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Group 1 - Mapping Earth’s Surface Earth’s Age Effects of Earth’s Revolution - Causes seasons, perihelion (closest to Sun), William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and a...

Group 1 - Mapping Earth’s Surface Earth’s Age Effects of Earth’s Revolution - Causes seasons, perihelion (closest to Sun), William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and aphelion (farthest from Sun). - Age of Earth is 20 to million years - Influences length of day and night (equinox: - Based on Earth’s cooling time if it had begun equal day and night, solstice: varied day and as a molten mass night). Modern scientists - Age of earth is ~ 4.5 billion years - Stratigraphy - Compares the configuration of layers of rock or sediment in order to determine how old each layer is in relation to one another - Radiometric dating - A.k.a carbon dating - Involves the decay, or breakdown, of radioactive elements, to determine the actual age of a sample of rocks and/or minerals Earth’s Size and Shape Maps Earth’s shape is an oblate spheroid - Symbolic representation of a place on a flat - Flattened at the poles due to rotational force surface, presents information visually. - Bulging at the equator due to rotational force History of Maps Earth’s Measurements Early Mapping Carved on clay, rock, & fabric Radius Equatorial Radius Polar Middle Ages Religious focus 6,378 km. 6,356 km Early Modern Mercator projection (a way Diameter Equatorial Diameter Polar Period for a spherical earth to appear proportional on a flat 12,756 km. 12,712 km. surface Circumference Equatorial Circumference Meridional Modern Period Experimental methods 40,075 km. 40,008 km. Atlas - A collection of maps or charts, usually bound How Scientists Measured Earth? together. The name derives from a custom— a. Aristotle (45,000 miles) initiated by Gerardus Mercator in the 16th b. Erasthenes (developed a method improved century—of using the figure of the Titan upon by modern scientists) Atlas, holding the globe on his shoulders, as a frontispiece for books of maps Earth’s Motion Globe Earth’s Rotation - The most common general-use model of - Circular movement of an object around a spherical Earth. It is a sphere or ball that centre of rotation bears a map of the Earth on its surface and - Earth rotates on its axis from west to east is mounted on an axle that permits rotation with an axis having an angle of 23 1/2º and is perpendicular to the plane of Earth’s orbot Basic Feature of Maps - When viewed looking down from the North Pole, Earth spins counterclockwise. On the Scale contrary, when viewed looking down from the - Indicates the relationship between the south pole, the earth spins in the clockwise distances on the map and the actual direction distances on the Earth - Graphic Scale (or Bar Scale) Earth’s Revolution - Verbal Scale - Often referred to orbital revolution. - Representative Fraction - One body moves around another - Earth revolves from west to east - One revolution = 365.242 days - Revolution speed = 30 km/s^-1 I  Weather Shows any aspects of weather like Symbols predicted temperatures, predicted precipitation, and storm warnigs Resources Made to communicate the gro distribution of natural resources Grids - A grid pattern, or a series of crossing lines Importance of Maps that create squares or rectangles. The grid a. Navigating the Unknown helps people locate places on the map. b. Understanding our Surroundings - Latitude Lines c. Unveiling the Past - Longitude Lines Map Projection - A way of transferring the curved surface of Type Definition Picture the Earth to a flat map. Political Shows the Cylindrical Projection geographic - Most common is Mercator projection beoundaties - In a Mercator projection, latitude and between gov. longitude lines are straight units Physical Shoes the natural landscape features of Earth Conic Projection - A cone is shaped like a party hat. If you wrap Road Allows people to the paper in a cone around one of the view streets, Earth’s hemispheres roads, etc Topographic Shows the shape of the Earth’s surface Azimuthal Projeciton - the plane touches the globe at only one point. In most azimuthal projections, this point is one of the geographic poles Time Zone Displays yes Equal Area Projection Geographic Shows the types - The area between the latitude and longitude of rocks and lines is the same on the globe sediments below the surface of a geographic area  - A system of uniform time for places in approximately the same longitude, established to simplify scheduling. How Maps are Made? a. Remote sensing and satellites b. Remote sensing and radar c. Global Positioning System d. Global Information System Latitude and Longitude Lines Latitude - Imaginary lines that run east-west around the Earth, parallel to the equator. - Examples: Equator (0 degrees), North Pole (90 degrees North), South Pole (90 degrees South). Longitude - Imaginary lines that run north-south from pole to pole. - Examples: Prime Meridian (0 degrees), International Date Line (180 degrees). Measurement of Time Time is the passage of events from the past through the present and into the future Sundial - Used in ancient times dating back 1500 BC - Utilized the sun’s shadow to determine time Water Clocks - Orig. built of stone pots with sloped sides that allowed water to follow out at a consistent rate from a small hole at the base. Features indicators on the inside that indicate the varying water levels over time Hourglass - Measures time with sand flowing through a narrow opening. Mechanical Clocks - Uses gears and a pendulum to measure time. Time Zones - Regions of the Earth with the same standard time. - Earth is divided into 24 time zones, each covering 15 degrees of longitude Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The time at the PM a. Philippines: GMT +8 b. Brasilia, Brazil: GMT -3 c. Vancouver: GMT -8 d. Toronto: GMT -5 International Date Line - An imaginary line running thru the Pacific Ocean where the date changes by one day. Standard Time (Sir Sandford Fleming) Group 2 - Rocks and Minerals - Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Do not have a layered appearance. (e.g., Marble, Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of Quartzite) one or more minerals. The Rock Cycle Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid The rock cycle is a continuous process by which substances with a definite chemical composition and rocks are formed, transformed, and destroyed. an ordered internal structure. Examples of Rocks: Granite, Basalt, Sandstone, Limestone, Marble Examples of Minerals: Quartz, Feldspar, Mica, Calcite, Olivine Types of Rocks Igneous Rocks Formed from the solidification and crystallization of molten rock material (magma or lava). - Intrusive Igneous Rocks: Form when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth's surface, resulting in large mineral crystals. (e.g., Granite, Gabbro) - Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Form when lava cools rapidly at the Earth's surface, resulting Processes in the Rock Cycle: in small or no visible crystals. (e.g., Basalt, Rhyolite) Melting: Rocks melt into magma. - Pressure, Temperature, and Composition Composition of Igneous Rocks Cooling and Crystallization: Magma cools