ED-210-The-Teacher-and-the-School-Curriculum PDF

MODULE ON CPE 108 THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM Prepared by: Arlene C. Dolotallas, Ph,D. Course Overview This course contents activities and exercises which are in keeping current trends in education such as integrative, interactive...

MODULE ON CPE 108 THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM Prepared by: Arlene C. Dolotallas, Ph,D. Course Overview This course contents activities and exercises which are in keeping current trends in education such as integrative, interactive, inquiry-based, brain-based and research-based teaching, constructivism, and multiple intelligences. Curriculum development for teacher balances theory and practice.. The modules begin with a challenge and end with a writing activity. For you to jot down the learning precipitate, the learning and insights you got. This will help you practice reflective thinking. The modular lessons develop with 5 E’s – Engage/Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. In the ENGAGE phase, you will do some activity that will pre assess your prior knowledge with the topic. In the Engage phase, you will do some activity to pre assess your prior knowledge with the topic as step to explore insights. The Explore part is the stage that you will be involved in the topic to build your understanding about the topic. In the Explain stage, you will be given the chance to figure out your learning. In the Elaborate stage, you will be given a chance to explore the implications of the said topic. While in the Evaluate phase, you will be given activity to answer. The activities that you need to answer and be submitted as well as along examinations will be the basis in passing this course.. 1  List of Contents Page CHAPTER 1. Curriculum Essentials……………………………………………………...16 Module 1-The Teacher and the School Curriculum……………………….……………16 Lesson 1- The Curricula in School...………………………………………………16 Lesson 2-The Teacher as a Curricularist………………………………………….21 Module 2- The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum…………………………………...25 Lesson 1-The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and scope…………………25 Lesson 2-Approaches to School Curriculum………………………………………29 Lesson 3-Curriculum Development: Processes and Models……………………...35 Lesson 4-Foundations of Curriculum……………..………………………………39 CHAPER 2. Designing the Curriculum………………………………………………….46 Module 3- The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer……………………………………46 Lesson 1-Fundamentals of Curriculum Design…………………………………46 Lesson 2-Approaches to Curriculum Designing………………………………….54 Lesson 3-Curriculum Mapping and Curiculum Quality Audit…………………...61 CHAPTER 3. Implementing the Curriculum……………………………………………..68 Module 4- The Teacher as a Curriculum Implementor and a Manager………………...68 Lesson 1-Implementing the Designed Curriculum as a Change Process………...68 Lesson 2-Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classroom…………………..74 Lesson 3-The Role of the Technology in Delivering the Curriculum……………84 Lesson 4-Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation…………………………..89 CHAPER 4. Evaluating the Curriculum………..…………………………………………96 Module 5-Curriculum Evaluation and the Teacher…………………………………..96 Lesson 1- What, Why and How to Evaluate a Curriculum………………………96 Lesson 2- Curriculum Evaluation Through Learning Assessment………………106 Lesson 3-Planning, Implementing and Evaluating: Understanding the Connection……………………………………120 CHAPER 5. Curriculum Development Reforms and Enhancement……………………...124 Module 6- Gearing Up for the Future: Curriculum Reforms…………………………124 Lesson 1- The Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013 (k to 12)…………………124 Module 7-Outcomes Based-Education: Basis for Enhanced Teacher Education Curriculum……………….138 Lesson 1-Outcomes Based Education for Teacher Preparation Curriculum……..138 Lesson 2-Enhanced Teacher Education Curriculum Anchored on OBE…………143 Module 8-Curricular Landscape in the 21st Century Classroom…………………….151 Lesson 1-The 21st Century Curricular Landscape in the Classrooms……………151 Lesson 2-The Final Action for a Curriculum Material: A Celebration!.................155 2 Course Guide Course Details Course Number: CPE 108 Course Name: The Teacher and the School Curriculum Course Description: This course introduces students on the teacher as an individual, classroom teacher and global teacher. This emphasizes professionalization to cover teachers’ status and levels of professional rewards and professionalism to improve competence. It balances theory and practice. Number of Units: 3 Pre-requisite: Co-requisite: Course Outcomes At the end of the course, the students can: A. Competencies 1. Identify the essential concepts, nature and purpose as well as various meanings, types, foundation, and approaches of curriculum. 2. Explains the teaching-learning processes and curriculum development models. 3. Enumerate curriculum design models, dimensions and principles of curriculum design and approaches to curriculum designs. 4. Give the implementing stakeholders in curriculum implementation, roles of technology in curriculum delivery, monitoring and evaluating curriculum implementation. 5. Demonstrate competencies on assessing curriculum in terms of the intended, implemented, achieved outcomes and criteria for the curriculum evaluation and tools for assessment. 6. Facilitate the curriculum reforms enhancement, local and global as well as issues and concerns. B. Skills 1. Craft own curriculum following the K-12 curriculum. 2. Analyse the different school curriculum offered globally. C. Values 1. Appreciate the importance of curriculum in school. 2. 3 Course Outline CHAPTER 1. Curriculum Essentials Module 1-Curriculum and the Teacher Lesson 1- Curriculum in Schools Lesson 2-The Teacher as a Curricularist Module 2- The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum Lesson 1-The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and scope Lesson 2-Approaches to School Curriculum Lesson 3-Curriculum Development: Processes and Models Lesson 4-Foundations of Curriculum Development CHAPER 2. Crafting the Curriculum Module 3- The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer Lesson 1-Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing Lesson 2-Approaches to Curriculum Designing Lesson 3-Curriculum Mapping CHAPTER 3. Implementing the Curriculum Module 4- The Teacher as a Curriculum Implementor and Manager Lesson 1-Implementing the Designed Curriculum as a Change Process Lesson 2-Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classroom Lesson 3-The Role of the Technology in Delivering the Curriculum Lesson 4-Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation CHAPER 4. Teacher as a Curriculum Evaluator Module 5-Curriculum Evaluation and the Teacher Lesson 1- What, Why and How to Evaluate a Curriculum Lesson 2- Curriculum Evaluation Through Learning Assessment Lesson 3-Planning, Implementing and Evaluating: Understanding the Connection CHAPER 5. Curriculum Development Reforms and Enhancement Module 6- Gearing Up for the Future: Curriculum Reforms Lesson 1- The Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013 (k to 12) Module 7-Outcomes Based-Education: Basis for Enhanced Teacher Education Curriculum Lesson 1-Outcomes Based Education for Teacher Preparation Curriculum Lesson 2-Enhanced Teacher Education Curriculum Anchored on OBE Module 8-Curricular Landscape in the 21st Century Classroom Lesson 1-The 21st Century Curricular Landscape in the Classrooms Lesson 2-The Final Action for a Curriculum Material: A Celebration! 4 Grading System: Activities - 40% Class Participation - 30% Punctuality (module)-20% Attendance - -10% 100% Learner’s Guide The key to success fully finish this module lies in your hands. This module was prepared for you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently. Aside from meeting the content and performance standards of this course in accomplishing the given activities, you will be able to learn other invaluable learning skills which you will be very proud of as a responsible learner. The following guides and the house rules will help you further to be on tract and to say at the end of the module. “ I did well” 1. