regarded as untouchables (Singh 1993: 175-7). They had a literacy rate of 9-4 percent with 15.9 percent male and 2.4 percent female literate. 34 7. DOM There are 21 households of Dom in Jharkhand, 20 in West Bengal and one in Bihar in our sample totalling 47 households. The Dom are spread over Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. They are not to be confused with Dombara or Domb of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala. Scavenging, mat-weaving and basketry, drum beating, removal of dead carcass and attending to cremation grounds, are the traditional occupations associated with the Dom. Many of them have found employment as sweepers in government and private organizations. In Bihar they were notified as Dom and Dhangad with a population in 1981 at 2 lakhs. They dug graves, cremated bodies and made baskets out of bamboo, reared pigs and in addition, they were employed in municipal corporations, government and private establishments as Jamadars. Moving out of their traditional occupations they were into wage labour, rickshaw pulling, selling charcoal. As workers, 37.4 percent were in basketry (household industry), 28.5 percent were agricultural labours, 10.1 percent were cultivators. The rest, 24 percent were in services (mainly as Jamadars etc.). Their literacy rate was at 7.99 percent (male 13.45%, female 2.11%). There is no mention of communal hierarchy of food and water transactions, but they have been regarded as one of the lowest in the scale of untouchability (Singh 1993: 483-5). In West Bengal they were notified as Dom and Dhangad, with a population of 231,595 in 1981. Their traditional occupation has been basket- making, producing winnowing fans and thatching houses. In 1981, 25.7 percent of the workers were in their traditional occupation (household industry), 42 percent were agricultural labourers, 8.6 percent were cultivators 35 and 23.7 percent were in other services. Their literacy rate was 12.6 percent (male 19.8%, female 4.8%). 8. DHOBI We have 45 households of Dhobis in our sample, 34 from West Bengal, 8 from Bihar and 3 in Jharkhand. The Dhobi are also known as Dhopa in West Bengal, Rajaka in Orissa; as Shukladas, Shuklabaidya and Sabhasunder in Tripura; Dhoba, Rajak, Dhupi and Suklavaidya in Assam; Dhobi and Rajak in Uttar Pradesh; and by one or more of these names in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and some other states in the North East. Their traditional occupation has to do with washing clothes. In 1981, they were about 5.5 lakhs population in Bihar. The surname associated with them are Ram, Baitha, Das and Prasad. Nearly 23 percent of the workers were in their traditional occupation of washing clothes, 28 percent were cultiva tors, 40 percent were agricultural labourers and the remaining 9 percent were engaged in other services. Their literacy rate was 18.6 percent (male literacy 30.7%; female literacy 5.9%) (Singh 1993: 442-53). In West Bengal their population was 2.5 lakhs. Nearly 23.3 percent of the workers were in their traditional occupations, 24.1 percent were cultivators, 24.4 percent were agricultural labourers, the rest 28 percent were engaged in various other services. Their literacy rate at 38.8 percent, was decidedly higher in comparison to the other castes (male 50.4%, female 25.9%). Commensal restrictions associated with them are not stated. 36 9. BHUIYAN Of the 36 Bhuiyan households in our sample, 30 are from West Bengal and 6 from Jharkhand. They are to be found mainly in the districts of Bankura, Burdwan, Malda, and Midnapur in West Bengal. In Bihar and Jharkhand they are mainly spread over the districts of Gaya, Nawada, Aurangabad, Nalanda, Bhagalpur, Monghyr and Palamau. Uttar Pradesh also has a small population (8145). Their population in Bihar in 1981 was 8.5 lakhs and in West Bengal it was less than a lakh (93,411). In Bihar 75.6 percent were agricultural labourers , 14.2 percent were cultivators and 5.6 percent were in mining and quarrying. In comparison, in West Bengal 50.6 percent were agricultural labourers, 21.9 percent were cultivators, 11 percent were in mining and quarrying, with the remaining 16.5 percent in other services. Traditionally they have been associated with agriculture. Their literacy rate in Bihar was very low at 4.30 percent, with a male literacy of 7.7 percent and female of 0.77 percent. In West Bengal, they were better off with 14.2 percent literacy (female literacy 4.6% and male literacy 23.0%). Once again commensal restrictions do not find mention (Singh 1993: 266-71). 