and solidifies into igneous rocks. Weathering and Erosion: Rocks are broken down into sediments. Deposition: Sediments are deposited in layers. Compaction and Cementation: Sediments are compacted and cemented into sedimentary rocks. Heat and Pressure: Rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks. Uplift: Rocks are brought to the Earth's surface. Minerals are naturally occurring, predominantly inorganic, crystalline solids with a well-defined Sedimentary Rock chemical composition and ordered internal structure. Formed by the accumulation and compaction of sediments over time. Must Haves to be a Mineral: - Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Made of Naturally occurring (not man-made) fragments of other rocks and minerals. (e.g., Inorganic (not made by an organism) Conglomerate, Sandstone, Shale) Solid (not liquid or gas) - Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: Formed Definite chemical composition from the precipitation of minerals from Ordered internal structure solution. (e.g., Limestone, Halite, Gypsum) - Organic Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the remains of living organisms. (e.g., Coal, Chalk, Coquina) Metamorphic Rocks Formed when existing rocks are transformed by heat, pressure, or chemically active fluids. - Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Have a layered or banded appearance due to the alignment of minerals. (e.g., Slate, Schist, Gneiss)  Cleavage & Fracture: How a mineral breaks (smooth surfaces or irregular breaks). Cleavage: If minerals break with smooth surfaces.Fracture: If minerals break with an (irregular break or rough surfaces. Classification of Minerals: Dana System Crystalline Structure: The arrangement of atoms/ions in a mineral, determining its There are eight main classes of minerals in the shape and properties. Dana system: Transparency (Diaphaneity): The degree to which light passes through a mineral 1. Native Elements: Pure elements found in (transparent, translucent, opaque). nature (e.g., gold, silver). ○ Transparent: Light passes through 2. Sulfides: Compounds of sulfur, usually with completely, allowing you to see a metal (e.g., pyrite, galena). objects clearly through the mineral 3. Sulfates: Compounds of sulfur combined (e.g., clear quartz). with metals and oxygen (e.g., gypsum, ○ Translucent: Light partially passes celestite). through, making the mineral appear 4. Halides: Binary compounds of a halogen hazy or foggy (e.g., some varieties of (chlorine, bromine, fluorine, iodine) with calcite). metallic elements (e.g., halite, fluorite). ○ Opaque: Light doesn't pass through 5. Oxides: Compounds with one or more at all, and the mineral appears solid oxygen atoms combined with another (e.g., galena - lead sulfide) element (e.g., hematite, corundum). Tenacity: How mineral particles hold 6. Carbonates: Minerals made of carbon, together (brittle, malleable, ductile, flexible). oxygen, and a metallic element (e.g., calcite, - Brittle: Breaks easily with a sharp, dolomite). irregular fracture (e.g., calcite). 7. Phosphates: Less common minerals often - Malleable: Can be hammered or formed from the weathering of other minerals flattened into thin sheets without (e.g., apatite, monazite). breaking (e.g., native gold). 8. Silicates: The largest group, made from - Sectile: Can be cut into thin shavings metals combined with silicon and oxygen with a knife (e.g., gypsum). (e.g., olivine, pyroxene). - Ductile: Can be drawn into thin wires without breaking (e.g., native Mineral Formation copper). Cooling of Magma: Slow cooling leads to - Flexible: Can be bent without large crystals, while fast cooling results in breaking and will return to its original small or no crystals. shape (e.g., some varieties of mica) Precipitation from Aqueous Solution: Magnetism: Ability to attract or repel other Minerals form when dissolved substances magnetic materials. come out of solution due to factors like Luster: How a mineral's surface reflects light evaporation or changes in temperature and (metallic, vitreous, pearly, silky, greasy, pressure. resinous, adamantine). Precipitation from Gaseous Emanations: ○ Metallic: Reflects light like a polished Volcanic gases can react and form minerals metal, appearing shiny and opaque around volcanic vents. (e.g., pyrite - "fool's gold"). Metamorphism: Existing minerals ○ Non-metallic: Doesn't reflect light like recrystallize under high temperature and a metal and can exhibit various pressure, forming new minerals. appearances. Here are some Weathering: Minerals unstable at the subcategories: Earth's surface alter into other minerals. Vitreous: Shiny and glassy, Organic Formation: Organisms create resembling broken glass (e.g., minerals within their shells, teeth, and bones. quartz). Pearly: Reflects light with an iridescent sheen, similar to a pearl (e.g., some varieties of Physical Properties of Minerals mica). Silky: Has a silky or fibrous Color: Can vary due to trace elements or sheen (e.g., some varieties of impurities. asbestos). Streak: The color of a mineral in powdered Greasy: Appears greasy or form. Shows the true color of the mineral. oily (e.g., some varieties of Metallic minerals have dark streaks because sulfur). the tiny particles absorb light while Resinous: Looks like non-metallic minerals have lighter streaks hardened tree resin (e.g., because they reflect most light. amber). Hardness: Resistance to scratching, Adamantine: diamond like measured on the Mohs scale.  Odor: Some minerals have distinct odors Talc and Mica are common components of makeup. when moistened, heated, rubbed, or Talc provides a smooth texture and helps absorb breathed upon. moisture, making it ideal for powders and Specific Gravity: The ratio of a mineral's foundations while Mica adds a shimmering effect to weight to the weight of an equal volume of highlighters and eyeshadows. water. Determined using specific or weighing method. Antacids, often used to relieve heartburn and indigestion, rely on the neutralizing properties of Significance of Rocks and Minerals minerals like calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. These minerals work by reacting with a. Building Blocks of Earth excess stomach acid, providing quick relief from discomfort. Minerals provide parent materials which are components of soil. Lithium is known for its ability to store a large amount of energy while remaining lightweight. Cobalt and nickel help stabilize and enhance the b. Understanding the History of Earth performance of these batteries, while graphite acts Dating is the process of determining the age of as a conductor for the electrical current. rocks, fossils, and geological events. Basalt is an igneous extrusive rock formed from rapidly cooled lava. It is crushed for aggregate in c. Environmental Importance construction (roads, railroads), and for making statues and monuments. Rocks and minerals act as natural filters, purifying water as it moves through the Earth. Andesite is another extrusive rock, often found in lava flows. Similar to Basalt, it is used in Porous rocks like sandstone and fractured rocks like construction for aggregate, road base, and granite allow water to pass through, while clay sometimes as a decorative stone. minerals and organic matter trap impurities. Caves, cliffs, and rocky shores offer shelter and Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of breeding grounds for animals. cemented sand grains and is used as an aggregate for concrete, the manufacture of glass, paving, and Mineral-rich soils support plant growth, which in turn building stones. sustains entire food webs. Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of calcite and aragonite which are used mainly as an d. Raw Materials aggregate for roads, building material, cement We obtain minerals from different rocks. production, and a source of calcium for animal feed. Refining of petroleum forms the basis of a large Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black number of petrochemical industries. sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation and burial of plant material in swampy, waterlogged environments. e. Construction Materials A number of rocks are used as building materials for Serpentine is a metamorphic rock group formed the construction of houses, roads, bridges, and from the alteration of magnesium-rich minerals. dams. Often green, it has a waxy or greasy feel. Historically used for carvings and decorative stonework. f. Economic Importance Many minerals are used as industrial raw materials Quartz, one of the most abundant minerals on Earth to make products like cement, glass, and chemical made of oxygen and silicon that stack together to fertilizers. Limestone, clay, and gypsum are build crystals. Used in electronics, as an abrasive, in examples of such rocks. glassmaking, and as gemstones. g. Everyday Products Amethyst is a purple variety of quartz primarily used in jewelry and as ornamental objects. Some Clay minerals are the foundation of ceramics. They translucent to opaque amethyst is also found and are molded, fired, and glazed to create pottery, tiles, the purplish zones alternate with white or grayish bricks, and other durable products. areas. Fluorite is a key source of fluoride, a vital ingredient Pyrite is a naturally occurring iron disulfide mineral that strengthens tooth enamel and helps protect whose name comes from the Greek word pyr "fire" against tooth decay. Fluoride extracted from fluorite because pyrite emits sparks when struck by metal. It is added in small amounts to toothpaste. is often called fool's gold because its color is deceptively similar to that of a gold nugget. Group 3 - Diastrophism Diastrophism Greek word “diastrophē” which means twisting Endogenic process resulting in the deformation of Earth’s crust Can be slow or sudden (earthquakes) I. Classification of Diastrophic Movements Orogenic Processes: Mountain building Earth Expansion Theory: Earth’s size has ○ Occurs at convergent plate gradually increased over time. boundaries ○ Pascual Jordan ○ Examples: Himalayas, Alps, Andes Recognizes the significance ○ Can cause metamorphism, folding, of radioactive materials for faulting, trenches, and earthquakes understanding Earth’s internal ○ Tensional Forces: Pulls rocks heat, alongside Ernest apart,operate horizontally in opposite Rutherford directions creates cracks and ○ Roberto Matovani fractures Proposed that volcanic ○ Compressional Forces: Pushes activity and continental drift rocks together, forms folds, were consequences of Earth’s mountains, and volcanoes expansion Epeirogenic Processes: Vertical Contracting Earth Theory: Earth started as movements of continents molten mass (molten earth hypothesis) and ○ Caused by mantle convection, cooled/contracted, causing the crust to isostatic adjustments, thermal buckle. changes, sediment loading ○ James Dwight Dana ○ Downward Movement Suggested that Earth’s (Subsidence): Evidenced by contraction led to the submerged forests, valleys, peat, and formation of continents and lignite beds ocean basins ○ Upward Movement (Uplift): Continents were older and Evidenced by elevated beaches, more stable, while ocean terraces, sea caves, and fossils basins were sites of active volcanic activity and lower Diastrophism, or tectonism, is the process that topography deforms the Earth's crust through folding, faulting, ○ Edward Suess and warping due to tectonic forces like compression, Proposed the existence of tension, and shearing. It significantly shapes the Gondwana (Gondwana Earth's surface, forming mountains,valleys, and Hypothesis), a supercontinent other landforms, and is a primary cause of that later broke apart to form earthquakes and volcanic activity. For example, the South America, Southern Himalaya were formed by the collision of the Indian Africa, India, Antarctica, and and Eurasian plates Australia Similar fossils across these II. Theories of Diastrophism continents suggested connections during Plate Tectonics: Earth’s lithosphere is Gondwana’s braeakup divided into plates that move over the Convection Earth Theory: Heat-driven mantle. movement in the mantle causes plate Isostacy: Gravitational equilibrium between movement. the lithosphere and asthenosphere. ○ Sources of Heat for Mantle Convection: Crust adjusts to maintain balance Primordial Heat: Residual (sinks with added weight, rises with heat from Earth's formation weight removal) contributes 20-50% of the heat Explains mountain formation, Radioactive Decay: Decay of volcanic activity, and earthquakes isotopes contributes 50-80% of the heat Tidal Friction: Moon’s gravitational pull contributes around 10% of the heat  Continental Drift: Earth’s landmasses have moved over geological time. ○ Alfred Wegener Evidence from continental shapes, rock formations, and fossils Supercontinent Pangea broke apart to form current continents ○ Frank Bursley Taylor Suggested that continents moved due to tidal forces from the moon ○ Reverse Fault: Hanging wall moves Formation of fold mountains up relative to the footwall from continental collision ○ Evidences Jig-saw fits on the atlantic ocean Fossils found in different continents Floral and faunal fossil evidence in Gondwana Stress and Strain ○ Strike-Slip Fault: Horizontal movement along the fault line III. Stress and Strain Stress: Force applied to a rock ○ Compression: Rocks squeezed together - Himalayan Mountain Range ○ Tension: Rocks pulled apart or stretched - Rift Valleys ○ Shear: Rocks slide past each other - San Andreas Faultt Folds: Bends in rock layers due to Strain: Rock’s response to stress compression (deformation) ○ Anticline: Upward-arching fold ○ Elastic: Temporary change in shape ○ Syncline: Downward-arching fold ○ Plastic: Permanent change in shape ○ Monocline: Step-like fold ○ Fracture: Rock breaks IV. Faults and Folds Faults: Fractures in the Earth’s crust where rocks have moved ○ Normal Fault: Hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall Group 4 - Earthquakes Known as shear or transverse waves What is an Earthquake? Shake materials Sudden shaking of the ground caused by the perpendicular to the direction shifting of rock masses below Earth’s of the wave propagation surface. Slower, travel only through solids. Surface Waves: Travel along Earth’s Anatomy of an Earthquake surface. Focus: The point within the Earth where the ○ Love Waves: Side-to-side motion. earthquake originates. Generated by earthquake and Epicenter: The point on Earth’s surface underground explosion. Responsible directly above the focus. for much of the structural damage Fault: A fracture or