Rocks From Views Pt. 1-3 - 2nd Monthly Rev PDF

# Rocks from views Pt. 1 - 3 ## No. 2nd Monthly ## Date. 10/21/24 ### How can we classify rocks? - By it's physical & chemical properties that is inherit to how the rocks were formed. ### 3 Major Types of Rocks 1. Igneous rocks: formed by fire - Are derived from the cooling and Solidificatio...

# Rocks from views Pt. 1 - 3 ## No. 2nd Monthly ## Date. 10/21/24 ### How can we classify rocks? - By it's physical & chemical properties that is inherit to how the rocks were formed. ### 3 Major Types of Rocks 1. Igneous rocks: formed by fire - Are derived from the cooling and Solidification of magma or lava, usually hard and crystalline. - Parent material * Igneous rock came from magma, the molten rock material beneath the parth's surface. * It can be magma or a java. - Composition of magma 1. Melt: liquid portion of the magma or lava which is composed of mobile ions. 2. Solids: These are silicate minerals that have already crystalize prom the melt. 3. Rolatile: Are gases that dissolves in the melt. Those gases include water vapor, CO2 and Sulfur dioxide. - Classification of igneous rocks according to it's texture * Phaneritic: coarse grained texture slow Cooling large in terlockin Crystals that is visible to the naked eye. * Aphanitic: Fine grained texture, minerals not visible to the nared eye Mlatively past Rates. of cooling solidification - **Porphogritic** * Formed through two stages of crystalization * **Phenocrysts** - When magma extru ded partly out of the earth and when it partly cooled for it provide time large crystals from growing. * **Groundmaus** - When the rock extruded to the earth surface prom beneath the earth it forms pine-grained matric or what we canted groundmass. - **Vesicular** * Voids created by rapid cooling >have noles luoits which caused air bubbles to be trapped inside. 2. Volcanic: formed from the Solidifred lava or near ine surface. of the earth at ROCKS - Experience rast rate of cooling, because itis being extruded to the earth's surface. - There is a huge variant in the temp underneath and to the Earths jurface - Common textures: aphanitic, porphyric, vesicular * Note: -pyroclastic rocks Fo these are fragmented rock from by vioient erruption. - Silicon and oxygen - How toer silica content affect the characteristics of magma and the rocks formed from it? * **Malapot** - Magma that is high in silica is more vis cous, so popanting Paposed ame trapped ases Pl violent erruption. * **A malabnaw** - Magma that has poor in silica is less viscous, so gas bubbles move up through it and escape fairly gently. - Classification of Rocks According to silica Content 1. Felsic: also termed as granitic Composition (relds par silica - Composed of light-colored Silitates - Feldspar and silica y more than 65°10 silica - Major constituents of Continental crust. 2. Intermediate: andesitic - 55 to 45% silica - Generally medium-coloret (medium gray) - Associated with explosive volcanic activity. 3. Mapic: basaltic - 95 to 55% silica - Dark-colored - Denser than granitic ROCKS: - Comprise the ocean floor as well as many volcanic islands 4. Ultra mapic: wss than 45% Silica - Very dark colored - Egne composition that is high in magnesium and Tron. - The more silica content a rock has, the lighter it is - The lesser silica a rock has the tarker it is. - to most composed of Iron & magnesium of - The more silica content it has the lesser iron cu magnesium it has. - The lesser silica it has, the more iron de magnesium it has. 3. Sedimentary Rocks: small beginnings - These are formpd at or near the surface of the earth. - Temp and pressure at the earth's Surface are low, allowing for sedimentary processes to happen. - Common sedimentary Features * Stratification or layering - Layering of the sediments. - Results of a change in grain size and composition - Each layer represents a distinct period of deposition - Bedding: strata which is more. than one cт - Lamination: strata which is less than one cт - Youngest layer is at the top, In terms of its dassification or Layering. - Oldest layer is on the bottom. * Fossil assemblages - Remains and traces of organisms that wants to here on earth - Phrases of organisms that once living. these are the dead traves - Organisms get buried in the layers of setiment. * Ripple marks - Can be present because of wind and water. - Trese being preserved in setimentong rocks/sadd Stone. - Sedimentary processes * Weathering - Process of breaking down rocks physically or