10. CHAUPAL Our sample has 30 households of Chaupal, all except one, from Bihar. They are also known as Basak and Tanti and are concentrated in the north eastern districts of Purnea and Katihar in Bihar. They were 44,372 in Bihar in 1981. Nearly 74.5 percent workers were agricultural labourers, 4.8 percent were in manufacturing processing and servicing, 15 percent were cultivators and a small number, 3 percent in trade and commerce, and another 2.71 percent in other services. 37  Their literacy rate was 8.8 percent (16% male and 1.5% female). They accepted food and water from all communities except the Mehtar (Singh 1993: 362-4). 11. PATNI All the 30 households of Patni are from West Bengal in our sample. Patnis are found mainly in Assam and West Bengal. They are also to be found in a few thousands in Tripura and Manipur. Traditionally they are ferrymen, repairing boats and also musicians in Tripura. In West Bengal their population in 1981 was 22,466 (11,512 males, 10.954 females). They use surnames of Haldar, Biswas, Sarkar and Das. In 1981 43.1 percent of the workers were agricultural labourers, 21.9 percent were cultivators, 9.4 percent were in other than household industry, 8.0 percent in household industry, 6.1 percent in transport (in their traditional occupation), 6.9 percent in sundry occupations, whilst only 4.6 percent were engaged in trade and commerce. The literacy rate was 25.3 percent (males 35.3% , females 15.1%). Commensal restrictions do not find much mention except that they accepted water and pucca food from Brahman, Kayastha, Kapali and so on (Singh 1993: 1086-89). 38 12. SARKI (NEPALI) Like the Patni, all the 30 households of Sarki in our sample are from West Bengal. The Sarki, also called Nepali, are to be found mainly in Darjeeling district of West Bengal. They are also to be found in Sikkim in small number (population of 604 in 1981). They are originally a cobbler caste and referred to as Chamar in Sikkim. They are also known as Mistry, Karighar or Kanikar. Their population in 1981 was 11,292. Majority of the workers, 44.8 percent were in tea plantations, 20.5 percent were cultivators, 18.3 percent were in other services, 8.2 percent were agricultural labourers, whilst 8.1 percent were in manufacturing, processing etc., which include their traditional occupation. Their literacy rate was 27.3 percent (male 37.9% and female 16.8%). They speak Nepali and Bengali (Singh 1993: 1170-73). 13. KAMI (NEPALI) We have 23 households of Kami in our sample, all in West Bengal. The Kami like the Sarki are also known as Nepali and inhabit the same regions of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts. In 1981 they were a population of 42,493 in West Bengal. The workers constituted 31.7 percent of the population (42.13% male, 21.18% female). Their traditional occupations related to ironsmithy, goldsmithy and coppersmithy. Only 12.6 percent remained in manufacturing and processing, and another 3.51 percent in household industry, indicating their continuation in the traditional occupation. Otherwise, like the Sarki, a substantial percentage were in tea plantation 39 (43.1%), 17.6 percent were cultivators, only 6.7 percent were agricultural labourers and 9.0 percent were in other than household industries. Their literacy rate was higher than the Sarki at 34.7 percent (45.7% male, 23.6% female). They did not accept food and water from Sarki. 14. KONAI Our sample consists of 21 households of Konai, all in West Bengal and from Birbhum. They are considered to be a cultivator caste and were a population of 71,423 in 1981. They were regarded low in the caste hierarchy but considered themselves higher than the Muchi and Dom. The percentage of workers in the population was 29.2% in 1981 (52.99% male, 3.58% female). Most of them were agricultural labourers (56.0%), whilst 29.6 percent were cultivators. A small number were in household industry (2.9%), yet smaller number in other-than-household industry (1.80%) and 9.8 percent were in other services. Their literacy level was 15.91 percent (23.94% male, 7.26% female). The general literacy for SCs of the State was 24.37 percent. 