zone of fractures in the during an earthquake Earth’s crust where rocks have moved. ○ Rayleigh Waves: Rolling motion. Seismic Waves: Vibrations that travel Causes the ground to move in an through the Earth carrying the energy elliptical motion. Travel along the free released during an earthquake. surface of an elastic solid such as the Earth. Measuring Earthquakes Seismograph: Instrument that records seismic waves. Seismogram: Graphical record produced by a seismograph. Magnitude: Measures the energy released by an earthquake (Richter Scale). Intensity: Measures the shaking caused by an earthquake at a particular location (Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) Causes of Earthquakes Shadow Zones: An area on Earth’s surface Volcanic Eruptions: The movement of where no direct seismic waves from a magma can trigger earthquakes. particular earthquake can be detected. Elastic Rebound Theory: Tectonic plates move, causing stress to build up in rocks. When the stress exceeds the rock’s strength, it breaks, releasing energy as seismic waves. Tectonic Plate Boundaries: ○ Convergent: Plates collide, causing one plate to subduct beneath the other. ○ Divergent: Plates move apart, creating new crust. Effects of Earthquakes ○ Transform: Plates slide past each Ground Shaking: Causes damage to other horizontally. buildings and infrastructure. Surface Faulting: Visible ruptures in the ground. Seismic Waves Liquefaction: Soil behaves like a liquid. Waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s Landslides: Ground shaking triggers slope layers. Measured to determine the location of the failure. earthquake and to estimate the amount of energy Tsunamis: Large waves caused by released by the earthquake. underwater earthquakes. Body Waves: Travel through Earth’s interior. ○ P-waves (Primary): The Philippines as an Earthquake-Prone Country Fastest, travel through solids, Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire. liquids, and gases. Active plate boundaries and numerous fault First waves to hit lines. Historical earthquakes: Moro Gulf seismographs (1976), Luzon (1990), Casiguran (1968). Also known as compressional of longitudinal waves Back and forth motion The Importance of Earthquakes ○ S-waves (Secondary): Shape Earth’s landscape. Second wave to hit Provide insights into Earth’s interior. seismograph Help predict future earthquakes and mitigate risks. Group 5 - Volcanoes 4. Vulcanian: More violent and explosive, building What is a Volcano? stratovolcanoes. An opening in the Earth’s crust through which lava, volcanic ash, and gases escape. A cone-shaped landform built by the accumulation of erupted materials. Parts of a Volcano 5. Pelean: Produces Summit: Highest point of a volcano. fluidized slurries that flow Slope: Sides of a volcano. down valleys and slopes Base: Lower outer part of a volcano. at high velocities. Magma and Volcanism Magma: Extremely hot liquid and semi-liquid 6. Plinian: The most rock under Earth’s surface. explosive type, involving Volcanism: The eruption of molten rock intermediate to felsic lava (magma) onto the surface of the planet. and forming eruptive columns. Why Volcanoes Erupt 1. Density: Magma is less dense than surrounding rock, causing it to rise. Signs of an Impending Volcanic Eruption 2. Pressure: Decreasing pressure as magma rises allows gases to bubble out, propelling 1. Increase in volcanic quakes and rumbling the eruption. sounds. 2. Change in volcanic steam color from white to ash grey. Classification of Volcanic Eruptions 3. Drying out of vegetation, springs, and wells 1. Effusive Eruption: Non-explosive, favored around the volcano. by low gas content and low viscosity 4. New thermal areas or reactivation of old magmas. ones. 2. Explosive Eruption: Favored by high gas content and high viscosity magmas. What to Do Before, During, and After a Volcanic Eruption Before: Types of Volcanic Eruptions 1. Monitor updates and warnings from authorities. 1. Icelandic: Also 2. Know the evacuation site and route. known as "flood" 3. Prepare a “Go Bag.” or "fissure" During: eruptions, 1. Evacuate immediately when notified. producing shield 2. Assist others in evacuating. cones. 3. Cover mouth with wet cloth and wear goggles. 4. Keep pets indoors. 5. Stay away from rivers and streams. 2. Hawaiian: Many After: fissures bring lava 1. Leave the evacuation area only when to the surface, authorities declare it safe. building steeper 2. Wear masks when cleaning. cones. 3. Scrape ash from roofs. 4. Remove ash from plants before watering. 3. Strombolian: Short-lived explosive eruptions, producing steep-sided cinder cones. Latest Volcanic Eruption in PH: Mt. Kanlaon Products of Eruption Lava Flows: Outpourings of molten rock. ○ Fluid basaltic lava - travels great distances from its vent ○ More viscous (less fluid) types of lava - not able to travel as far, and form shorter and thicker lava flows ○ Types are: 1. Pahoehoe Volcanic Gases: Primarily water vapor, Basaltic lava with carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. an unfragmented surface Smooth, billowy, ropy lava Impact of Volcanic Eruptions Thin and travels long distances On Humans: ○ Property damage: Lava flows can 2. Aa destroy homes, infrastructure, and Sharp and splintery agricultural land. rubble-like lava ○ Health risks: Burns, respiratory flow issues from ash inhalation. ○ Infrastructure damage: Ash can collapse roofs, damage machinery, and disrupt transportation. On the Environment: ○ Habitat destruction: Lava flows 3. Blocky Lava destroy habitats and cause loss of flora and fauna. resemble aa lavas ○ Ash and Water Quality: Ash but they contain contaminates water sources and larger lava blocks reduces air quality. with smoother ○ Soil Health: Initially destructive, but sides and angular ash can improve soil fertility over edge time. ○ Air Quality: Volcanic gases degrade air quality. ○ Acid Rain: Sulfur dioxide leads to 4. Pillow Lava acid rain, harming crops, forests, and water. Bulbous, spherical, ○ Climate Change: Large eruptions or tubular lobes of release greenhouse gases lava Produced by.Three Main Types of Volcanoes underwater 1. Cinder Cones: eruptions ○ Simplest and smallest type of volcano. ○ Composed of small fragments of rock Pyroclastic Materials: Fragmented material piled on top of one another. ejected during explosive eruptions. ○ Rarely reach 300 meters in height. ○ Examples: Lahars (mudflows), Tephra (loose material), Ash, Pumice, ○ These volcanoes usually do not Lapilli, Spatter, Reticulite, Scoria, produce streams of lava Volcanic Bombs, Rocks ○ are often surrounded by dark lava flows erupted from near their base ○ They usually have a crater at the summit ○ Most cinder cones are basaltic to basaltic andesite in composition, but they may be andesitic (intermediate) ○ Cinder cones are the “most endangered” volcanoes on Earth because of they are easily mined for cinders to use in road construction ○ Example: Taal Volcano  2. Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes): ○ Large volcanoes composed of lava flows, pyroclastic deposits, and mudflow (lahar) deposits. ○ Active over long periods and erupt periodically. ○ Composite volcanoes usually erupt a range of compositions from basalt to rhyolite, but intermediate (andesitic) and dacitic magmas are most common. ○ Composite volcanoes, like those found along the Pacific “Ring of Fire,” are usually found above subduction zones ○ A wide range of geohazards are present at composite volcanoes, both during eruptions and during periods of dormancy ○ Example: Mayon Volcano 3. Shield Volcanoes: ○ The largest volcanoes on Earth. ○ Broad volcanoes with gentle slopes. ○ Built by layers of fluid lava that spread out over broad areas. ○ A shield volcano is built by layers of more fluid lava that spreads out over broad area ○ Shield volcanoes are usually basalt but can be constructed of mostly andesitic lava flows. ○ Shield volcanoes occur anywhere where there is basaltic (and sometimes andesitic) volcanism, including at oceanic hot spot tracks such as in the Hawaiian Islands ○ Vog (volcanic smog) consists of SO2 (sulfur dioxide) gas and aerosols produced by active shield volcanoes. It presents a hazard both in the immediate area and to people who are downwind ○ Example: Mauna Loa Some Active Volcanoes in the PH 1. Babuyan 2. Pinatubo 3. Mayon 4. Taal 5. Mt. Apo Some Inactive Volcanoes in the PH 1. Dalupiri 2. Panuitan 3. Stayan 4. Sabtang 5. Mabudis Group 6 - Weathering and Soil Formation ○ Hydration: Absorption of water into the mineral structure, causing Weathering expansion. The process of breaking down or dissolving Example: Anhydrite rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface. transforming into gypsum Occurs in the same place, with little or no ○ Hydrolysis: Water causes a movement. chemical reaction, altering minerals and making them less resistant. Example: Feldspar becoming Weathering Agents kaolinite clay 1. Water 2. Ice 3. Biological Weathering: Caused by the 3. Acids actions of plants, animals, and 4. Salts microorganisms. 5. Plants ○ Animals: Burrowing (rabbits), 6. Animals dissolving rocks (piddock shells). 7. Changes in temperature ○ Plants: Root wedging (tree roots 8. Humans growing in cracks). 9. Microorganisms ○ Microorganisms: Lichen (fungi and algae) breaking down rock minerals. ○ Humans: Walking, road construction. Types of Weathering Advantages of Weathering 1. Mechanical Weathering: Physical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces. 1. Formation of soil ○ Abrasion: Grinding action of 2. Landscape shaping (mountains, valleys, sediment, rock particles, wind, water, etc.) or ice. 3. Formation of underground reservoirs Examples: Ventifacts 4. Contribution to the rock cycle (wind-shaped rocks), rocks in 5. Carbon sequestration rivers/waterfalls/beaches, 6. Engineering applications glacial striations, rockfalls. 7. Formation of minerals and resources ○ Frost Wedging: Repeated freezing 8. Habitat creation and thawing of water in cracks. 9. Natural hazard prevention ○ Thermal Stress: Expansion and 10. Agricultural productivity contraction due to temperature 11. Aquatic habitat enhancement changes. 12. Nutrient cycling Examples: Atacama Desert, Gobi Desert, Kalahari Desert Disadvantages of Weathering ○ Exfoliation: Flaking of rock layers due to temperature changes. 1. Natural hazard creation (landslides, erosion) Example: Sugarloaf Mountain 2. Loss of natural beauty and landscape ○ Salt Crystal Growth: Saltwater alteration enters cracks, evaporates, leaving 3. Damage to infrastructure, cultural, and crystals that exert force. historical sites Examples: Honeycomb 4. Habitat loss and loss of biodiversity weathering in Yehliu, Taiwan 5. Air pollution and human health impacts 6. Natural resource depletion 2. Chemical Weathering: Changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil. Erosion ○ Acidification: Corrosion by acids The geological process where earthen (e.g., sulfuric acid on limestone). materials are worn away and transported by ○ Carbonation: Rock minerals react natural forces (wind, water, ice, gravity) with carbonic acid (water + carbon dioxide). Example: Carlsbad Caverns Soil Erosion ○ Oxidation: Iron in rocks reacts with The washing or blowing away of the top oxygen, forming rust. layer of soil. Examples: Rust and shale Three distinct actions: detachment, formations in Wales transportation, and deposition. ○ Solution: Minerals dissolve directly into water (e.g., limestone, rock salt). Types of Soil Erosion Examples: Limestone pavements, Hinagdanan 1. Geologic Erosion: Natural erosion in the Cave soil’s condition without human influence. ○ Example: Formation of the Grand Canyon  2. Accelerated Erosion: Caused by natural and human activities. ○ Water Erosion: Raindrop Erosion: Bombardment of bare land by Soil Profile raindrops. - refers to the vertical arrangement of different NiSheet Erosion: Loss of layers or horizons of soil, extending from the surface topsoil due to rainfall down to where the soil meets the underlying rock. It exceeding infiltration. is a crucial concept in soil science as it provides Rill Erosion: Formation of insights into the composition,structure, and small channels by properties of the soil concentrated water flow. Gully Erosion: Advanced Soil Layers (Horizons) stage of rill erosion with O Horizon: Organic layer (humus), rich in deeper channels. decomposed plant and animal matter. Stream Bank Erosion: A Horizon: Topsoil, most fertile layer with Removal of stream bank soil high organic content. by water flow or scouring. E Horizon: Eluviation layer, leached of ○ Wind Erosion: minerals and organic matter. Surface Creep: Rolling or B Horizon: Subsoil, less organic content but sliding of larger soil particles. rich in minerals leached from topsoil. Saltation: Bouncing of C Horizon: Regolith, partially weathered medium-sized particles. parent material (rock fragments, sand, silt, Suspension: Lifting and clay). carrying of fine particles over R Horizon: Bedrock, unweathered rock. long distances. Weathering Decomposition of rocks, soil, and minerals by direct contact with the atmosphere. Weathered materials are not displaced. Types: Physical, chemical, and biological. Caused by atmospheric factors like air pressure. Erosion Displacement of solids by wind, water, and ice. Eroded materials are displaced. Soil Formation Involves the accumulation and Types: Water, wind, ice, thermal, and gravity. decomposition of organic matter and the mechanical and chemical weathering of Caused by wind, water, ice, and human activities. rocks. Factors Influencing Soil Formation (CLORPT) Climate: Temperature and moisture affect Soil weathering and decomposition rates. A mixture of minerals, dead and living organisms Organisms: Plants, animals, and (organic materials), air, and water. microorganisms break down organic matter and soil particles. Relief (Landscape): Slope and aspect affect sunlight and water retention. Parent Material: Inherited traits from the original rock material. Time: Soil development is a slow process, with older soils differing from younger ones. Types of Soil 1. Sand Soil: Large particles, quick drainage, low  nutrients, often acidic. Clay Loam: 40% clay, 20 to 45% sand and minimal silt. Fine texture, hold moderate water, offer medium fertility - 0.5 mm to 2mm Silt Clay Loam: 40 to 60% silt, 20% sand, 40 to 60% clay. exhibits high stickiness and plasticity, leaving a clear fingerprint. - Abiogenic Sand - Aka mineral sand - Formed thru erosion and weathering - Consist of minerals - Commonly found on beaches and deserts, along riverbanks and other terrestrial environments - Biogenic Sand - Composed of the remains of onceliving organisms, including shells, coral fragments, and other organic material 2. Silt Soil: Smaller particles than sand, good moisture 5. Peat Soil: High organic matter content, retention, fertile. acidic, good moisture retention. Fibrous Peat: low degree of decomposition, allowing for easy recognition of plant structures due to its high fiber content, which exceeds 67% Hemic: Hemic peat displays a moderate level of 3. Clay Soil: Smallest decomposition, with fiber content falling within a particles, high water range of 33% to 67% retention, sticky when Sapric: highly humified, resulting in a state where wet. the plant structure is no longer visible, as its fiber content is less than 33% 4. Loam Soil: Mixture of sand, silt, and clay, ideal for plant growth. 