Criminology Exam Questions PDF

1. Describe what is meant by critical thinking. Critical thinking distinguishes between fact and opinion - Make detailed observations with multiple viewpoints, and asking questions. - Uncover assumptions and make conclusions based on evidence - 2. Define crime and discuss how crime is...

1. Describe what is meant by critical thinking. Critical thinking distinguishes between fact and opinion - Make detailed observations with multiple viewpoints, and asking questions. - Uncover assumptions and make conclusions based on evidence - 2. Define crime and discuss how crime is constructed. Crime is an act that is prohibited by the law, sometimes not acting on smth can be a crime like failing to report child abuse - Constructed by the reaction from society. It centers around the idea that behaviour in one society may be praised while in another society may be shamed 3. Discuss the differing perspectives on the origins and application of the criminal law Value consensus: what is seen as criminal and the punishment associated with it r based on our opinion and tolerance limit. views crime/punishment as a result of societies shared values, and norms. It assumes there is consensus amongst society of what is wrong and what is right. Conflict: some ppl have more influence in which behaviors r made criminal. Crime definitions are controlled by those with wealth, power, and high social position in society. Law is seen to protect these people 4. Identify the types of Canadian law and the functions of the criminal law?? Substantive law: made so each person has rights in society. Involves public matters such as criminal law, taxation law, constitutional law, and administrative law. It focuses on how society should behave, and its rights/obligations. Procedural: made to enforce the laws in substantive.Private law regulates personal individual matters such as: contract, estate, property, family, tort, company, law of agency, and patent law. Procedure is very important to have amongst laws to keep everything fair. Precedent: decisions in court becoming the new standard for future cases Stare decisis: precedent from higher courts must be followed Statute law: written laws from legislative body like parliament of canada Case law: laws that were made from previous court decisions, based on precedent Criminal law: handles behavior harmful to society to maintain order 5. Discuss the key principles of Canadian law. - Actus Reus: the physical act of the crime. Has to be voluntary. Mens rea (guilty mind): intention behind the crime. Mental capacity. If there is no mens rea then crime will be tried differently. - No crime without a law, no punishment without a law - Ignorance of the law is no excuse - No one is compelled to incriminate themself - No one should be twice troubled by the same cause  - Right to innocent until proven guilty. 6. Describe the origins and importance of the rule of law - Traced back to magna carta issued by king john where all government and citizens r subject to the law - it supports social order and stable economies by offering clear and legitimate ways to resolve disputes and helping to reduce corruption. - safeguards people from illegal actions by individuals or the state - prevents the misuse of state power, mandates that everyone follow the law, and ensures that legal rights are upheld 7. Discuss the importance of the canadian charter of rights and freedoms - Guarantees freedom, legal rights, equality rights even if u r accused of a crime. - it is a document that protects anyone who is in canada. It guarantees rights of all those in canada, and only applies to situations where the government is involved. - safeguards essential rights and freedoms for all Canadians, which are crucial for maintaining Canada as a free and democratic nation. - applies to all levels of government—federal, provincial, and territorial—and covers protections such as fundamental freedoms and democratic rights. 8. Describe the main provisions of the CCRF - Freedom of religion, thought, of the press, peaceful assembly, association - Right to life, not randomly arrested, to be told why they r arrested 9. Discuss the canadian criminal code - Federal legislation makes laws and procedures for offenses, and procedures for administration of justice - defines most of the criminal offenses created by the Parliament of Canada - standardizes criminal law across Canada, ensuring fairness and consistency. - It is considered a living document as it is constantly changing with society. 10. Discuss issues surrounding application of criminal law in a diverse society Tension: Conflicts arise between individuals cultural practices from their countries of origin and Canadian societal norms. Effectiveness and Limits: Questions exist about how effectively criminal law can address practices deemed contrary to Canadian values and the extent to which it should be applied in a diverse society. Honour Killings: This crime, involving the premeditated murder of a family member (often a woman) to restore family honour, highlights these challenges. International bodies condemn honour killings and urge action against them, but there is no official record of such cases in Canada, although some high-profile instances have been reported. 