40 Table 3.3 : Population, literacy rates, percentage of workers as agricultural labourers and in their traditional occupations of the 14 castes in the States of Bihar (including present Jharkhand) and West Bengal 1981. Literacy (%) | Workers % Workers % Sl. Caste State Popn M F T M F T Agri Tradi Culti No. lab occup 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 Chamar Bihar 3m 20.5 2.4 11.5 50.7 18.0 34.5 77.0 3.5 13.0 Chamar W.B. 0.7 la 21.9 5.5 14.4 55.7 5.5 32.7 44.8 24.0 13.4 2 Dusadh Bihar 2.7 m 21.5 3.0 12.4 51.6 15.2 33.9 74.8 10.0 15.2 3 Mal W.B. 2.1 la 18.6 5.5 12.2 54.5 13.2 34.3 67.0 (16.3) (16.3) 4 Musahar Bihar 1.4 m 4.0 0.3 2.2 59.2 33.7 46.7 (95.3) (95.3) 2.5 5 Bagdi W.B. 1.8 m 21.7 5.9 14.0 52.9 7.1 30.4 64.5 3.0 21.7 6 Bauri W.B. 0.7 la 15.9 2.7 9.4 50.8 21.7 36.6 69.1 (13.1) (13.1) 7 Dom Bihar 2.0 la 13.5 2.1 8.0 55.3 23.4 40.0 28.5 37.4 10.1 Dom W.B. 2.3 la 19.8 4.8 12.6 54.3 16.6 36.2 42.0 25.7 8.6 8 Dhobi Bihar 5.5 la 30.7 6.0 18.6 47.9 10.5 29.6 40.0 23.0 28.2 Dhobi W.B. 2.5 la 50.4 25.9 38.8 46.9 5.0 27.0 24.4 23.3 24.2 9 Bhuiya W.B. 0.9 la 23.0 4.6 14.2 52.4 19.8 56.9 50.6 72.2 21.6 10 Chaupal Bihar 0.4 la 16.0 1.5 8.8 57.2 10.5 34.2 74.5 4.8 15.0 11 Patni W.B. 0.2 la 35.3 15.1 25.4 51.3 8.6 30.5 43.1 9.4 21.9 12 Sarki W.B. 0.1 la 37.9 16.8 27.3 43.9 20.0 31.9 8.2 8.1 20.5 13 Kami W.B. 0.4 la 45.7 23.6 34.7 42.1 21.2 31.7 6.7 16.1 17.6 14 Konai W.B. 0.7 la 23.9 7.3 15.9 53.0 3.6 29.2 56.0 29.6 29.6 Source: Compiled from K.S. Singh, The Scheduled Castes, 1993. Note: (1) In Col.4 `m’ denotes million and `la’ denotes lakh. (2) Figures within brackets ( ) indicate the coincidence of traditional occupation. It will be obvious from the census 1981 figures that the levels of underdevelopment of the above 12 castes vary according to literacy rates and percent workers who are agricultural labourers. Further, it is interesting to note the percent workers who continued to pursue their traditional occupation. The four ‘millionaire castes’ that figure in our sample, are the Chamar, Dusadh, Bagdi and Musahar. It is important to state that the percentage of workers in the traditional occupation of castes can be identified by the occupational categorisation of the Census that is 41 supposed to circumscribe it. By and large it is assumed that, they reflect a correspondence. Strictly speaking, the specific traditional occupation will be equal to or less than, the Census classification. Accordingly, the traditional occupations of weaver/cobbler/leather worker of the Chamar, Sarki and Chaupal should be reflected in the Census category of ‘manufacturing/processing’; ‘other services’ will reflect watchmen, messenger, washing clothes etc. for the Dusadh and Dhobi; ‘household industry’ will reflect basket- making etc. for the Dom; and so on. In some cases the Census categories like ‘cultivators’, ‘agricultural labourers’ coincide with the traditional categories, as in the case of Mal, Musahar, Bauri and Bhuiya. It is instructive to analyse how the castes that have figured in our sample have fared in 1981 census. Let us first begin by castes highest on percent workers as agricultural labourers, say, 70 percent and above. There are six castes in this category : Musahar (95.3%), Chamar (77%), Bhuiya (75.6%), Dusadh (74.8%) and Chaupal (74.5%). It may be noted, that for the Chamar, (who are also to be found in West Bengal as per our sample of 48 households), the data on literacy, worker classification and population are not given for West Bengal. We are therefore not in a position to compare the Chamar in Bihar with those of West Bengal as we can do for the Dhobi. For the other four castes, which, are to be found mainly in Bihar, the data pertain to Bihar (including the present Jharkhand). These castes with high worker participation as agricultural labourers are associated with low literacy rates : Musahar (2.2%), Chamar in Bihar (11.5%), Bhuiya (4.31%), Dusadh (12.4%) and Chaupal (8.8%). The converse, however, is not always true. For example, the Dom with only 28.5% as agricultural labourers, are at a low literacy level (8%) in Bihar. But with a higher percentage of agricultural labourers in West Bengal (42%), they are somewhat higher in literacy at 12.6% (comparing favourably with the Dusadh in Bihar). The Dom in Bihar are more into their traditional occupation (37.4%) than their counterparts in West Bengal (25.7%). They are also better represented in the other services. It is difficult to assess whether the larger percentage of 42 Dom workers are better off with their traditional occupations in Bihar, as compared to their counterparts in West Bengal with a larger percentage into agricultural labour. If we assume their condition to be equivalent, then it would appear that their better literacy level in West Bengal had not improved their material condition when compared with the Dom in Bihar. The Bauri with 69.1 percent of their workers as agricultural labourers, with a low litereacy rate of 9.4 percent, falls in this category of castes. Let us now take the castes which had the highest percentage of workers as cultivators of land, say, 20 percent and above. There are four castes in this category : Dhobi in Bihar (28.2%) and Dhobi in West Bengal (24.2) ; Patni in West Bengal (21.9%) ; Bagdi in West Bengal (21.7%) and Sarki in West Bengal (20.5%). Except for the Bagdi with a low literacy rate of 14 percent, the Dhobi in West Bengal (38.8%), the Sarki (27.3%) and the Patni (25.4%), (all in West Bengal), are amongst those having the highest literacy rates. However, the Dhobi in Bihar with second highest percentage of workers as cultivators (24.2%) were below 20 percent in literacy (18.6%). Two observations can be made : a. All the four castes which correlate well combining higher cultivator status with higher literacy, were in West Bengal. b. The only caste with high cultivator status but somewhat lower literacy rate, the Dhobi, was from Bihar. However, even this somewhat lower literacy level, was the highest for Bihar. Two inferences can be drawn from these findings : a. That high literacy and better cultivator status amongst Scheduled Castes presumably indicate the empowering function of literacy and education. 43 b. As between Bihar and West Bengal, opportunities for literacy were better in West Bengal. This will also be evident from the literacy ranges in the two states in 1981. In West Bengal the literacy range within which these castes fell were between a low of 9.4 percent (Bauri) and a high of 38.8 percent (Dhobi), whereas for Bihar this was from a low of 2.2 percent (Musahar) to a high of 18.6 percent (Dhobi). In Bihar, there was a wide gap in the literacy levels from the highest (Dhobi with 18.6%) to the next highest (Dusadh with 12.4%), with the Chamar coming a close third (11.5%). If we were to do some rough ranking of these castes, the uniformly backward Musahar is the worst off, with the Bauri, Bhuiya, Chaupal, Dom occupying very low positions. In contrast, the Dhobi emerges on the top along with Patni and Sarki (with a sizeable number of workers in tea plantation) clearly indicating relatively better position. At one level of analysis, whole castes can be seen as performing at different rates; at another, even within some not so well-off castes, there seem to be those performing better than many others. SCHEDULED TRIBES Following the pattern of the Scheduled Castes we shall discuss those tribes which have figured in our sample with 20 or more households. These are : Santhal, Ho, Oraon, Bhumij, Mohali, Munda, Lohara and Lodha. We should remember that the Census figures for the Scheduled Tribes in Bihar, more or less correspond with the new State of Jharkhand. 