chemically. - Types 1. Frost wedging - Freezing and thawing of inside water in the rock. 2. Root-wedging - Action of plants /roots growing in to rocks 3. Exfoliation - Outer layers of rock peel off. 4. Abration - Sand-blasting of a cliff face by blowing sands in the esert. * Erosion (to eat away) - Process of eating away rocks from their source. - Those evements that causes the rocks to be eaten away from their souree: gravity, water, wind, people, & animals * Transport - Movement of sediments from one place to another - Context: how large - Competence (quality) - Sproperty of the medium (eg.water airete.) to bring setiment. - Capacity (Quantity) - Property of the medium to bring more sediments - Note: - The more sediments where being transported farther away Prom their place the mote minerals or Sediments that being Resist woa the ring transportes panther away. - The large particles where left near the sourbe. - The small particles where being Carried /transported farther the source. - Sediment in a stream * Sorting - Grain size distribution or range of grain sizes in a rock - Poorly sorted: have some bigger and small sediments that where combined. - Well sortet: have a more uniformet appearance compared to the poorly sorted sediments * Rounding - It destribes the relative shape of grains. - Classifications of setiments are Jescribed as deviations from being rounded or spheroidal grain shapes - Well-rounded: Spheroidal grains. - Poorly-rounded: angular grains. * Deposition - When the medium was not be able to carry sediments farther away, the sediments will be deposited. - Occrons when the energy of the medium which cause the sediments to be transported to one place to another, is no wuger capable of mansporting the sediments. That's Deposition taber place. - Settling of the setiments in an are a before they lithi pied to form sedimentary Rocks. * Piagenisis - Formation of sedimentary ROCKS - Group of processes responsible For the fransformation of sediments into sedimentary ROCKs - PROCESSES OF PIAGENESIS: 1. Recrystallization, occurs when un stable minerals recrystalize to form more stable minerals. 2. Compaction, occurs when sediments are progressively deposited on top of one another. * Cementation, hardening of Sediments by grecipitation of mineral matter in the pore spaces. * Lithification, occure when sediments are bounted Cohesively to form a solid sedimentary rock. - Classification of sedimentary Rockks * Clastic sedimentary rock - Composed of grains, matrix, and cement - Classified based on particle size * Grains: greater than sand-sized Grain * Matrix: fine-grained Minerals cement: sediments into retimentary ROCKS. * TYPE OF CLASTIC ROUCS: 1. Rudaceous rocks (rudites) - Clast are of ton visible to the naked eye. - Conglomerate: predominantly coarse, rounded grains, süggests that conglomerates form in high-energy environments. - noll • - Brecuia: combination of poorly-sorted, predominantly coarse angular grains suggests tha't breccias formprom rapid Jeparitionments. in high energy 2. Arenaceous rocks Carenites) - Grains notvisible to the hated eye. - Sandstones: comprise about 20°10 of all setimentary rock's and are formed in a variety of different enviton ments. 3. Argillaceous rocks (angillites) - Grains not visible to the naked eye, but smaller grains than Arenaceous. - EXAMPLES OF ARGILLACEOUS: * Siltstone - Finer grained than sandstone, but warser grained than mudstone, - Consists primarily of well-Sorter, rounded grains. * Mudstone - Similar to share except that lacks fissility. - Do not contain laminations. or fissility, but the may Conaturing beting-plane formed by subaerial drying conditions. * Shale - Accounts por about 50°0 of all sedimentary rocks deposited of the Earth's Surface. - Most libery deposited very gradually in non-turbulent, envinhments - Bioclastics: coal and coquina - ROCK formed from compacted. organic matter. - Coquina: rock formations are poorly comented, Coarse-textured masses of shens and sten fragments. * Note: shells and shen fragments are easily discerned, they also give the rock. arough, sharp texture. - Coal: formed under unaerobic decomposition of plants remains. consider as. sesimentary roves. ## IGNEOUS ROCKS - Magma - Melt - Solids - Rolatile - Phaneritic - Aphanitic - Porphyritic - Phenocrysts - Groundmass - Vesicular - Plutonic (intrusive) - Volcanic (Extrusive) - Pyroclastic rocks - Felsic - Intermediate - Mafiic - Ultramafic ## No. 2nd Monthly ## Date. # Rocks from views PT. 2 ## Sedimentary Rocks - These are formed at or near the surface of the earth. - Temp and pressure at the earth's Surface are low, allowing for sedimentary processes to happen. - **Common sedimentary Features** - Stratification or layering * Layering of the sediments. * Results of a change in grain size and composition * Each layer represents a distinct period of deposition * Bedding: strata which is more than one cт * Lamination: strata which is less than one cт * Youngest layer is at the top, In terms of its dassification or Layering. * Oldest layer is on the bottom. - **Fossil assemblages** * Remains and traces of organisms that wants to here on earth * Phrases of organisms that once living. these are the dead traves * Organisms get buried in the layers of setiment. - **Ripple marks** * Can be present because of wind and water. * These being preserved in setimentong rocks/sadd Stone. - **Sedimentary processes** - **Weathering** * Process of breaking down rocks physically or chemically. * **Types:** 1. **Frost wedging** * Freezing and thawing of inside water in the rock. 2. **Root-wedging** * Action of plants /roots growing in to rocks 3. **Exfoliation** * Outer layers of rock peel off. 4. **Abration** * Sand-blasting of a cliff face by blowing sands in the esert. - **Erosion (to eat away)** * Process of eating away rocks from their source. * Those evements that causes the rocks to be eaten away from their souree: gravity, water, wind, people, & animals - **Transport** * Movement of sediments from one place to another * Context: how large * **Competence (quality)** * Sproperty of the medium (eg.water airete.) to bring setiment. * **Capacity (Quantity)** * Property of the medium to bring more sediments * Note: * The more sediments where being transported farther away Prom their place the mote minerals or Sediments that being Resist woa the ring transportes panther away. * The large particles where left near the sourbe. * The small particles where being Carried /transported farther the source. * Sediment in a stream - **Sorting** * Grain size distribution or range of grain sizes in a rock * Poorly sorted: have some bigger and small sediments that where combined. * Well sortet: have a more uniformet appearance compared to the poorly sorted sediments - **Rounding** * It destribes the relative shape of grains. * Classifications of setiments are Jescribed as deviations from being rounded or spheroidal grain shapes * Well-rounded: Spheroidal grains. * Poorly-rounded: angular grains.. - **Deposition** * When the medium was not be able to carry sediments farther away, the sediments will be deposited. * Occrons when the energy of the medium which cause the sediments to be transported to one place to another, is no wuger capable of mansporting the sediments. That's Deposition taber place. * Settling of the setiments in an are a before they lithi pied to form sedimentary Rocks. - **Piagenisis** * Formation of sedimentary ROCKS * Group of processes responsible For the fransformation of sediments into sedimentary ROCKs * **PROCESSES OF PIAGENESIS:** 1. **Recrystallization,** occurs when un stable minerals recrystalize to form more stable minerals. 2. **Compaction,** occurs when sediments are progressively deposited on top of one another. - **Cementation,** hardening of Sediments by grecipitation of mineral matter in the pore spaces. - **Lithification,** occure when sediments are bounted Cohesively to form a solid sedimentary rock. - **Classification of sedimentary Rockks** - **Clastic sedimentary rock** * Composed of grains, matrix, and cement * Classified based on particle size * Grains: greater than sand-sized Grain * Matrix: fine-grained Minerals cement: sediments into retimentary ROCKS. - **TYPE OF CLASTIC ROUCS:** 1. **Rudaceous rocks (rudites)** * Clast are of ton visible to the naked eye. * Conglomerate: predominantly coarse, rounded grains, süggests that conglomerates form in high-energy environments. - noll • * Brecuia: combination of poorly-sorted, predominantly coarse angular grains suggests tha't breccias formprom rapid Jeparitionments. in high energy 2. **Arenaceous rocks Carenites)** * Grains notvisible to the hated eye. * Sandstones: comprise about 20°10 of all setimentary rock's and are formed in a variety of different enviton ments. 