1. Describe due process - Legal rights of person r the focus, including offenders. - Fair and deliberate administration of justice, focus on protecting rights of defendant, innocent til proven guilty, reflects liberal values 2. Describe adversarial system - Proof for either party has to be beyond reasonable doubt - Judge acts based only on evidence, with no other influence - Both parties present their case to impartial judge and judge makes decisions on evidence and precedent - Ppl say this system makes ppl distort their events 3. Difference between adversarial and inquisitorial - Inquisitorial uses little precedent so judge can decide cases independently - Judge role is more active and determines what witnesses to call - Aims to get the truth of the matter thru examination of evidence - there is a judge/panel of judges that take the case into their own hands and due their own investigating which can be subject to bias and influence. 4. Limits of restorative justice - When forced to do restorative justice, ppl argue it no longer becomes restorative - Addresses needs of offender to reduce reoffending, focusing on healing - Process involves agreement on how offender will fix mistakes - Victims and offenders may be reluctant to engage, impacting effectiveness. - Differences in power between victims and offenders can create an unfair process. - Effective programs require trained facilitators and funding, which many communities lack. - For severe offenses, restorative justice may seem inadequate, raising concerns about addressing the harm properly. 5. Role of discretion - Ability to choose and capacity of use power - Cuz there's no laws for literally everything about what a cop has to do in every situation, cops use discretion to figure out what to do in a given situation cuz they have the authority to do so in the criminal code. - Allows for quick responses in high stress situations. 6. Discretion in CJS - Different CJS personnel make different decisions in any situation cuz of what they are influenced by - They have lots of discretion when doing their job thru life experiences and beliefs 7. Describe task environments in CJS - The cultural and community settings where CJS makes decisions - Type of environment influences the type of crime CJS faces, decisions available, and effectiveness of policies 8. What is politics of criminal justice - Governments with different political ideas have different policies - Politicians often react to controversial decisions within CJS when they get public attention so this can undermine the system’s independence, making ppl think political pressure can influence justice outcomes 9. Deterrent value of CJS - Ppl r aware there r legal consequences for their behavior - They must know they can be punished - Punishment must be applied fast after the crime - effectiveness of laws and the criminal justice system in preventing criminal behavior - It relies on the belief that potential offenders will avoid crimes if they expect legal consequences. This deterrent value is affected by the visibility, certainty, and promptness of punishments; when these factors are strong, deterrence is more effective, and when they are weak, it diminishes. 10. Describe restorative justice as alt response to ppl in conflict with law - Victim centered: prioritizes needs ot victims and gives them a voice so they can heal by expressing how they were impacted by the CJS - Offenders r encouraged to take responsibility for their trouble thru smth like apology or community service - Its about transformation and punishment, seeking help for them to move forward 11. Criminal justice funnel - Large amount of crimes being reported but few result in arrest and sentencing because lack of evidence or police discretion influencing how many cases go thru with the system - Can hurt public trust in the CJS and shows how inefficient it can be - representation of how cases flow through the criminal justice system - likelihood of crimes resulting in arrests, incarceration, and imprisonment. - It also shows how adversarial the system really is, especially when it comes to the amount of cases that are decided without a trial, and those that are settled outside the courtroom. Discuss the reasons for using non-lethal force by the police based on the video “Man Armed with Kitchen Knives Attacks Police Officers.” Reasons for not using lethal force in the knife video - Foot officers in london do not carry lethal weapons cuz public safety and for public approval Y did police not use +1 tactic in machete video - Taser was used but didnt work so they tackled him - +1 tactic not used cuz its used so police r always one step above the force used by the offender, if they took guns out then the guy wouldve taken out the machete so they tackled him instead - The guy wasnt holding the machete yet 12.. Outline the roles and responsibilities of the federal and provincial/territorial governments related to criminal justice. - Federal:this level of government defines what behaviours are considered criminal offences - Provincial/Territorial:administering in the justice system and enforcing the laws 13. 2 models of criminal justice administration - Crime control: CJS protects public thru stopping offenders, focus on rights of victims instead of protecting rights of defendant - More conservative, strong presumption of guilt - Due process: protects rights of defendant, presumes innocence - More liberal 14. Describe the flow of cases through the criminal justice system, including the criminal justice funnel. The criminal justice funnel is a representation of how cases flow through the criminal justice system. It presents the likelihood of crimes resulting in arrests, incarceration, and imprisonment. It also shows how adversarial the system really is, especially when it comes to the amount of cases that are decided without a trial, and those that are settled outside the court room. The criminal justice funnel represents the process in which numerous crimes enter the system, but only a few result in prison sentences. The flow goes to the police system, criminal court system, and then correction/ police system. 