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every part of the module. Read it over and over until you understand the point. 2. Study how you can manage to do the activities of this module in consideration of your other courses. Be very conscious with the study schedule. Post it on a conspicuous place so that you can always see. Do not ask about questions that are already answered in the guide. 3. If you did not understand the readings and other tasks, re-read. Focus, if this will not work, engage all possible resources. 5 Content Discussion Chapter 1: Curricular Essentials Module 1: Curriculum and the Teacher Lesson 1 Curriculum in schools Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the different curricula that exist in the schools 2. Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist 3. Analyse the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the teacher’s classroom. Engage Have you read “The Sabre-Tooth Curriculum by Harold Benjamin (1939)?” Take some time to read it and find out what curriculum is all about during those times. Start here and enjoy reading. A man by the name of New-Fist-Hammer-Maker knew how to do things his community needed to have done, and he had the energy and the will to go ahead and do them. By virtue of these characteristics, he was an educated man. New –Fist was also a thinker. Then as now, there were few lengths to which men would not go to avoid the labour and pain of thought…. New-fist got to the point where he became strongly dissatisfied with the accustomed ways of his tribe. He began to catch glimpses of ways in which life might be made better for himself, his family and his group.by virtue of this development, he became a dangerous man…. New-Fist thought about how he could harness the children’s play to better the life of the community. He considered what adults do for survival and introduced these activities to children in a deliberate and formal way. These included catching fish with bare hands, clubbing little woolly horses, and chasing away-sabre-toothed-tigers-with-fire. These then became the curriculum and the community began to prosper-with plenty of food, hides for attire and protection from threat. “ It is supposed that all would have gone well forever with this good educational system, if conditions of life in that community remained forever the same.” But conditions changed. The glacier began to melt and the community could no longer see the fish to catch with their bare hands, and only the most agile and clever fish remained which hid from the people. The woolly horses were ambitious and decided to leave the region. The tigers got pneumonia and most died. The few remaining tigers left. In their place, fierce bears arrived who would not be chased by fire. The community was in trouble. One day, in desperation, someone made a net from willow twigs and found new way to catch fish- and the supply was even more plentiful than before. The community also devised a system of traps on the path to snare the bears. Attempts to change education system to include these new techniques however encountered “stern opposition” one day, in desperation, someone made a net from willow twigs and found a new way to catch fish-and the supply was even more plentiful than before. The community also devised a system of traps on the path to snare the bears. Attempts to change education system to include these new techniques however encountered “stern opposition”. these are also activities we need to know. Why can’t the schools teach them? But most of the tribe particularly the wise old men who controlled the school, smiled indulgently 6 at this suggestion. “That wouldn’t be education… it would be mere training”. We don’t teach fish grabbing to catch fish, we teach it to develop a generalized agility which can never be duplicated by mere training… and so on. “If you had any education yourself, you would know that the essence of true education is timelessness. It is something that endures through changing conditions like a raging torent” The story was written in 1939. Curriculum then, was seen as a tradition of organized knowledge taught in schools of the 19th century. Two centuries later, the concept of a curriculum has broadened to include several modes of thoughts or experiences. No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a curriculum. Classrooms will be empty with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if there is no curriculum. Curriculum is at the heart of the teaching profession. Every teacher is guided by some sort of curriculum in the classroom and in schools. In our current Philippines educational system, different schools are established in different educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula. The educational levels are: 1. Basic Education. This level includes kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12 and for the Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum. The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education. 2. Technical Vocational Educational. This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training taken care of by Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). For the TechVoc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination. 3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate of Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees (Master’s and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Explain In whatever levels of schooling and in various types of learning environment, several curricula exist. Let us find out how Allan Glatthorn (2000) as mentioned in Bilbao, et al (2008) classified these: Types of Curricula in Schools Have you realized that in every classroom there are several types of curricula operating? Let us look into each one. 1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all curricula found in our schools are recommended. For basic Education, these are recommended by the Department of Education (DepEd), for higher education (CHED) and for vocational education by TESDA. These three government agencies oversee and regulate Philippines 7  education. The recommendations come in form of memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations or international bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools. 2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education. 3. Taught Curriculum. From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be implemented or taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum. The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written curriculum with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be necessary. The taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the learning style of the learners. 4. Supported Curriculum. This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point presentation, movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups and other electronic illustrations. Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs outside or inside the four- walled building. These includes the Playground, science laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the plaza. These are the places where authentic learning through direct experiences occur. 5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluate to find out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the progress of teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is made. It can either be assessment for learning , assessment as learning or assessment of learning. If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how much been learned or mastered, then it is assessment of learning. Either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum. 6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe that if a student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a non-reader to a reader or from not knowing to knowing or from being disobedient to being obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These are measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical thinking and lifelong skills. 