6. Chalky Soil: Alkaline, free-draining, often low in organic matter. ○ Subtypes: Sandy Loam: 60% sand, 30% silt, 10% clay. Enhanced fertility from clay and sediments. Conducive for plant growth Silt Loam: 50% silt, less than 27% clay. Retains moderate amount of water from silt. Relatively fertile. Group 7 - Erosion and Deposition Ways to Control Soil Erosion Erosion 1. Building dikes of stones/logs: Slows The geological process in which earthen down water flow and prevents soil materials are eroded and transported washout. from one place to another 2. Riprapping: Placing rocks or stones on slopes to prevent erosion. 3. Contour plowing: Plowing along the Agents of Erosion contour of the land to slow water flow. 1. Wind: The weakest agent of erosion, but 4. Terracing: Creating flat areas on slopes can still shape the land through deflation to prevent soil movement. (blowing away) and abrasion (banging 5. Crop rotation: Planting different crops in against). sequence to maintain soil fertility. 2. Water: A major agent of erosion, 6. Strip cropping: Alternating rows of carrying rock and soil particles as it crops and cover crops to reduce water flows. runoff. ○ Example: The Old Man of Hoy 7. Reforestation: Planting trees to hold soil sea stack formation. in place and prevent erosion. 3. Glaciers: Erode land through plucking 8. Windbreaks: Planting rows of trees or (picking up rocks) and abrasion shrubs to block wind and reduce erosion. (dragging rocks). 4. Gravity: Pulls soil and weathered Deposition materials from high elevations. 5. Animals: Burrowing and other activities The geological process where rocks, soil, can displace soil. and silt are naturally deposited, creating 6. Humans: Activities like deforestation and new landmasses or altering existing mining accelerate erosion. ones. Factors Affecting Deposition Effects of Soil Erosion 1. Speed: Faster-moving fluids carry more material further. Social Effects: 2. Fluid Composition: Water is a more ○ Loss of habitable land, forcing effective erosion agent than wind. relocation. 3. Material Composition: Some minerals Example: Landslide in erode faster than others. Zamboanga City. 4. Temperature: Warmer water dissolves ○ Reduced agricultural productivity and carries heavier minerals more and livelihood loss. effectively. ○ Increased dust and sediment, leading to health issues. Depositional Environments Economic Effects: Continental: Glacial, fluvial (rivers), ○ Reduced agricultural productivity lacustrine (lakes), aeolian (wind). and increased costs for farmers. Transitional: Tidal mudflats, beaches. ○ Costly investments in soil Marine: Various environments influenced conservation measures. by sediment supply, water depth, and ○ Damage to infrastructure (roads, organisms. bridges, buildings). Environmental Effects: Examples of Depositional Landforms ○ Loss of fertile topsoil and reduced Glacial: Erratics (boulders), moraines soil fertility. (linear deposits). Example: Deforestation in Fluvial: Flood plains, deltas, alluvial Madagascar. fans. ○ Sedimentation in rivers, lakes, and Lacustrine: Lacustrine plains. oceans, harming aquatic life. Aeolian: Sand dunes, loess (wind-blown Example: Mississippi River dust), yardangs (sculpted rock features). dead zone. Tidal Mudflat: Spits (narrow sand ○ Habitat destruction and loss of deposits). biodiversity. Example: Soil erosion in Kenya's Mau Forest. Group 8 - The Ocean Basins Instruments to Explore Ocean Depths Submersibles: Underwater robots The Hydrosphere collecting data from the water column Discontinuous layer of water at or near and seafloor. Earth’s surface. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs): Includes all liquid and frozen surface Unmanned, tethered robots collecting waters, groundwater, and atmospheric data on underwater structures and water vapor. formations. Possible origins: comets or within the Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Earth itself. (AUVs): Unmanned, untethered vehicles Distribution: for underwater research. ○ Oceans and sea ice: 96.5% Human-Occupied Vehicles (HOVs): ○ Ice caps and glaciers: 1.74% Transport scientists to the seafloor for ○ Groundwater: 1.7% direct observation. ○ Freshwater bodies, saline lakes, Sonar Systems: Use sound waves to soil moisture, atmosphere, and explore and map the ocean floor. rivers: 0.06% Satellites: Measure sea surface height States: Liquid, vapor, or ice. to infer ocean floor topography. Cryosphere: The frozen part of the Buoys: Monitor ocean currents, waves, hydrosphere (glaciers, ice caps, and water properties. icebergs). Scuba Gear/Diving: Allows direct Hydrological Cycle: Transfers water observation and photography of marine between states and reservoirs. life. 1.4 billion cubic km of water Gravity Corers: Collect sediment 75% of the earth’s surface is made of samples from the seafloor. water Water Column Samplers/CTD: Measure salinity, temperature, and depth (pressure) to study water properties Oceans of the World Pacific Ocean: Largest, covering 30% of Earth’s surface, deepest trenches. Atlantic Ocean: Second-largest, saltiest, S-shaped between Americas, Europe, and Africa. Indian Ocean: Third-largest, surrounds densely populated region, limited marine life due to high temperatures. Oceanography Southern Ocean: Newest, surrounds Scientific discipline studying all aspects Antarctica, fourth-largest. of oceans and seas. Arctic Ocean: Smallest and shallowest, Subdivisions: coldest, least salty, covered in polar ice ○ Physical Oceanography: Studies the physics of marine systems (temperature, salinity, currents, waves, tides). ○ Chemical Oceanography: Studies the chemical components of oceans, their reactions, and transformations. ○ Geological Oceanography: Studies the history and structure of the ocean floor (geophysics, plate tectonics, petrology, sedimentation). ○ Biological Oceanography: Studies life in the oceans (distribution, abundance, production, and governing processes of marine species). Ocean Basins ○ Important for fisheries, Cover the largest area of Earth’s surface. aquaculture, tourism, and Formed from volcanic rock at mid-ocean transportation. ridges. ○ Components: 2. Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs): 1. Continental Shelf: Shallow ○ Extend 200 nautical miles (370 extension of the continent km) from a nation's territorial sea. underwater. ○ Governed by the United Nations 2. Continental Slope: Transition Convention on the Law of the Sea zone between the shelf and deep (UNCLOS). ocean floor. ○ Countries have sovereign rights 3. Continental Rise: Where the over resources within their EEZs. ocean begins, sediments from ○ In the Philippines, EEZs are land accumulate. defined by RA 9522 (2009). 