15. Explain the role of discretion in the criminal justice system. - Allows police officers the freedom to choose how they respond to high stress situations. - Discretion is needed as in high stress situations, the police officer doesn't have time to double check their decisions with their supervisor. - Allows police to act fast. - Trade off: occurs in cases of poor judgment and/or inconsistency in law application/policing. 16. Describe the task environments of the criminal justice system. - The task environment refers to the criminal justice system's cultural, geographic and community setting where it operates and where personnel make decisions. - Ex. Urban and Rural settings - Urban would have more violent crimes and more gang-affiliated crimes - Rural would be more like property crimes and agricultural theft 17. Discuss the issue of ethics in criminal justice. Several aspects of the criminal justice system are subject to debate over ethical concerns. One key issue is that law enforcement officers must adhere to a code of conduct in their duties to protect citizens' rights and freedoms. Ethical concerns arise in cases of excessive force, racial profiling, and the treatment of vulnerable groups. Upholding accountability and transparency in policing is crucial for maintaining public trust. Another significant issue involves judicial integrity, where judges and legal professionals must follow ethical standards to preserve the fairness of the legal system. This includes avoiding conflicts of interest, ensuring impartiality, and maintaining confidentiality in legal proceedings. Many more ethical considerations also come into play throughout the system.  18. Compare the levels of accountability among criminal justice personnel. ??? Police officers: are subjected to criminal charges, internal and external review and civilian oversight Crown counsel: subjected to internal review, can’t testify within the court and no independent oversight Defence lawyer: subjected to review/sanctions of professional associated, no independent oversight Judges: federal judges are subjected to review, sanction and dismissal by canadian judicial court while provincial/territorial judges are subjected to internal review → no independent oversight Parole officer, probation officer, probation board members: subjected to internal review and no external independent oversight 19. List the factors that affect public confidence in the criminal justice system.?? - Accountability of law enforcement - Legitimacy + effectiveness - People lack an understanding of how the CJS actually works - Media: depicts crimes and offenders/victims in an inaccurate light, as well as CJS procedures 20. Define the term politics of criminal justice. Politics plays a major role in shaping the criminal justice system, as governments with varying political ideologies implement different policies. Politicians often respond to controversial decisions within the system when they gain public attention, which can undermine its independence. This may lead to public perception that justice outcomes are influenced by political pressure rather than impartial processes.??? 21. Describe the deterrent effect of the criminal justice system. Deterrent value measures how well laws prevent crime by discouraging offenders with the threat of legal consequences. It depends on the visibility, certainty, and promptness of punishments—stronger enforcement leads to stronger deterrence. 22. Explain the restorative justice approach as an alternative for those in conflict with the law.  - Victim centered: prioritizes needs ot victims and gives them a voice so they can heal by expressing how they were impacted by the CJS - Offenders r encouraged to take responsibility for their trouble thru smth like apology or community service - Its about transformation and punishment, seeking help for them to move forward 23. Define the concepts of racism, discrimination, and inequality in Canada. Racism: antagonism directed against someone of an opposing race Discrimination: treating someone unfairly due to their race, sexuality, disability, sex etc. Equality: everyone no matter their gender, race, sex, etc receiving same/equal opportunities. 24. Define and discuss the concepts of racialized persons, racialization, and racial profiling. Racialized persons: people other than indigenous that are not of white/caucasian origin. Racialization: process of society constructing races to be real, different, and unequal in economic, political and social settings. Racial profiling: Any action undertaken for reasons of safety, security, or public protection that relies on stereotypes such as race, colour, or ethnicity rather than on reasonable suspicion to single out an individual for greater scrutiny or different treatment. 25. Describe concerns over the increasing costs of the criminal justice system. The criminal justice system is costly, with expenditures rising over the past decade despite declining crime rates. Costs include victim losses, police, court, and correction expenses, opportunity costs, and intangible victim suffering. A key question is whether these expenses truly make communities safer, address victims' needs, and reduce reoffending. Unfortunately, the answer is often unclear.??? 26. Explain the changing boundaries of criminal justice agencies. Criminal justice agencies are moving from siloed structures to collaborative frameworks. Traditionally, police, courts, and corrections worked independently, focusing on their specific roles. Now, they're partnering with social services and health providers to address underlying issues like addiction and mental health. However, this collaboration risks blurring agency roles, such as parole officers shifting from support to surveillance. While integration has benefits, maintaining each agency's distinct responsibilities is crucial. 