7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities, are some factors that create hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum, Teacher must have good foresight to include these in the written curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden. 8 In every teacher’s classroom, not all these curricula may be presents at one time. Many of them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed, and a learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and a teacher may or may not be able to predict its influence on learning. All of these have significant role on the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning and have direct implication to the life of the learners. Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating in every teacher’s classroom, it is then very necessary to learn deeper and broader about the role of the teacher in relation to the school curriculum. Elaborate I. Spin a Win: Agree or Disagree Read each statement and decide whether you Agree or Disagree Write your answer before each number. _________ 1. In the Saber Tooth Curriculum, learning is experiential and authentic. _________ 2. It is reality that there exist more than one curricula in the teacher’s classroom. _________ 3. A teacher can say with confidence that learning has occurred, if the curriculum has been assessed. _________ 4. Some curricula in the schools/classrooms are unwritten. _________ 5. To establish national standards, teachers should be guided by recommended curriculum in basic and higher education. _________ 6. Teachers should expect that school curricula are dynamic and changing. _________ 7. Evaluated curriculum makes judgement about learning. _________ 8. Textbooks and modules are written curricula that represent the recommended curricula. _________ 9. Only the Department of Education can recommend a curriculum. _________ 10. In the heart of all the types of curricula, the teacher has a major role. 9 Evaluate Is it necessary for teachers to learn about school curriculum? Why? Write your answer on the space provided below. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 10  Lesson 2: The Teacher as a Curricularist Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist in the classroom and school. Engage What specific roles do teachers play as a curricularist? Should they do these roles? This lesson will bring all of you to an enhanced understanding and realization of the multifaceted roles of the teacher which relate to the curriculum. Let us find out! Look at the words inside the box. Read each one of them. Which one describes the teacher as a curricularist? Circle the word. Exciting Facilitating Planning Frustrating Knowing Growing Growing Evaluating Broadening Initiating Innovating Building Rewarding Believing Recommending Showing Copying Are you aware that the teacher’s role in school is very complex? Teachers do a series of interrelated actions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation, teaching and learning. A classroom teacher is involved with curriculum continuously all day. But very seldom has a teacher been described as curricularist. Curricularist in the past, are referred only to those who developed curriculum theories. According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularist in America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin Bobbit. You will learn more of them in the later part of the module. 11 Explain In this lesson, will be start using the word curricularist to describe a professional who is a curriculum specialist (Hayes,1991; Orstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). A person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may be designated as curricularist. A TEACHER’S role is broader and inclusive of others functions and so a teacher is a curricularist. So what does a TEACHER do to deserve the label curricularist? Let us look at the different roles of the teacher in the classroom and in the school. The classroom is the first place of curricular engagement. The first school experience sets the tone to understand the meaning of schooling through the interactions of learners and teachers that will lead to learning. Hence, curriculum is the heart of schooling. Let us describe the teacher as a curricularist. The teacher as a curricularist…. 1. Knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the content. As a teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic knowledge both formal (discipline logic) or informal (derived from experiences, vicarious, and unintended).It is the mastery of the subject matter. (knower) 2. Writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts, subject matter or content. These need to be written or preserved. The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer or reviewer. (Writer) 3. Plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as a guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include the learners, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context of the learners among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a curriculum planner. (planner) 4. Initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement. Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning. There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or leading, however, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (Initiator) 5. Innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keep on changing. 12  From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit. A good teacher, therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator. (Innovator) 6. Implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As mention previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is role where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor gives life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at height of an engagement with the learners, with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcome. It is where teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the highest level. It is here where teaching as a science and as an art will be observed. It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come into play. The success of a recommended, well written and planned curriculum depends on the implementation. (implementor) 7. Evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes have been achieve? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring desired result? What do outcome reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are there some practices that should be modified? Should the curriculum be modified, terminated or continued? These are some few questions that need the help of a curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher. (Evaluator) The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the classroom every day! Doing these multi-faceted work qualifies a teacher to be a curricularist. To be a teacher is to be a curricularist even if a teacher may not equal the likes of John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, or Franklin Bobbit. As a curricularist a teacher will be knowing, writing, implementing, innovating, initiating and evaluating the curriculum in the school and classrooms just like the role models and advocates in curriculum and curriculum development who have shown the way. Evaluate I am a Teacher! Who Am I as a Curricularist? A. Instructions: Identify on the blanks provided who am I as a Curricularist based on the cases presented. Case 1: I have a good idea on how to make my learners pay attention to the lesson. I will use the new idea and find out if it will work. __________________________________________________________________ Case 2: DepEd sent the standards, competencies and guidelines in teaching the Mother tongue in Grade 1 in our school. I will study and use it in the coming school year. 13  __________________________________________________________________ Case 3: There is no much to do in one school day. I seem not able to do all, but I have to accomplish something for my learners. I made daily activity plan to guide me. __________________________________________________________________ Case 4: I need a poem to celebrate the World Teachers’ Day. I composed one to be used in my class in Literature. __________________________________________________________________ Case 5: My class is composed of learners from different home background and culture. I cannot use a “one-size-fits all strategy” in teaching so I can respond to the diverse background. In my readings. I discovered that there are ways of teaching. I tried one myself and it worked. __________________________________________________________________ B. Choose one from Case 1 to 5 above. Reflect on the case you have chosen and write your reflections on the box below.. Name:______________________________________________ Case No.