4. Abyssal Plain: Flattest part of the 3. Deep Sea: ocean. ○ International waters beyond 5. Island: Part of the ocean basin national jurisdiction. extending above sea level. ○ Begins at the depth where 6. Seamount: Undersea mountain. sunlight dims (around 200 7. Trench: Deepest part of the meters). ocean. ○ Potential for mineral extraction 8. Mid-Oceanic Ridge: Underwater and biotechnology. mountain range where new crust forms. Evolution of Ocean Basins Harvesting of Living Resources 1. Seafood: ○ Crucial for global food security and livelihoods. ○ In the Philippines, average per capita fish consumption is 40 kg/year, providing 50% of dietary protein. ○ Employs around 2.1 million people in seafood-related industries. 2. Fisheries: ○ The occupation or industry of catching fish or other sea animals. ○ Provides 15% of the world's protein intake. 3. Aquaculture: ○ The controlled cultivation of aquatic organisms. ○ Accounts for 20% of all fish harvested. ○ Contributes to poverty reduction (SDG 1) and economic growth (SDG 8). The Blue Economy ○ In the Philippines, fisheries Defined as the sustainable use of ocean production volume is projected to resources for economic growth, fluctuate with varying growth improved livelihoods, and ocean rates. ecosystem health. Biotechnology Oceanic Regions and Their Economic The use of marine organisms for Significance developing new pharmaceutical drugs, 1. Coastal Regions: chemical products, enzymes, and other ○ Areas bordering or close to a industrial applications. coastline. Examples: ○ Cytarabine (anti-cancer drug) derived from sponge compounds.  ○ Vidarabine (antiviral drug) derived ○ Urbanization in coastal zones is from sponge compounds. increasing, requiring sustainable ○ Various chemical compounds development approaches. derived from marine organisms. Extraction of Non-Living Resources Challenges and Conservation 1. Minerals: Oceans face pollution, overfishing, and ○ Seabed mining allows extraction climate change. of minerals from nodules on the Degradation of marine ecosystems ocean floor. threatens economic activities and human ○ Mineral rights are limited to a well-being. nation's EEZ. Sustainable management of ocean ○ Governed by the International resources is crucial for a thriving future. Seabed Authority and UNCLOS. 2. Energy: ○ Oil and Gas: Extracted from offshore platforms, primarily on continental shelves within EEZs. ○ Renewables: Offshore wind energy harnesses wind power on the high seas. Wave energy converts wave motion into electricity. Tidal energy utilizes tidal currents to generate power. 3. Freshwater: ○ Desalination plants remove salt from seawater to produce freshwater. ○ Important in regions with limited freshwater resources. Maritime Trade and Commerce 1. Transport: ○ Shipping is a major component of global trade, offering efficient long-distance transport. ○ Ports play a crucial role in attracting investment, supporting manufacturing and logistics, and creating employment. ○ In the Philippines, 98% of inter-island trade and 40 million passengers rely on sea transport. 2. Tourism and Recreation: ○ Cruises and resorts are significant contributors to the ocean economy, especially in tropical and subtropical areas. ○ The Philippines has a growing tourism market, with popular destinations like Boracay, Baguio, Palawan, and Siargao. 3. Settlements: ○ Coastal settlements benefit from the ocean economy through fishing, tourism, and other maritime activities. Group 9 - Groundwater ○ Poorly sorted sediment has low porosity. Origin of Earth’s Water Supply Permeability: The ease with which water passes through a porous material. Ancient Greek philosophers believed ○ Connected open spaces are rivers were sustained solely by rain and necessary for permeability. snow. ○ Affected by particle size and 17th-century scientists discovered sorting. Earth’s surface receives more water than ○ Examples of permeable rocks: rivers carry away. Limestone, sandstone. ○ Example of impermeable material: Clay Groundwater Zones of an Aquifer Water that fills cracks and openings in beds of rocks and sand. Zone of Saturation: Layer where pore Each drop of rain moves downward to spaces are completely filled with water. the water table (the water level in the ○ Upper surface is the water table. groundwater reservoir). Zone of Aeration: Soil surface above Found in soils and sands that can retain the water table, containing both air and water. water. ○ Also called the unsaturated zone. Uses of Groundwater 60% of global groundwater use is for irrigation. Household and industrial uses make up the rest. Irrigation needs vary by country: ○ Low in countries with abundant rainfall (Indonesia, Thailand). ○ High in arid countries (Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria). Movement of Water on Earth (Water Cycle) 1. Evaporation: Water turns into vapor. 2. Condensation: Water vapor cools and changes into tiny particles of ice or water droplets. 3. Sublimation: Ice directly converts into water vapor. Properties of Aquifers 4. Precipitation: Condensed water vapor falls as rain, snow, etc. Aquifer: A geologic formation or 5. Transpiration: Plants release water structure that stores and transmits vapor. groundwater. 6. Runoff: Water flows over the Earth’s ○ Composed of porous rocks, surface. gravel, sand, or other permeable 7. Infiltration: Water soaks into the ground. materials. ○ Porosity and permeability affect water flow. Porosity: The percentage of open spaces in a rock or sediment. ○ Affected by sorting (uniformity of particle size). ○ Well-sorted, coarse-grained sediment has high porosity. Sources of Subsurface Water Infiltration Galleries: Horizontal tunnels constructed through water-bearing strata. Wells: Vertical holes providing access to Infiltration Wells: Shallow wells groundwater. collecting river water seepage. ○ Open wells: Large diameter, limited depth. ○ Tube wells: Long pipes drilled deep into the ground. Importance of Groundwater For Humanity: ○ Drinking water supply. Springs: Natural outflows of ○ Irrigation for agriculture. groundwater. ○ Food industry. ○ Gravity springs: Formed when the For the Earth: water table overflows. ○ Replenishes and maintains ○ Surface springs: Occur when an surface water levels (rivers, lakes, impervious layer becomes wetlands). inclined. ○ Example: 50% of the Rio ○ Artesian springs: Water flows Grande’s water in the Big Bend through a confined aquifer under region comes from groundwater. pressure. Group 10 - Weather Forecasting precipitation but differ in daily and seasonal changes. Weather The state of the atmosphere or the Influence of Climate conditions in the air around us. Clothing: Arctic cultures developed warm Includes temperature, precipitation, wind, clothing for icy climates, while lightweight and cloud cover. cloth is common in warm, humid climates Changes from day to day and varies like the Philippines. across the world. Shelter: Tropical shelters emphasize Examples: Sunny, cold, rainy, rainy with ventilation and flood prevention, while thunder. four-season shelters require insulation, steep roofs for snow, and heating Weather Forecasting systems. Agriculture: Tropical climates focus on The prediction of weather through the crops like rice and sugarcane, while application of physics and statistical four-season climates adapt to varying techniques. conditions with crop rotations and Includes predictions of atmospheric seasonal crops. phenomena and changes on Earth’s surface caused by atmospheric conditions (snow, ice, storm tides, Weather and Climate Parameters floods). 