27. Discuss issues that affect victims in the criminal justice system. Victims of crime experience many different forms of harm including physically, psychologically, financially, emotionally, and socially. After the initial trauma of a crime, victims have the potential to feel worse due to the actions of criminal justice system officials which can result in something called revictimization. This is considered the negative impact on victims of crime caused by the decisions and actions of criminal justice personnel. 28. Describe the concerns about the lack of diversity among criminal justice system personnel. Concerns about diversity in the criminal justice system stem from its historically Caucasian male dominance. While there has been progress, with more women in roles like judges (36%), lawyers (42%), and police officers (20%), gender diversity still falls short. Additionally, the lack of detailed data on Indigenous peoples and racialized groups hinders a clear understanding of their representation, with reports showing a significant diversity gap, especially in the judiciary. A more diverse workforce is essential for better serving all community members and building trust in the justice system. 29. Explain the evolution of policing in Canada. - In the early days of canada, laws were enforced through an informal basis by those in the community - Ex. bar owners needing to manage the peace that goes on in their bar - After communities grew, police constables began to roam the streets - This started in quebec city during the mid 1600s and what is now known as ontario in the early 1800s - The 3 main goals of early policing - Police conflicts between ethic groups and their employers - Maintain moral standards around drunkenness, prostitution and gambling - Catch criminals 30. Describe the current structure of policing in Canada. The current structure of police work in Canada involves the following framework. Police are expected to carry out tasks within their legislative p that define their roles, powers, and responsibilities. A huge part of this framework includes the Canadian charter rights and freedoms, which are most impactful on the powers and activities of the police. Police role in Canada is to work on behalf of the state to give order, prevent crime, and maintain social order. There has also been the pluralization of police which includes parapolice and private security 31. Define police work and discuss the issues it presents in a democratic society. Police work in a democratic society involves maintaining public order and safety while protecting individual rights. Key values include justice, equality, accountability, and efficiency. However, tensions arise between police authority and democratic principles, such as balancing public order with citizens' rights. These tensions can lead to conflicts with other parts of the justice system, particularly around issues like offenders' rights, court decisions, and the increasing use of technology and militarization in policing. Police often face challenges reconciling their duties with democratic values. 32. Outline the various roles of the police. - develop and sustain partnerships - take steps towards improving the quality of life - reassuring residents to reduce the fear of crime - outreach to various vulnerable groups - collab with agencies and organizations - ensure resources are spread out properly - Nikolay put these points in his doc titled “additional midterm information”: - 1. Authority: Canadian police officers derive their authority from laws such as the Criminal Code of 1985 and various provincial statutes, which give them the power to enforce laws. - 2. Use of Force: Police officers have the authority to use force when necessary, a power that is not given to most other personnel within the criminal justice system, except for correctional officers. 33. Explain the concept of political policing. ??? Political policing involves secretive police investigative tactics and surveillance of those that are considered a threat to the stability and status quo of the state. - An example that comes to mind would be an organization that openly wants to kill a member of any level of government, like the prime minister 34. Describe the structures of police governance. -Police can work free of interference, while still being subject to government and judicial oversight. - goal: not letting police become instruments for implementing government policy. - oversight: ensures police services are taken advantage of at the compromise of the rights of citizens. Federal level (RCMP): Governed by the RCMP Act, it operates under the authority of the federal government. Provincial: Governance is typically overseen by provincial ministries or agencies. Municipal: Each service has a police board or commission that provides oversight, policy, and accountability. Boards made up of community members and municipal representatives 35. Explain the process of recruiting and training police officers. -Basic qualifications: Canadian citizenship, being at least 19 years old, physical fitness, and a high school diploma. -Preferred qualifications: language skills and relevant experience. -Training varies across Canada, with recruits learning at in-house facilities or training academies. -Training covers law, community relations, patrol methods, and firearms. Recruits typically serve in general patrol for three to five years but may develop cynicism and an "us versus them" mentality, potentially conflicting with community policing goals. 