________________ A. My Reflections on Case No_____________(refer to cases 1 to 5 above) 14 Module 2: The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum Lesson 1: The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and Scope Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Define curriculum from different perspectives 2. Describe the nature and scope of curriculum Engage Read today’s headlines 1. “Philippines Shifts to K to 12Curriculum” 2. “Nature Deficit Syndrome On the Rise Among School Children” 3. “Teachers are Reluctant to Teach Beyond the Written Curriculum” 4. “Co-curricular Activities: Learning Opportunities or Distraction?” 5. “Parents Get Involve in School Learning” What can you say of these headlines? Do these reflect what are going on in our schools? Should the public know and be involved in the schooling of their citizens? What are the implications of each headline to the classroom curriculum? Each member of society seems to view school curriculum differently, hence there are varied demands on what schools should do and what curriculum should be taught. Some would demand reducing content and shifting emphasis to development of character has been placed at the back seat of some schools. More debates are emerging on the use of languages in the classroom. Should it be mother tongue, the national language or the global language? There seems to be confusion about what curriculum should really be. To have a common understanding of what curriculum really is, this lesson will present some definitions as given by authors. Likewise, you will find in this lesson the description of the nature and scope of curriculum from several points of view. This lesson will also explain how curriculum is being approaches. It further shows a development process as a concept and as a process as applied to school curriculum. Explain Whether curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a listing of subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals undergo while in school, we cannot deny the fact that curriculum should be understood by teachers and other stakeholders for curriculum affects all teachers, students, parents, politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or even the common people. Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common definition of ‘curriculum’. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the word originates from the Latin word 15 currere referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots raced. The new International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational institution or by a department while the Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means different things to different people. Sometimes educators equate curriculum with the syllabus while a few regard it as all the teaching- learning experience which the student encounters while in school. Numerous definitions indicate dynamism which connotes diverse interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, philosophies, political as well as cultural perspectives. Here are some of them. Some Definitions of Curriculum 1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learner’ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence.” (Daniel Tanner, 1980) 2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.(Pratt, 1980) 3. The content of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987) 4. A curriculum includes “ all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice.” (Hass, 1987) 5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987) 6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992) 7. It provides answer to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them? (Cronbeth,1992) Some Points of Other Curricularists Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person’s when put together, the different definitions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever changing. Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to the person’s philosophical, psychological and even psychological orientations. These views can also define what a curriculum is all about. Curriculum from Traditional Points of View 16  The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.  Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.  Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.  Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many more. In college, academic disciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development.  Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various discipline. Collectively from the traditional view of theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor and Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social issues. From a traditional view, curriculum is mostly written documents such syllabus, course of study, books and references where knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish intended goals. Curriculum from Progressive of View On the other hand, a listing of school subject, syllabi, course of study, and specific discipline does not make a curriculum. In a broadest terms, a progressive view of curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how curriculum is defined from a progressive point of view.  John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.  Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.  Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.  Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students. 17  The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person’s philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary. CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that goes in school. It is what is thought inside and outside of school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in school or what individual learner experiences as a result of school. In short, Curriculum is the total learning experiences as a result of school. In short, curriculum is the total learning experiences of the learner, under the guidance of the teacher. Evaluate Instruction: Label the description/definition on the left with either Traditional (T), or Progressive (P). No. Description (T) (P) 1 Teachers are required to teach from cover to cover. 2 If the learners can memorize the content, then the curriculum is best. 3 Children are given opportunity to play outdoors. 4 Parents send children to a military type school with rigid discipline. 5 Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond the written curriculum. 6 Prerequisites to promotion for the next grade are skills in reading, writing and arithmetic only. 7 Teachers provide varied experiences for the children. 8 Learning can only be achieved in schools. 9 It is the systematic arrangement of contents in the course syllabus. 10 Co-curricular activities are planned for all to participate. 18 Lesson 2: Approaches to school Curriculum Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Describe the different approaches to school curriculum 2. Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the definition of curriculum 3. Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other Engage Instruction: Match the CONCEPT in column II with the CHOICES in column III. Write the letter of your ANSWER in Column I. I. Answer II. Concepts III. Choices 1. Curriculum as way of doing A. Content 2. Authenticity of the content B. Process 3. Curriculum as the subject matter C. Product 4. Fair distribution of the content across the subjects D. Validity 5. Curriculum as the outcome of learning E. Balance 6. Seamless flow of content vertically or horizontally in the F. Articulate curriculum 7. Evidence of successful teaching G. Sequence 8. Enduring and perennial content, from past to future H. Integration 9. Allowing the transfer of content to other fields I. Continuity 10. Arranging of contents from easy to difficult J. Learning outcomes Explain Three ways of approaching a Curriculum Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a content, a process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired learners. Third, is to approach it as a process what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practised. 