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Chapter 5 Social Learning Theory Nature vs. Nurture © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 4  Introduction I...

Chapter 5 Social Learning Theory Nature vs. Nurture © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 4  Introduction In criminology, social learning theory refers to the theory developed by Akers. – Originally proposed with Burgess as a behavioristic reformulation of Sutherland’s differential association theory. – Applied to many deviant behaviors – One of the most frequently tested and endorsed © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 5  Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory Sutherland is recognized as the most important criminologist of the 20th century. Proposed as an explanation of individual criminal behavior. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 6 REWATCH ON YOUR OWN: CriminologyWeb (17 Jan 22). Differential Association Theory: Sutherland’s Sociology and Criminology of Deviance Explained: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iJ5P8kiZ3Q0  Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory 1. Criminal behavior is learned. 2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. 3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. Sutherland contended that media does not function as an ‘intimate personal group?’ What are you thoughts on how well this principle holds today? © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 8  Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory 4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple, and (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. 6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 9 Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory 7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. 9. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, because noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 10  Akers Social Learning Theory: Development of Theory Differential reinforcement – Operant behavior conditioned by rewards and punishment Classical or “respondent” conditioning – The conditioning of involuntary reflex behavior Discriminative stimuli – The environmental and internal stimuli that provide cues or signals for behavior Schedules of reinforcement – The rate and ratio in which rewards and punishments follow behavioral responses © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 11  Akers Social Learning Theory: Social Structure and Social Learning Proposed model where social structures are hypothesized to have an influence on an individual Dimensions of Social Structure: – Differential social organization – Differential location in the social structure – Theoretically defined structural variables – Differential social location in groups © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 12  Akers Social Learning Theory: Social Structure and Social Learning Dimensions of Social Structure: – Differential social organization: The structural correlates of crime in the community or society that affect crime rates: age composition, population densities, etc.. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 13  Akers Social Learning Theory: Social Structure and Social Learning* Dimensions of Social Structure: – Differential location in the social structure “Them” Sociodemographic characterizes of individuals and social groups within the larger social structure (e.g., class, gender, ethnicity, etc.). © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 14  Akers Social Learning Theory: Social Structure and Social Learning Dimensions of Social Structure: – Theoretically defined structural variables Class oppression Patriarchy “Theoretically defined structural variables refer to anomie, class oppression, social disorganization, group conflict, patriarchy, and other concepts that have been used in one or more theories to identify criminogenic conditions of societies, communities, or groups (p.97).” © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 15  Akers Social Learning Theory: Social Structure and Social Learning Dimensions of Social Structure: – Differential social location in groups The individual’s membership in and relation to primary, secondary, and reference groups (e.g., family, friends, church, sports teams, etc.). © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 16  Akers Social Learning Theory: Differential Association An individual can interact with others in two dimensions: Interactional dimension – Direct and indirect association Normative dimension – Different patterns of norms and values to which an individual is exposed through this association  Akers Social Learning Theory: Definitions How an individual identifies a behavior – Good or bad Under this theory the definitions can be both – General or specific – Positive, neutral, or negative Discriminative stimuli – Operate as cues or signals to the individual as to what responses are appropriate or expected in a given situation. If the individual identifies a negative behavior, he or she is less likely to commit the crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 18  Akers Social Learning Theory: Differential Reinforcement Positive and negative reinforcement – Directly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Modalities of reinforcement – The amount, frequency, and probability that reinforcement will occur. Social reinforcement – How the individual thinks or knows he or she will be punished by society. Self-reinforcement – Individual exercising self-control. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 19  Akers Social Learning Theory: Imitation Individuals can imitate behaviors they have observed – Frequency of this occurring depends on the individual and how he or she identifies with society. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 20  Akers Social Learning Theory: The Social Learning Process—Sequence and Feedback Effects Akers stresses that social learning is a process with reciprocal and feedback effects. Learning, imitation, and anticipated advantages are what produce the initial criminal act. The feedback from the initial event will determine if the act is repeated or not. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 21  Research on Relationship of Criminal and Delinquent Behavior to Social Learning Variables o The relationships between the social learning variables and delinquent, criminal, and deviant behavior found in the research o Typically strong to moderate. o Very little negative evidence reported in the literature. o Well supported in U.S. and other countries © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 22  Research on Social Learning in the Family and Delinquency Family and friends are important in understanding an individual’s support/ reinforcement. Family is typically a preventative measure of deviant behavior. Children with involved parents are less likely to become criminals because they have positive interactions and reinforcement through their parents. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 23 Research on Peer and Group Contexts in Crime and Delinquency: Differential Peer Association As one moves from childhood to adolescence, family influences diminish, and peer groups play an increasingly prominent role in learning conforming and deviant behavior. Teen’s social involvement in society can negatively affect the family’s structure and support. Teens who surround themselves with non-delinquent friends are less likely to perform deviant acts, therefore making them conformists. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 24  Delinquent Gangs Youth in gangs are more delinquent than those with no involvement. Youth who associate themselves with gangs but are not in them are also more likely to be delinquent. Both gang membership itself and delinquency (gang-related as well as non-gang delinquency) are explained by social learning variables. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 25  Selection and Socialization in Peer Association Selection Model – Delinquent friendships are formed around similar behavior. (Birds of a feather flock together) Socialization Model – Delinquency is learned through peer association. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 26  Applications of Social Learning Theory Group therapies and self-help programs Positive peer counseling programs Gang interventions Family and school programs Teenage drug, alcohol, and delinquency prevention and education programs © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 27  Summary Social learning theory proposes that deviant behavior is acquired, repeated, and changed by the same process as conforming behavior. Akers focuses on: – Differential association – Definitions – Differential reinforcement – Imitation Research has strongly supported social learning theory through empirical data. Prevention and treatment programs that use social learning theory as their foundation have been found more effective than alternative approaches. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 28  Practice Exam Question #1 The concept in Akers' SSSL (social structure–social learning) model that refers to the sociodemographic characteristics of individuals and social groups indicating their niches within the larger social structure is: a) differential social organization b) differential social location in primary groups c) differential location in the social structure d) differential association e) differential reinforcement  What Is Theory? (Back to Chapter 1) A theory is a set of interconnected statements or propositions that explain how two or more events or factors are related to one another. Theories are proposed explanations to problems or questions. They also help provide answers or guidance as to why things are the way they are. This gives us criminological theories that are explanations as to why crimes are committed and who commits them. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 30  Macro & Micro Theories Macro Theories—cover major groups of people such as a society Micro Theories—cover small groups of people possibly even individuals Both of these types of theories are ultimately used to help explain why crimes are committed and what types of people commit them. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 31  Criteria for Evaluating Theory 1. Logical Consistency 2. Scope & Parsimony 3. Testability 4. Empirical Validity 5. Usefulness & Policy Implication Most important is empirical validity. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 32 Logical Consistency, Scope, and Parsimony Logical Consistency – the theory must make sense, meaning that the central idea is clear and concise Scope – the overall area to which the theory can be applied Parsimony – deals with the simplicity of the theory to explain criminal behavior Scope and Parsimony work closely together because you want a theory to explain crime in detail with simplicity. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 33  Testability This means you must be able to repeat the evidence to try to support your theory – If a theory cannot be tested against empirical findings, it has no scientific value. – Theories can be testable or non-testable. – An example of a theory that is non-testable is a tautology. Tautologies: statements that are true by definition but have circular reasoning © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 34  Tautology Low self Low self- control= control is failure to the cause refrain of law from crime violation © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 35  Usefulness and Policy Implications Theory can lastly be evaluated through usefulness and implications – Meaning the theory explains the crime well enough, that the theory itself can be used as a guideline for the prevention of the crime Please note this is not the only measurement for the success of a theory because politics and finances can affect how, when, where, and why a theory is used or implicated in a society © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 36  Concepts of Causality and Determinism (Traditional) Causality means that one thing produces another – X must precede and produce effect Y The probabilistic concept of causality suggests that human behavior is not 100% determined by external factors nor completely on an individual’s own ideas © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 37  Summary Criminological Theories (2 classifications) 1. Making & Enforcing Criminal Law Explains content and behavior of the criminal justice system 2. Criminal & Deviant Behavior Explains commission, occurrence, and patterns of criminal & deviant behavior © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 38  Summary The aim of criminological theory is to gain an understanding of crime and criminal justice Theories can be evaluated by means of: – Criteria Logical Consistency Scope & Parsimony Testability Empirical Validity Usefulness & Policy Implications – Comparisons with other theories © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 39  Practice Exam Question #2 If a theory of crime causation is parsimonious, then: a) it focuses on explaining a limited subset of criminal behavior (e.g., white-collar crime) b) researchers will be able to agree on how to gather empirical evidence to test it c) it offers clear and practical guidance for social policy d) it relies on a few simple propositions rather than a complex set of statements e) it has strong empirical support  Reviewing Deterrence Theory BENEFITS > COSTS = COMMIT CRIME Certainty Theory assumes (Likely to rational actors, known occur) costs and benefits and Severity Celerity (Justly depends on offenders’ (Swiftly perception of severe) applied) certainty and severity of punishment ? What is specific deterrence? What is general deterrence?  The Dark Knight General of Deterrence Deterrence → Gotham City Commissioner Jim Gordon uses the “The philosophies, bat signal to strike practices, and fear in the heart of punitive ideologies criminals between Batman Specific deterrence and Beccaria → Batman’s direct harmonize interactions with impeccably (p.14).” various villains and deviants Kocian (2021). Deterrence Theory and Batman: The Dark Knight of Deterrence. Chapter 2 in Daly, S.E. (Ed.) Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8  Beccaria’s Batman: Celerity The Dark Knight delivers his punishments in a most expeditious manner This vigilante crime- fighter would dish out “street style” justice immediately Kocian (2021). Deterrence Theory and Batman: The Dark Knight of Deterrence. Chapter 2 in Daly, S.E. (Ed.) Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8  Beccaria’s Batman: Certainty While Batman can’t catch every criminal in Gotham city, there is evidence that there was an increase of certainty of punishment: In The Dark Knight, Joker meets with Gotham’s Mob Bosses, stating “Let’s wind the clock back a year. These cops and lawyers would never cross you. What happened? Did your balls drop off? I know why you are afraid to go out at night: The Batman” Kocian (2021). Deterrence Theory and Batman: The Dark Knight of Deterrence. Chapter 2 in Daly, S.E. (Ed.) Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8  Beccaria’s Batman: Severity Batman demonstrated the concept of proportional severity: striking a balance of rigor and harshness His level of force (severity) depended on the seriousness of the crime and threats posed by offenders – Joker, the Penguin, Bane or the Riddler would get much harsher punishments than a common thief or drug dealer Kocian (2021). Deterrence Theory and Batman: The Dark Knight of Deterrence. Chapter 2 in Daly, S.E. (Ed.) Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8 Let’s take a break…. Deterrence and Criminal Justice Policy The idea that our criminal justice system is the chief deterrent in eliminating crime. When laws are enacted that take into account the certainty, celerity, and severity of a punishment, crime will be reduced in a society. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 47  Deterrence and Experiential Effects The Experiential Effect – The effect of prior behavior on current perceptions of the certainty of arrest. – The more frequently respondents have been involved in law violations in the past, the lower their perceived risk of sanctions is in the present. The Deterrent Effect – The effect of perceptions of certainty on behavior. The relatively weak negative correlations between perceived risks of punishment and criminal behavior reflect the experiential effect of behavior on the perceptions of risk more than the deterrent effect of perceived sanctions on behavior. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 48  CASE STUDY: The limitations of deterrence in conservation Effective law-enforcement can be one of the most important aspects of overall success of protected areas, however: – Many protected areas are vast and dangerous setting – Swift responses are often difficult – Inadequate criminal justice systems – “Fines and fences:” Is conservation a neo-colonial force – “Silent victims” mean that reporting is limited to areas with law enforcement and willing human bystanders – Corruption – Punishments are far from certain © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 49  Rational Choice Theory Based on the expected utility principle in economic theory. Rational choice theory of crime has only been introduced in criminology relatively recently. Proposed as a general, all-inclusive explanation of both the decision to commit a specific crime and the development of, or desistance from, a criminal career. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 50  Are people purely rational? Research on Rational Choice Theory The purely rational calculation of the probable consequences of an action is a rarity. Moreover, offenders who pursue crime on a regular, businesslike basis typically do not operate through a wholly rational decision-making process. Previous study showed that offenders were unable to make reasonable assessments of the risk of arrest, did little planning for the crime, and were uninformed about the legal penalties.  (“The One with the List”) “Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making” (TRDM) Julie Rachel She’s not Rachel Spoiled Ditzy Too into her looks Just a waitress Baumann (2021). Rational Choice Theory and Friends: Rational Decision Making and Friends. Chapter 6 in Daly, S.E. (Ed.) Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8  (“The One with the List”) Ross ultimately chooses Rachel, fulfilling the third element of the TRDM process. However, he makes this decision based on his emotions rather than the gathered information, which McCarthy names as one of the extraneous factors that can influence decision making (Paternoster & Pogarsky, 2009). McCarthy claims that decisions made using “intuition, habit, emotions, or one’s moral beliefs” requires no, or limited, cognitive work, which means an individual will use less reasoning and logic to make the decision (Paternoster & Pogarsky, 2009, p. 106). Ross then reflects on his decision, fulfilling element four of the TRDM process…. Ross reflects upon his decision, McCarthy would say, to “assess what went right and what went wrong” (Paternoster & Pogarsky, 2009, p. 105). Baumann (2021). Rational Choice Theory and Friends: Rational Decision Making and Friends. Chapter 6 in Daly, S.E. (Ed.) Theories of Crime Through Popular Culture. Palgrave Macmillan Cham: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54434-8  Routine Activities Theory Is composed of 3 elements: An available target A motivated offender Lack of guardian(s) Cohen and Felson proposed that these 3 elements must exist in order for a crime to occur. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 Graphic source: SERENE-RISC 54  Routine Activity Theory and “Camouflage- Collar Crime” in the Sunshine State Top 3 offenses Florida wide: (1) Improper Permitting (49.5%); (2) Marine Life Conservation Offense Motivated (16.5%), and (3) Illegal offender Possession-Fish (13.1%) Top 3 offenses in North Central (N=2,168): (1) Improper Permitting (44.7%); (2) Marine Life Conservation Offense (16.9%), and (3) Illegal Taking/ Suitable Lack of Methods (14.4%) target guardianship The vast majority of offenders in Florida and North Central Region were white (FL=81.2%; NC=86.6%), male (FL= 95.2%; NC=94.3%) and in their mid-30s Crow, Shelley & Stretesky (2013). Camouflage-collar crime: An examination of wildlife crime and characteristics of offenders in Florida. Deviant Behavior 34, 635-652.  Routine Activity Theory and “Camouflage- Collar Crime” in the Sunshine State Multivariate analyses reveal that region does play an important role in influencing the likelihood of each offense category being cited by law enforcement When controlling for demographic characteristics of cited offenders: Improper permitting & illegal hunting methods→ Northwest Region Illegal fishing methods & marine conservation offenses → South Region Using the principles of Routine Activity Theory, what might explain some of these regional differences? Crow, Shelley & Stretesky (2013). Camouflage-collar crime: An examination of wildlife crime and characteristics of offenders in Florida. Deviant Behavior 34, 635-652. Routine Crime Prevention and Precautions Routine activities, crime pattern, and other crime opportunity theories have guided police agencies’ practices in the prevention and investigation of crime. – Hot Spots Policing – Geographic Information Systems – Geographic Profiling © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 57  Summary Deterrence theory asserts that if punishments are certain, severe, and swift then crime will decrease in a society. Rational choice theory assumes that offenders consciously think “does the pleasure out weigh the pain?” Routine activities theory proposes that that the rate of criminal victimization is increased when there are one or more persons likely to commit a crime, a vulnerable target or victim is present, and formal or informal guardians to prevent the motivated offender are absent. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 58  Practice Exam Question #3 The “experiential effect” in deterrence research refers to the finding that experiencing legal sanctions prevents recidivism. True False Introduction to Biological and Biosocial Theories Traditional biological theories focus on anatomical, physiological, or genetic abnormalities. These theories ignore, downplay, or deny the effect of social environmental factors in crime. More recent biological and biosocial theories emphasize the interaction of biological, social, and psychological variables in crime and delinquency. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 60  Lombroso and Early Biological Theories Born criminals are the key concept here. Until the biological school of thought arose, crime was thought to be a rational choice made by the offender, and crime was prevented through deterrence. Early biological criminologists viewed criminals as a distinct set of people who were biologically inferior to or inherently defective. Biological positivism was scientific and concentrated on the measurable characteristics of the individual criminal. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 61  Lombroso’s Theory of the Born Criminal In 1876 the concept of a born criminal was introduced by Cesare Lombroso. Stigmata – Physical abnormalities such as large monkey-like ears and extra fingers or toes. Example of Atavism as presented by Atavism Lombroso. Throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 62 Recognizing the Inadequacies of Early Biological Theories By the 1950s biological theories had been discredited. – Could not withstand empirical tests – Seemed racist and sexist – Viewed as simplistic, untestable, and illogical Early biological theories often served as justification for terrible policies of exclusion and eugenics. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 63  Interaction of Biological and Environmental Variables Many theorists now believe that criminals are created not only from their biological composition, but also from their physical and social environment. Emphasis in biological theory has shifted from the earlier speculation over physical stigmata, body type, and constitutional makeup to the focus on research in: – Neurobiology Biochemistry Neurophysiology – Genetics – Evolutionary psychology © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 64  Neurophysiology: ANS Functioning and Arousal Genetically speaking, people who inherit autonomic nervous systems (ANS) that are slow to be aroused or react to stimuli learn to control their aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all Right hemisphere dysfunction can affect autonomic arousal, which can result in a lower resting rate heart – Recent research has revealed a link between low resting heart rate and involvement in crime Free soloist climber Alex Honnold © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 65  Behavioral and Molecular Genetics This concept studies how genetics and the environment work together. Shared environments – Class, parents, religion Nonshared environments – Differences in family and siblings, peer groups, and teachers Genes do not CAUSE behavior; they FACILITATE our behaviors and feelings. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 66  Twin Studies Concordance – Quantitative measure of the degree to which the observed behavior or attribute of one twin (or sibling) matches that of the other. In these studies, biological and social variables are seldom measured directly. Twin studies of adult offenders often find substantial genetic effects for males – However, twin studies of delinquency in adolescence show little genetic influence. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 67  Policy Implications for Modern Biosocial Theories Prevention/treatment of delinquency looks similar to those that would be derived from other theories – Educational programs – Teacher training – Promotion of parenting skills – After school programs – Drug treatment © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 68 Gajos, Fagan & Beaver (2016). Use of genetically informed evidence-based prevention science to understand and prevent crime and related behavioral disorders. Criminology & Public Policy 15(3), 683-701  Research rationale and implications Genetic factors interact with social environments to influence behavioral outcomes Genetic research and evidence-based prevention science has made significant progress in identification of risk factors involved in antisocial, criminal, or deviant behavior Incorporating emerging knowledge about genetic variables into prevention designs could help identify individual variability in program effectiveness Gajos, Fagan & Beaver (2016). Use of genetically informed evidence-based prevention science to understand and prevent crime and related behavioral disorders. Criminology & Public Policy 15(3), 683-701  Gene-Environment Interactions “Gene–environment interactions (GxEs) represent a two-way relationship, in which the effect of the environment depends on the presence of genetic variables and the effect of genetic variables Graphic credit: University of Central Florida, General Psychology (Gene- Environment Interactions) depends on the presence of the environment (Beaver, 2013).” Gajos, Fagan & Beaver (2016). Use of genetically informed evidence-based prevention science to understand and prevent crime and related behavioral disorders. Criminology & Public Policy 15(3), 683-701  Gene-Environment Interactions Diathesis-stress model Differential-susceptibility model Genetic polymorphisms Genes are viewed as “plasticity (variations) that are genes,” and they indicate the associated with maladaptive degree to which an individual outcomes (e.g., risk alleles) is vulnerable to his or