3. **Argillaceous rocks (angillites)** * Grains not visible to the naked eye, but smaller grains than Arenaceous. - **EXAMPLES OF ARGILLACEOUS:** * Siltstone * Finer grained than sandstone, but warser grained than mudstone, * Consists primarily of well-Sorter, rounded grains. * Mudstone * Similar to share except that lacks fissility. * Do not contain laminations. or fissility, but the may Conaturing beting-plane formed by subaerial drying conditions. * Shale * Accounts por about 50°0 of all sedimentary rocks deposited of the Earth's Surface. * Most libery deposited very gradually in non-turbulent, envinhments - **Bioclastics: coal and coquina** * ROCK formed from compacted. organic matter. * Coquina: rock formations are poorly comented, Coarse-textured masses of shens and sten fragments. * Note: shells and shen fragments are easily discerned, they also give the rock. arough, sharp texture. * Coal: formed under unaerobic decomposition of plants remains. consider as. sesimentary roves. ## No. 2nd Monthly ## Date. # Rocks from views PT. 3 ## Metamorphic Rocks - These are rocks that formed below the earth. through a process of metamorphism. - These metamorphism brought changes es of of crystals of rocks / recrystallization of minerals in rocks. Due to changes In pressure and temperature conditions. - Metamorphic rocks formed when pre-existing rocks under goes mineralogical and structural changes. resulting high temp and high pressure condition. - **Where are metamorphic cocks found?** * It is located at the interphase between sedimentary rocks du igneous rocks. - **How to rock's metamorphose?** * When magma porce its way to the surrounding crust, it will bake the surrounding rocks, because the metamorphic rocks are located between sedimentang and igneous rocks. * The magma will bake, because the temp their is very high. de to the differences in them to remp cancing metamorphase. - **2 TYPES OF METAMORPHISM** 1. **Contact metamorphism** * Heat and reactive fluids as the main factors. * Happens when rocks are having experiences Direct contact with magma or magmatic fluids. * Which causes transformation di alterations of the rocks. * It creates non-foriated metamorphic roks. * Note: The minereals on the rocks must be first in the solid State before or because it is stable for it to crystalize. 2. **Regional metamorphism** * Pressure as main factor * Happens when rocks undergo considerable amount of mechanical deformation and chemical recrystallization during orogenic event.. * Example of mountains. * It creates foliated metamorphic cocks. - **2 types of metamorphic rocks** * **Foliated:** rocks with mineral crystals arranged in cable-like distorted layers / structures * Mineral Alignment - foliation * Banding * Types of rocks: * Slate - it was formed due to low pressure conditions, and this foliation forms fimed-tin layers. * Schist - warser than slate, It experience pressure range. * Gneiss - experience medium Very coarse, and the foliation tend to be very visible. It experience high pressure conditions * **Mon-foliated:** roues with recrystallized mimerals; no layering * Leangstallization * Growth of new mineral crystals prom other rocks. ## Sedimentary Rocks - Stratification or layering * Bedding * Lamination - Fossil assemblages - Ripple marks - weathering * Frost wedging * Root-wedging * Exfoliation * Abration - Erosion * Transport * Competence * Capacity * Sorting: Poorly sorted well sorted * Rounding: sheroidal diangular grains - Argillaceous rocks (argillites) * Siltstone * Mudstone * Shale - Non-Clastic * Evaporites * Precipitates * Bio clastics * Coquina * Coal ## Igneous Rocks - Plutonic - Volcanic - Uplift ## Metamorphic LOCKS * Metamorphism - Contact metamor - Regional metamor * Foliated - Slate - Schist - Gneiss * Non-foliated - Recrystallization * Shale-slate * Slate - phyllite * Phyllite-schist ## Rock cyne - Plutonic - Volcanic - Uplift ## Topic: Energy Resources ### Fossil Fuels - Formed from traces of organisms that lived millions of years ago - Formation: * Through anaerobic decomposition (There is no presense Of oxygen) of buried de ad organism's - Rey Characteristics: * High percentage of carbon * Ex: coal and petroleum ### Coal - Classification: sedimentary rolk - Age: formed over 350 million years ago - Origin: Transformation of organic plant matter - Formation process: * Co alification (also known as carbonification or bituminization) - **TYPES OF COAL** 1. Anthracite (highest Rank) - 940 95% pure carbon - 8860 33% uglatile matter 2. Bituminous - 776086% carbon - 46 to 31% volatile content - Used in metallurgy 3. Sub-bituminous coal - 70 60 7670 Carbon - 53 to 42% volatile matter. 