1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline, subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum consists of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and many more. Another example is in secondary school science that involves the study of biological science, physical science, environmental science and earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with biological science such are plants and animals, 19 physical science with the physical elements, force and motion, earth science with the interaction of the biological and physical science and earth’s phenomena, climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industries urbanization and so forth. If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method. There can be a likelihood that teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter; however, the content or subject matter can also be taken as means to an end. All curricula have content regardless of their design or models. The fund of knowledge is the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of the earth and as products of research. In most educational setting, curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge or discipline. There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are: 1. topical approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and experiences are included; 2. concept approach with fewer topics is cluster around major and sub-concepts and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized; 3. thematic approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual structures, and 4. modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction. Modular in the Selection of Content There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter. (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009) 1. Significance. Content should contribute ideas, concepts, principles and generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of the learner. As education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant when this will address the cultural context of the learners. 2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its original form may not continue to be valid in the current times. 3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past, but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will I use this in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in solving current concerns? 4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning. 20  Appropriate organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles that would influence learnability. 5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these? 6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better. The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria mentioned earlier, may include the following guide in the selection of the CONTENT. Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum 1. Commonly used in the daily life 2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners 3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career 4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration 5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content In 1952, Palma proposed the principle of BASIC as a guide in addressing CONTENT in the curriculum. B.A.S.I.C. refers to Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity. In organizing content or putting together subject matter, these principles are useful as a guide. Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed within the time allocation. Articulation. As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels, vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided. This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness in the content is desired and can be assured if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need of team among writers and implementers of curriculum. Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. These can be done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the same content. In both ways, the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is current to something in the future. Integration. Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused in other disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view of 21 curriculum instead of segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines acquire higher premium than when isolated. Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future. It should perennial. It endures time. Content may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and developments in curriculum occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancement of content are all elements of continuity. 2. Curriculum as a Process We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can also be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun, but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As a process, curriculum happens in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the students. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occur. Used in analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content while ways of cooking is the process. Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is only part of the learning environment where the teacher places action using the content to achieve an outcome. Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, thinking meaning-making and heads-on, hands-on and may others. As a process, curriculum links the content. While content provides materials on what to teach, the process provides curriculum on how to teach the content. When accomplished, the process will result to various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the content and process is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will address the question: If you have this content, how will you teach. This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where learning experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process. To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction, implementation, teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1. Problem-based. 2. Hands-on, Minds On 3. Cooperative Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6. Case-based and any more. These responses approach curriculum as a Process. These are ways of teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and learner do together or learners are guided by 22 teacher. Some of the strategies are time-tested traditional methods while others are emerging delivery modes. When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented. 1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve the end. 2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher. 3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive , affective, psychomotor domains in each individual. 4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered. 5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. 6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective process will always result to learning outcomes. 7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of the curriculum. 3. Curriculum as a Product Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives action using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, product is what the students desire to achieve as a learning outcomes. The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is to bring about significant change in students’ pattern og behaviour. It is important that any statement of objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching methods may be organized and results evaluated. Products of learning are operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values. Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the achieved learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful experiences in the curriculum. All of these are result of planning, content and processes in the curriculum. Evaluate Instruction: After learning from this lesson, how would you prepare yourself to become a teacher, using the three approaches to Curriculum? Write on the space below: 23 Lesson 3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Explain and summarize the curriculum development process and models. Engage 1. Describe the model of curriculum development which you understand well. Write in two paragraphs. Explain Curriculum Development Process Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic. A change for the better means alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually it is linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. generally, most models involve four phase. 1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes the philosophy or strong education belief of school. All of these will eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners. 2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the selection of assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the resources to be utilized and the statement of intended learning outcomes. 3. Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the facilitator of learning and, together with the learners, uses the curriculum as design guides to what will transpire in the classroom with the end in view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an active process. 4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning (formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective measures, introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision making of curriculum planners, and implementors. Curriculum Development Process Models 24 1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following questions: 1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not? Tyler’s model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made: 1. Purposes of the school 2. Educational experiences related to the purposes 3. Organization of experiences 4. Evaluation of the experience 2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. She believed that teachers should participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps to her linear model whish are the following: 1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society 2. Formulation of learning objectives 3. Selection of learning contents 4. Organization of learning experiences 5. Selection of learning experiences 6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it. 3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.” 1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals and 25  domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, and views of the different stakeholders. 2. Curriculum Designing. Designing curriculum follow after appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to students needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process. 3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students. 4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. a comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. it should involve the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not and the objectives of instruction have been met. All the models utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2)curricular designing, (3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating. Evaluate 1. What phase of the curriculum process do you find very important as a teacher? Why? 26 Lesson 4: Foundations of Curriculum Development Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Describe the foundations of curriculum development. 2. Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development. Engage Instruction: Explore the web. Search two outstanding personalities in the cluster of Curriculum Foundations who contributed to curriculum development. Write their biographies. You may find other persons not included in the list given in this lesson. Cluster 1 – Philosophical Foundations Cluster 2 – Historical Foundations Cluster 3 – Psychological Foundations Cluster 4 – Sociological Foundations Explain Foundations of Curriculum 1. Philosophical Foundations Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms or learning environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: What are schools for? What subjects are important? How should students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes should achieved? Why? The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John Dewey influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John Dewey influenced the use of the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential subject in curriculum. There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004. A. Perennialism  Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect  Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking HOTS)  Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring  Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts 27 B. Essentialism  Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent  Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area  Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subject  Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy C. Progressivism  Aim: Promote democratic social living  Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learner  Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner- centred. Outcomes-based  Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education D. Reconstructionism  Aim: To prove and reconstruct society. Education for change  Role: Teacher act as agent of changing and reforms  Focus: Present and future educational landscape  Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and Convergence, Standards and Competencies 2. Historical Foundation Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundation will show to us the chronological development a long time line. Reading materials would tell us the curriculum development started when franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book “the curriculum.” Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum development during his own time. Here are eight among the many, we consider to have great contributions. Person Contribution / Theorist and Principles  He started the curriculum Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) development movement.  Curriculum is a science that emphasized students’ needs.  Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.  Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified. Werret Charter (1875-1952  Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasize students’ needs.  Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives. William Kilpartick (1875-1952)  Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centred.  The purpose of the curriculum is 28  child development and growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and student plan the activities.  Curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction. Harold Rugg (1886- 1960)  Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.  With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.  Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)  Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and leaner’s interest.  Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.  Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interests. Ralph Tayler (1902-1994)  Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and interest.  Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.  The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists. Hilda Taba (1902-1967)  She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.  She help lay the foundation for diverse student population Peter Oliva (1992-2012)  He described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavour,  Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners  Significant improvement is achieved through group activity. 