her environment. interact with a negative environment, thereby However, these plastic alleles increasing the likelihood of will not only be the most vulnerable to adverse antisocial behaviors. environments, but they will also be highly susceptible to positive environments Gajos, Fagan & Beaver (2016). Use of genetically informed evidence-based prevention science to understand and prevent crime and related behavioral disorders. Criminology & Public Policy 15(3), 683-701  Gene-Environment Models of Prevention The diathesis-stress and differential- susceptibility models can both be used to help guide rehabilitations and preventative efforts, respectively. – Diathesis-stress model, the risk principle, and rehabilitation – Differential-susceptibility model, the responsivity principle, and prevention interventions Gajos, Fagan & Beaver (2016). Use of genetically informed evidence-based prevention science to understand and prevent crime and related behavioral disorders. Criminology & Public Policy 15(3), 683-701 The Strong African American Families (SAAF) Program Investigated how family-centered interventions can prevent problem behaviors (substance use, delinquency, and risky sexual behaviors) among 440 African American families living in rural Georgia and the degree to which participants’ genetic make-up affects their responses to these services. The SAAF program is a seven-session parent training and youth social skills intervention for parents and young adolescents (11–12 years of age) (and teens) – Parents: effectively supervise and communicate with their children and to help them respond to racial discrimination with adaptive rather than negative behaviors. – Children: set and achieve positive goals, resist peer pressures to engage in risky behaviors, develop more negative attitudes toward deviance, and become more accepting of parent expectations  Genes, Parenting, and Delinquency Brody et al. (2009). Prevention effects moderate the association of 5-HTTLPR and youth risk behavior initiation: Gene x environment hypotheses tested via a randomized prevention design. Child Development, 80: 645-661.  Summary Biological theories believe that criminals were born criminal as the result of genetics. Biosocial theories believe that criminals were not only influenced by genetic makeup but also their environment. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 76  Practice Exam Question #4 The following is a graph displaying results comparing youth (11-14 years) with no genetic risk and those with genetic risk based on their participation in the Strong African American Families (SAAF) Program compared to the control group that received no intervention program (Brody et al., 2009). Reading the graph, which group had the greatest improvement in mean risk behavior frequency? a) Control group with genetic risk b) Control group with no genetic risk c) SAAF treatment group with genetic risk d) SAAF treatment group with no genetic risk  Psychological Theory Concept is similar to biological theory but looks deeper into the mind of the individual. Psychoanalytic and personality theories – Recognize the effects of An individual’s experiences, especially in early childhood Environmental factors – Propose abnormal personality type/traits or emotional maladjustment as the primary causes of crime. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 78  Psychoanalytic Theory Freudian personality development: Id—basic instincts and drive Ego—rational part of the personality Superego—conscience of the individual According to this theory, there are multiple stages of development that occur early in childhood and if something goes wrong, this could cause the child to become more susceptible to crime. – Therefore, crime can be explained through underlying mental issues. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 79  Personality Theory Belief that crimes are committed as a result of a deviant nonconforming individual’s personality. Explains delinquent behavior as an expression of deviant personality traits like impulsiveness, aggressiveness, sensation seeking, etc.. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 80  Personality Traits Tests have been used to determine an individual’s personality traits: – MMPI—Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory: Measures abnormal personality traits such as depression, hysteria, paranoia, and psychopathology – CPI—California Psychological Inventory: Measure variations in personality traits, such as dominance, tolerance, and sociability © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 81  Psychopathic Personality Psychopaths – Known for manipulation of others and having little to no conscience. – Considered self-centered “social predators.” – Known for having multiple antisocial personality disorders. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 82  Summary Psychological theories are similar to biological theories in that individuals are criminals not because of choice, but because of internal factors. Psychological theories are NOT seen as inherited or biological, but a mental disturbance. Deterrence is not a preventative measure. Therapy is how we help the criminal, but not specific to the criminal behavior. The therapy must encompass all the underlying issues that result in the behavior. © [Oxford University Press or author name], 2020 83  Practice Exam Question #5 The most well-known personality test(s) is/ are: a. Buzzfeed personality test b. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) b. California Psychological Inventory (CPI) c. none of the above e. both B & C