44 Table 3.4 : Distribution of Scheduled Tribe households in Jharkhand and West Bengal (Tribes with 20 households and above) Sl. Tribe Jharkhand West Total No. Bengal 1 Santhal 150 298 448 2 Ho 184 - 148 3 Oraon 63 78 141 4 Bhumij 3 72 75 5 Mahali 48 22 70 6 Munda 37 22 59 7 Lohara 58 - 58 8 Lodha - 44 44 1. SANTHAL In our sample we had 448 households of Santhal, 40.7 percent of our sample, spread over Jharkhand and West Bengal. The Santhal are the third largest tribal community in India inhabiting the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and Tripura. The Santhal of Assam are not included in the list of Scheduled Tribes. The Scheduled Tribe Santhal population in India in 1981 was 4.3m. The largest concentration of Santhal is in Bihar (including Jharkhand) with a population of 2,060,730, followed by West Bengal 1,666,610. Their traditional homeland has been the Chotonagpur plateau from where they migrated to Birbhum and the Santhal Paraganas after the famine of 1770. In erstwhile Bihar (including Jharkhand) they are to be found mainly in the districts of Dumka, Godda, Sahebganj, and Deoghar (Santhal Parganas), and also in Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Dhanbad, Bhagalpur and Purnea. There have been conversions to Christianity from 1.79 percent Christians in 1961 to 3.29 percent in 1981. A significant development is the revival of their traditional religion, from 6.74 percent in 1961 to 13.89 percent in 1981. There is a near-corresponding decline in their returns to 45 the Census declaring themselves as Hindus, from 91.47 percent in 1961 to 82.62 percent in 1981. There is also a conscious revival of the Santhali language and all of them speak Santhali as their mother tongue. In 1981, 66.56 percent were cultivators, 23.9 percent were agricultural labourers, 2.6 percent were in mining and quarrying, and 6.9 percent were in other occupations. As many as 36.9 percent of the total population were returned at workers. Their literacy rate was 12.5 percent (20.8% male, 4.1% female), which was lower than the general tribal literacy rate of 17.0 percent. In West Bengal, in contrast, 43.1 percent of the Santhal returned themselves as workers, of these 36.0 percent were cultivators, 56.2 percent were agricultural labourers and 6.7 percent were in other occupations. A very small percentage were still pursuing their traditional occupation of hunting and food gathering. It would be more apt to describe them as settled cultivators. Their literacy rate at 12.5 percent was almost at the same level as the Santhal in Bihar (20.8% male, 4.0% female). Their conversion to Christianity was nearly the same as in Bihar (3.3%). So also was the pace at which traditional religion expanded from 2.9 percent in 1961 to 15.3 percent in 1981. As many as 81.4 percent returned themselves as Hindu in 1981. The Santhal have been historical heroes having waged the peasant wars in 1855- 56 against moneylenders and middlemen. A separate territorial administration of the Santhal Parganas had to be created for them. They led a vigorous reform movement, the Kharwar movement in 1870. Subsequently, they participated in the freedom struggle. Thereafter, they spearheaded the movement for a separate Jharkhand State, which became a reality in 2001. The Santhal has also participated in the left extremist movements for agrarian transformation. The name of Jangal Santhal had acquired the proportions of a legend during this period (Singh 1994 : 1041-1046). 46 2. HO The 184 households of Ho in our sample are all from Jharkhand. They constitute 16.71 percent of our sample. Tho Ho are concentrated in the Kolhar area of Singhbhum district of the erstwhile Bihar (including Jharkhand) although they are also to be found in Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. They were earlier known as Kol or Larka Kol. There were 536,523 Ho in Bihar in 1981. Like the Santhal they have been in settled cultivation. In 1981, 60.1 percent were cultivators, 24.3 percent were agricultural labourers, 7.4 percent were in manufacturing, processing etc and 8.2 percent were in other occupation. As many as 38.7 percent of them were workers. Their literacy rate at 17.7 percent in Bihar, was better than those of the Santhal in Bihar and West Bengal (with male 29.3%, female 6.4%). The Ho have been practicing their tribal religion in predominant numbers, which too have been increasing. In 1961, 73.3 percent followed the tribal religion, which increased to 81.7 percent in 1981. The Christian population increased from 0.6 percent in 1961 to 1.4 percent in 1981. Those professing Hinduism declined from 26.2 percent in 1961 to 16.5 percent in 1981. The Ho also have a record of participating in the Kol rebellion and later contributed to the formation of Jharkhand as a new State (Singh 1994 : 404-07). 