4. Lignite - 45 60 7010 Carbon - 636053010 volatile matter - Low grade puel with high moisture Con ent - Hent - Used in Industrial boilers 5. Peat Clowest Rank) - Partially decomposed vegetation - Less than 60% Carbon content - High volatile content - Used as tried briquettes for heating ### Petroleum - Classification: Fossil fuels - Formation: Deep in the earth from remains of dead plants and animals. - Composition: Hydro car bons - Formation time: Millions of years - Formation londitions: specific pressure ### Geothermal Energy - Descending deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water become hotter # What is coal and how it is formed? - Before the dinosaurs, many giant plants died in swamps. - Over millions of years, the plants were buried under water and dirt. - Heat and pressure turned the dead plants into coal. # What is petroleum and how it is formed? - Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor. - Over time, they were covered by layers of silt and sand. - Over millions of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper. The enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and gas. - Today, we drill down through layers of sand, silt, and rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and gas deposits. # Petroleum formation - Source rock formation - Source rock subsidence - Oil and gas formation - Hydrocarbon migration # Petroleum Formation: Step 1 - Source Rock - 0.1% of organic matter transported to sea or lake bottoms - Mixing of organic matter with inorganic particles (clay, sand) and dead marine plankton - Preservation in poorly oxygenated environment - Transformation into dark, foul-smelling mud by anaerobic bacteria - Source rock: Mud containing 11 to 22% organic matter # Petroleum Formation: Step 2 - Source Rock Subsidence - Definition: Gradual sinking of sediments forming a sedimentary basin - Process: Weight of accumulating sediments pushes source rock beneath Earth's crust - Exposure to increasing temperature and pressure - Organic matter crushed by accumulating # Petroleum Formation: Step 3 - Oil and Gas Formation - Depth of 2,000 meters: Temperature reaches 100°C - Kerogen formation: Intermediate material (water, CO₂, hydrogen) - Kerogen transforms into oil or gas # Factors Affecting Oil and Gas Production - Composition of source rock determines oil/gas ratio: - Animal-origin organic debris: Produces more oil than gas - Plant-origin organic debris: Produces mostly gas # Petroleum Formation: Step 4 - Hydrocarbon Migration - Definition: Slow, constant movement of lighter hydrocarbons from source rock - Migration forms: - Oil - Gas - Destination: Reservoir rock # Reservoir Rock Characteristics - High porosity: Empty spaces in the rock - High permeability: Connectivity of pore spaces allowing fluid circulation - Allows entry and storage of hydrocarbon molecules # Cap Rock and Traps - Cap rock: - Layer of impermeable rock above reservoir rock - Prevents oil or gas from rising laterally - Forms a barrier and traps hydrocarbons - Seals reservoirs, stopping upward migration - Traps: - Closed spaces sealing hydrocarbon deposits - Make deposits economically viable # How is geothermal energy harnessed? - Descending deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water become hotter # How Geothermal Energy Works - Radioactive decay in the Earth's mantle produces heat. 1. Cool water is injected into the ground. 2. Hot water is pumped up and heat is used to produce steam. 3. Steam is used to turn turbines, generators. # Availability of geothermal resources - The average geothermal flow on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per square meter per year. - Around 20 countries in the world produce geothermal power for an installed capacity of 10.93 GW. I # Hydropower - The kinetic energy by moving water has been used by humankind for centuries, to drive watermills that produce mechanical energy. - Modern hydropower is referred to as "white coal" # How is hydropower harnessed? - A diagram shows a reservoir with gates, a dam, a powerhouse, a generator, a transformer, a penstock, a turbine and outflow. The whole process is described step by step. # Site selection and financing - The biggest hydropower producers are countries crossed by fast-flowing rivers and mountainous region. There must be sufficient rainfall in the catchment area. - Large and medium-sized dams are very expensive to build - The future of hydropower depends to large extent on the persuasiveness of states and potential public-private partnerships.