1. Temperature: How hot or cold the Example: 7-day outlook. atmosphere is. 2. Pressure: The weight of air resting on Importance of Weather Prediction the Earth’s surface. 3. Wind Speed and Direction: The Weather significantly influences human movement of air masses. settlement patterns, food production, and 4. Humidity: The amount of water vapor in comfort. the atmosphere. Extreme weather events like heavy 5. Precipitation: Liquid or frozen water rainfall, thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, falling from the atmosphere (rain, snow, and sleet storms can cause damage, hail, sleet). injuries, and fatalities. Tropical cyclones (typhoons) can cause extensive damage through rainfall, Weather Instruments flooding, winds, and wave action. Thermometer: Measures temperature Heavy snowfall and icy conditions can (daily temperature). disrupt transportation and increase Barometer: Measures atmospheric accidents. pressure (pressure). Droughts can occur due to long Anemometer: Measures wind speed absences of rainfall. and direction (wind speed and direction). Hygrometer: Measures temperature and Climate humidity (humidity). Rain Gauge: Measures the amount of The average weather conditions in a rainfall (precipitation). particular place over a long period (30+ years). Includes temperature, precipitation, wind Causes of Rainfall patterns, and other factors. The Water Cycle: Evaporation, Helps understand typical weather condensation, precipitation, run-off, patterns of a region. transpiration. Different parts of the world have different Temperature Changes: Warmer climates (e.g., tropical wet, polar). temperatures increase evaporation, while cooler temperatures lead to Climate Features condensation. Air Movement: Rising air cools, causing Average temperature and precipitation water vapor to condense. are the most familiar features. Cloud Condensation Nuclei: Tiny Daily, day-to-night, and seasonal particles (dust, pollen, sea salt) on which variations also determine specific water vapor condenses to form climates. raindrops. Example: San Francisco and Beijing have similar yearly temperatures and Raindrop Fun Facts Conditions for Cyclone Formation (Cyclogenesis) 1. Warm Moist Air 2. Continued Fuel 3. Rotation 4. No Vertical Wind Shear Stages of Cyclone Development 1. Tropical Disturbance: A group of thunderstorms with slight wind circulation. 2. Tropical Depression: Maximum sustained winds of 38 mph (34-63 knots). 3. Tropical Storm: Maximum sustained winds of 39-74 mph (34-63 knots). Weather Disturbances 4. Cyclone/Hurricane: Maximum sustained winds of 74+ mph (64+ knots). Thunderstorm: A violent, short-lived disturbance with lightning, thunder, heavy rain/hail, and strong winds. Tropical Cyclone Structure Tornado: A rotating column of air Eye: The calmest part of the storm. touching the ground, usually attached to Eyewall: A ring of thunderstorms with a thunderstorm. heavy rain and strong winds. Lightning: A giant spark of electricity in Rainbands: Curved bands of clouds and the atmosphere. thunderstorms spiraling away from the Cyclone (Hurricane/Typhoon): A eyewall rotating system of clouds and thunderstorms originating over tropical or subtropical waters. Movement of a Cyclone Initially move westward and slightly poleward. Eventually, they may reverse direction Cyclone Formation due to westerly winds. Regions: Originate over oceans in Can travel 300-400 miles per day. tropical areas and coastal regions. Areas: Cyclone Intensity Scales ○ Tropical North Atlantic Ocean Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale: ○ Western North Pacific Ocean Classifies hurricanes into five categories ○ Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea based on wind speed. ○ South Indian Ocean Conditions: Warm, moist air; low-pressure area; rotation; no vertical wind shear; continuous fuel (heat and water vapor from the ocean). Theories: ○ Convective Theory: Warm, moist air rises, creating low pressure and cyclonic circulation. ○ Frontal Theory: Cyclones form along the front between trade winds and equatorial air.  PAGASA Typhoon Cyclone Intensity: Similar to the Saffir-Simpson scale, used in the Philippines. Strongest Typhoons in the Philippines 1. Super Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan): November 2013, Category 5, 315 km/h winds. 2. Typhoon Pablo (Bopha): November 2012, Category 5, 280 km/h winds. 3. Typhoon Odette (Rai): December 2021, Category 5, 280 km/h winds. 4. Typhoon Glenda (Rammasun): July 2014, Category 5, 260 km/h winds. 5. Typhoon Ompong (Mangkhut): Philippine Monsoons September 2018, Category 5, 285 km/h winds. Two distinct seasons: Habagat (southwest monsoon) and Amihan Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (northeast monsoon). A belt of low pressure encircling the Significantly impact weather, agriculture, Earth near the equator. and daily life. Formed by the convergence of trade winds from the Northern and Southern Philippine Public Storm Signals (TCWS) Hemispheres. Plain text warnings for specific areas Appears as a band of clouds with expecting winds of at least 39 km/h showers and thunderstorms. within 36 hours. Position shifts throughout the year, Signal No. 1: 39-61 kph winds, slight influencing weather patterns and damage. monsoons. Signal No. 2: 61-88 kph winds, moderate damage. Signal No. 3: 89-117 kph winds, heavy damage. Signal No. 4: 118-184 kph winds, very heavy damage. Signal No. 5: 185+ kph winds, widespread damage. Monsoons Seasonal shifts in winds causing rainy or dry seasons. Caused by temperature differences between land and water. Strongest monsoons occur in Asia and Australia. Summer monsoons bring heavy rain to South Asia, while winter monsoons shift rain south. Geography and the Hadley Circulation influence monsoon patterns. Group 11 - Finally What is Climate? The long-term pattern of weather at a place, including not just the average condition but also the variability and extremes of weather. What is Weather? A short-term or specific event—like a rainstorm or hot day—that happens over a few hours, days, or weeks. Why Classify Climates? To observe broad patterns. To simplify communication about the characteristics of a region. B Climates (Arid Climates): Characterized by a shortage of water. Most Used Classification System: ○ Occupy a greater portion of Earth’s land surface than any Köppen Climate Classification System other climate category, mostly ○ Developed by Wladimir Köppen, a between 15-30° latitude. botanist, German meteorologist, ○ Low annual mean precipitation and climatologist. rate due to high evaporation. ○ Based on the global distribution of ○ Subtypes: vegetation types. Tropical and Subtropical Desert Climate (BWh, part of BWk): Influenced Köppen Climate Classification System by subtropical anticyclones