47 3. ORAON In our study we have 141 households of Oraon spread over Jharkhand and West Bengal. The Oraon are concentrated in the Chotanagpur region of erstwhile Bihar (including Jharkhand), but are also present in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Tripura, Assam and Maharashtra. In erstwhile Bihar their population in 1981 was one million. Their tribal language is Kurukh. They are now mainly settled cultivators. As per 1981 Census, 66.5 percent were cultivators, 18.6 percent were agricultural labourers, 3.8 percent were in other than household industries, whilst 11.1 percent were in other occupations. As many as 36.1 percent of their population were workers. Their literacy rate at 23.3 percent (male 32.4%, female 14.2%) is above the general tribal literacy of 16.99 percent. The Oraon in Bihar is well known for the Tana Bhagat Movement for socio- economic reforms. They played a significant role during the freedom struggle as followers of Gand hi and supporters of the Indian National Congress. The Tana Bhagats formed a community of some ten thousand or more in 1981. They were reported to have observed commensal restrictions by not accepting food and water from the Lohra, Gorait, Mahli and Chik. Conversion to Christianity is significant with 21.1 percent in 1981. Only 58.4 percent returned themselves as Hindus, whilst 15.5 percent declared themselves as followers of tribal religion, which is on steady increase since 1961. In West Bengal the Oraon are to be found in the districts of Jalpaiguri in North Bengal, in Midnapur and 24 Parganas. They were a population of 437,574 in 1981. 48  The total workers in the population was 38.1 percent (49.6% male, 25.9% female), of these 44.0 percent were in plantation, 24.0 percent were cultivators and 21.1 percent were agricultural labourers. Those engaged in other occupations were 10.9 percent. Their literacy level was low at 12.7 percent (19.3% males, 5.7% females). The Christian community of Oraon was 14.5 percent, with more of them declaring themselves as Hindu (85.3%). Interestingly, only 0.1 percent can be inferred as following the traditional religion (Singh 1994 : 948-52; 953-54). 4. BHUMIJ In our sample we had 75 households of Bhumij. Except 3, all are in West Bengal. They were described as a Hinduised section of the Munda by Risley. They are to be found in the districts of Midnapur, Purulia, Bankura and 24 Parganas and numbered 2,33,906 in 1981. In West Bengal, Bhumij were tradionally cultivators who also hunted and trapped brids and animals in the forests. Of their total population, 40.6 percent (54.0% males, 26.8% females) were workers in 1981. Unlike the Santhal, Ho and Oraon, 63.9% had turned agricultural labourers and 28.9 percent remained as cultivators. Only 1.5 percent were in forestry, hunting etc., whilst 5.7 percent were in other services. The literacy was at 14.8 percent (males 25.4% , females 4.0%) and 98.6 percent of Bhumij declared themselves Hindu in 1961. The Christian percentage among them is negligible, whilst those following their tribal religion were only 2.3 percent in 1971. The Bhumij in erstwhile Bihar are notified as Scheduled only in South Chotanagpur and in Santhal Parganas with a population of 136,109 in 1981. 49  The total workers numbered 38.6 percent, of whom 48.7 percent were cultivators, 39.9 percent were agricultural labourers, 4.2 percent were in manufacturing, processing etc., the rest 7.3 percent were in other occupations such as livestock rearing, forestry, mining, quarrying, construction etc. Their literacy rate in erstwhile Bihar was 16.5 (28.55% male, 4.2% female). Both at the level of percentage of workers as cultivators and literacy, the Bhumij seem to be better off in erstwhile Bihar, than in West Bengal (Singh 1994 : 167 – 170). 