3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum 29  Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How should curriculum organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this module, we shall consider three groups of learning theorist: behaviorism or association theorist; cognitive-information processing theories and humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004). Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories. 3.1 Association and Behaviorism 3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory Persons Contributions/ Theories and Principles Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)  He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the S-R Theory  The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to become.  S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination. Edward Thorndike (1874-  He championed the Connectionism Theory. 19949)  He proposed the three laws of learning: - Law of readiness - Law of exercise - Law of effect Robert Gagne (1916-2002)  He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning follows a hierarchy  Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.  He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)  Theories of Jean Piaget o Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity: Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11) and formal operations (11- onwards)  Keys to learning o Assimilation (incorporation of new experience) o Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation) o Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning) Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)  Theories of Lev Vygotsky  Cultural transmission and development: Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform 30  certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage  Learning precedes development  Sociocultural development theory  Keys to learning  Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development  The child is an active agent in his or her educational process. Howard Gardner  Gardner’s multiple intelligences  Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are relatively independent of one another  There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Daniel Goleman  Emotion contains the power to affect action  He called this Emotional Quotient. 3.1 Humanistic Psychology Persons/Symbols Contribution/ Theories and Principles Gestalt  Gestalt Theory  Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of the problem.  Human beings do not respond to isolate stimuli but to an organization or pattern of stimuli  Key to learning  Learning is complex and abstract.  Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and nonessential data, and perceive relationships.  Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/ how they perceive is related to their previous experience Abraham Maslow (1908-  He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory 1970) and classic theory of human needs.  A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.  He put importance to human emotions, based on love and trust.  Key to learning  Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or her 31  human self. Carl Rogers (1902-1987)  Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning  He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.  Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualist  Ic, influence their learning and behaviour in class.  Key to learning  Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores. Social Foundations of Curriculum Person/Symbols Contributions/ Theories and Principles  Society as a source of change School and Society  Schools as agents of change  Knowledge as an agent of change  Considered two fundamental elements —schools and civil society—to be major topics needing attention and John Dewey (1859-1952) reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality.  Wrote the book Future Shock  Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future.  Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a Alvin Toffer result of technology, not in spite of it. (Home Schooling)  Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age. In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational philosophies, historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of these foundations are interrelated to each. Evaluate 1. Identify which among the foundations of curriculum, has influenced what you have learned in school as a college student? 32 2. How will the thinking of Abraham Maslow influence your teaching practice in the future? Chapter 2: Crafting the Curriculum Module 3: The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer Lesson 1 Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Identify the fundamentals of curriculum designing 2. Appreciate the task of designing a curriculum Engage 1. What is Curriculum Designing? Explain Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it would be great importance to connect to the fundamental concepts and ideas about the curriculum mentioned in Module 1 and 2. Every curriculum designer, implementer, or evaluator should take in mind the following general axioms as a guide in curriculum development (Oliva, 2003): 1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was stated that one of the characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of this, teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in its context. Societal development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the changing condition requires new curriculum designs. 2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about by current social forces, philosophical positions , psychological principles, new knowledge, and educational reforms. This is also called timeliness. 3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes. A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out, thus the changes the occur can coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of time. 4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change. Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should know how to design a curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the changes. This will ensure an effective and long lasting change. 5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a sense of ownership. 33  Even learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their understanding, support, and input. 6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives. A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use. 7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change. 8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a “piecemeal”. A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly establish intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available and should equip teaching staff pedagogically. 9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum design is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references, set of procedures, needed materials and resources and evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix. 10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum planners and designers should begin with existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum. Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let as continue learning how to design a curriculum by identifying its components. For most curricula the major components or elements are answers to the following questions: 1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes) 2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter) 3. What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching- Learning Methods) 4. How the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes) Element or Components of a Curriculum Design There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a syllabus, or a lesson plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the common components for all of them are almost the same. However some schools, institutions or departments may add other minor parts or trimmings to the design. Let us take the lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching guide includes (1) Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and 34 learning Methods, and (4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of these components or elements is described below. I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes Begin with the end in view. The objective or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for undertaking the learning lesson from the students’ point of view; it is desired learning outcome that is to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the learners under the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved. In this way, both the learner and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish. The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes or desired learning outcomes are expressed in action words found in revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives (Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003) for the development of the cognitive skills. For the affective skills, the taxonomy made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson. The statement should be SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, Result oriented and time bound. For a beginner, it would help if you provide the condition, Performance and Extent or Level of Performance in the statement of the intended earning outcomes. For example, if a lesson intends the student to identify the parts of a simple flower as stated in the desired learning outcomes, then students should have identified the parts of a simple flower, at the end of the lesson. Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes is used to refer to the anticipated results after completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it is good practice to:  Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example, rather than stating Students will be able to explain the reason why… it should be: ‘Students must have explained the reason why…’ This helps students to focus on what they have to achieve as learning. It will also help curricularist devise appropriate assessment tasks.  Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts, theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes (learning how to carry out procedures, calculations and processes, which typically include gathering information and communicating results). In some contexts, affective outcomes are important too (for developing attitudes or values, e.g. those required as a person and for a particular profession). II. Content/Subject Matter The content of the lesson or unit is the topic or subject matter that will be covered. In selecting content, you should bear in mind the following principles in addition to those mentioned about the content in previous lessons: 35   Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective curriculum is purposive and clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes.  Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An affective curriculum is progressive, leading students towards building on previous lessons. Contents which are too basic or too advanced for the development levels of learners make students either bored or baffled, and effect their motivation to learn.  Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible should reflect current knowledge and concepts. III. References The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken. The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear the author of the material below and if possible, the publications. Some examples are given below. 1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conversation and Environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD 2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An Introduction to Physical Science. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA 3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Exploratory Course. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City 4. Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012). The Teaching Professsion 2nd Ed. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City IV. Teaching and Learning Methods These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.)and make them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow cooperation, competition as well as individualism or independent learning among the students. For example:  Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the teachers is to guide the learners. Democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of learning. Students learn from each other in ways. Group projects and activities considerably enhance the curriculum.  Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal responsibility. The degree of independence to learn how to learn is enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast learners.  Competitive activities, where students will test their competences against another in a healthy manner allow learners to perform to their maximum. Most successful 36  individuals in their adult life are competitive, even in early schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very competitive world.  The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experience is recommended. Online learning and similar modes are increasingly important in many curricula, but these need to be planned carefully to be effective. VI. Assessment/ Evaluation Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e when they receive information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which his information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:  Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical.  Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning. This can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggest that students can learn to judge each other’s work as reliable as staff.  The teacher assessment , in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on the student’s performance. Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative (expressing a judgement on the student’s achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an example that is marked and returned to the student with detailed comments. Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades. This helps the teacher make decisions about the progress or performance of the students. Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and the weakness of their work than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative assessment tasks (including unseen examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if possible. Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini curriculum, similar components will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in higher education courses or other curricular projects. Based on the curriculum models we have learned, the fundamental components include the following: Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus 1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives) 2. Content/Subject Matter(with reference) 3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources) 37  4. Evaluation (means of assessment) All other tradition components are trimming that each designer may place. This traditional part may be an institutional template, suggested by other curriculum experts and as required by educational agencies like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting Agencies, Professional Organization that would serve the purpose they intend to achieve. Evaluate Instruction: Provide answer to the incomplete sentences. After reading , this lesson on fundamentals of curriculum designing or crafting a curriculum, 1. I realize that ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. I feel that ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. I need to ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 38 Lesson 2: Approaches to Curriculum Designing Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Identify some familiar curriculum designs and approaches to the design. 2. Analyse the approaches in the light of how these are applied in the school. Engage The K to 12 Curriculum: What Design? Get hold of materials about the K to 12 and answer the following: What kind of curriculum design influence mostly the K to 12 Curriculum? (A) Sub