5. MAHALI / MAHLI The 70 households of Mahali in our sample are spread over Jharkhand and West Bengal. In erstwhile Bihar, they are to be found in the districts of Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Gumla, Lohardaga, Singhbhum and Jharkhand districts, which now form the new State of Jharkhand. Their population in 1981 was 91,868. They were supposed to be labourers, palanquin bearers and producers of bamboo goods at the time of Risley. They were also cultivators. There were 42.4 percent workers amongst them in 1981, of whom 43.4 percent were in basketry (household industry), 23.8 percent were cultivators, 19.0 percent were agricultural labourers, 3.0 percent were in mining, quarrying and 10.8 percent were in other occupations. Their literacy rate was a low of 11.7 percent (19.6% male, 3.4% female). They were predominantly returned as Hindus in 1981 (82.5%), with a small Christian population of 2.3 percent, and a growing population that were reviving their traditional religion (10.7%). In West Bengal, there were 10,827 Mahli in 1981, and another 50,288 notified separately as Mahali. 50  Amongst the Mahli, 45.4 percent were returned as workers; whilst amongst the Mahali 43.39 percent were workers in 1981. Corresponding figures for both, in household industry was 37.9 percent (Mahli) and 27.1 percent (Mahali) ; in forest produce and animal husbandry, 13.7 percent (Mahli) and 29.1 percent (Mahali) ; as agricultural labourers, 24.2 percent (Mahli) and 23.0 percent (Mahali) ; as cultivators, 10.8 percent (Mahli) and 10.1 percent (Mahali); in other services, 13.5 percent (Mahli) and 10.4 percent (Mahali). The literacy rates vary from 10.3 percent for Mahli to 14.2 percent for Mahali. The male literacy rate of 16.0 percent and female of 3.8 percent are given only for Mahli. In 1981, 97.4 percent Mahli were returned as Hindu, whilst the corresponding percentage for Mahali was 94.8% ; there were 1.8 percent Mahli Christians as against 3.1 percent Mahali Christians ; 0.8 percent Mahli followed ‘other religion’ (traditional religion), whilst 2.0 percent Mahali followed their traditional religion (Singh 1994 : 705 – 9). 6. MUNDA Our sample of 59 households of Munda is distributed between Jharkhand and West Bengal. The Munda are to be found in the States of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Tripura and Madhya Pradesh. Their population in erstwhile Bihar was 8,45,887 in 1981. Most of them speak the Mundari language. They have been cultivators, combining hunting and collection of forest produce. In 1981, 37.7 percent of them were workers, of whom 69.2 percent were cultivators, 17.7 percent were agricultural labourers, 2.4 percent were in mining and quarrying and 10.7 percent were in other occupations such as household industry, construction and service. Their literacy rate was 22.2 percent (31.9%) male, 12.5% female). 51  Only 45.6 percent returned their religion as Hindu, whilst those following their traditional religion, Sarna, were 26.5 percent, which showed steady increase over the decades, and 27.7 percent were Christian. The Munda have repeatedly resisted break up of their traditional agrarian system. As early as 1819-20 the Tamar insurrection took place. This was followed by the Kol insurrection (1831-32). The Sardar agitation which began as early as in 1850, carried on for nearly 40 years against forced labour, expelling landlords. The Birsa Munda uprising (1874-1901) is legend. It compelled the enactment of a new law by the British to safeguard the Munda land system. Finally, Munda leadership in the movement for the new State of Jharkhand, is well recognised. In West Bengal, they are variously known as Kharia Munda, Munda Majhi, Kol Munda, Bhumij Munda, Mahali Munda, Nanki Munda and so on. They are found in the districts of Midnapur, Purulia, West Dinajpur, Malda, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and had a population of 2,30,016 in 1981. In 1981, 41.1 percent of them were workers (53.8% male, 28.0% female). Amongst them, 20.7 percent were cultivators ; 44.3 percent were agricultural labourers; 25.8 percent were engaged in collection of forest produce, rearing livestock and hunting; the rest 9.2 percent were in other services. Their literacy rate was 11.84 percent (19.3% male, 4.2% female). In 1981, 92.0 percent returned themselves as Hindu and 7.6 percent as Christian.