36. Describe the working personality of police officers and the issues associated with this concept. - involves inherent perceptions and attitudes when observing situations. This includes a focus on danger, excessive suspicion, cynicism, and challenges in expressing authority. - Officers often view policing as a lifestyle rather than a job, valuing secrecy and maintaining a code of silence to protect colleagues. - This creates strong in-group solidarity, known as the "blue wall," driven by job-related stresses and an "us versus them" mentality. Additionally, officers may display the "blue light syndrome," emphasizing the high-risk aspects of their work. 37. Discuss the challenges of police work, including occupational stress, injuries, and the experiences of women police officers with harassment and discrimination. - Toxic workplace, sexism, homophobia, racism - Occupational stress: physical/mental conditions caused by experiences on the job - Can be small annoyances of drugs and suicide, PTSD - Women experiences: subject to SA and discrimination, they have little faith in the organization to deal with the complaints of harassment - Prevalence of an "old boys' club" mentality in police services - Police mothers in particular may face challenges of negative workplace responses to their pregnancy and in re-establishing their credibility upon returning to work. 38. Analyze the impact of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms on police powers. ???. - The charter of Rights and freedoms has sections that specifically tell citizens what law enforcement can and cannot do. It serves as a checkpoint on police powers. There are actions associated with law enforcement that must require a level of reasonability: - Section 8: protection against unreasonable search or seizure. Any search must be conducted with a warrant or on reasonable grounds. Ensures police respect citizens’ privacy. - Section 9: right not to be arbitrarily detained or imprisoned. Individuals cannot be detained or imprisoned by officers without reasonable cause. Limits random stops and aims to reduce biased policing. - Section 10: right to be informed upon arrest/detention of reasons for arrest and right to retain legal aid. Ensures people are aware of their rights to prevent coercive police practices. 39. Explain how the police are held accountable for their actions.??? Principle of accountability: the action of policing individuals are subjected to review and individuals are able to use formal channels to file complaints - This ensures that there is actual structure in accountability when police officers used force, or exercise discretion - Police officers are also held accountable under criminal code, provincial statues and civil law 40. Discuss the role of discretion in police decision-making and the factors influencing police officers' decisions. ??? Discretion: the power /right to use your own judgement in a situation - Police must use this because there are no laws that will be a remedy for every situation that can or will ever happen  - The level of discretion decreases as the situation gets worse - Not all laws can be enforced at the same time - Police use discretion to choose which ones they need to enforce - Will this decision cause more harm than good? - Is this the most reasonable choice - Varying policing styles amongst officers influences how each one may use discretion - Factors influencing police officers' decisions include the visibility of police decision-making, scrutiny of officer discretion, and the requirements set out in statutes such as the Criminal Code. In some cases, such as domestic violence, there are “mandatory charge” or “zero tolerance” policies that constrain an officer's discretion. 41. Explain the issues of biased policing and racial profiling.??? - Officers are supposed to practice non-bias policing based on probable grounds and suspicion of a suspect, not by stereotypes - Biased policing/racial profiling results in many people of colour, specifically Black and Indigenous communities, to lack trust in law enforcement, either taking matters into their own hands or not reporting to police at all when a reportable incident occurs. - Black respondents have stated that it is not the amount of times they have been stopped by police for questioning that made them feel profiled, it was the nature of how their interactions went that made them feel as such, - Officer internal bias of stereotypes 42. Describe the practice of police street checks/carding and its relationship to biased policing and racial profiling. - Officer questions and asks for ID, even if they haven't committed an offense - Could be done in response to calls about missing ppl - Racialized groups r more subject to being checked - Relates to racial profiling because cops tend to stop more ppl based on their personal stereotypes and beliefs 43. Classify and describe the use of force by the police.? - Police are the only personnel (other than correctional officers) who are legally allowed to use force to gain control and compliance. - Police force varies from non-lethal options such as dialogue, mere police presence, physical force, and tools such as pepper spray or tasers, to lethal options such as guns. - Police also have to go by the plus one rule which is when police officers are allowed to use one level up of force than what they're dealing with. 44. Explain the powers of the police regarding search and seizure, detention, arrest, and interrogation, and discuss entrapment as a limitation on these powers. ??  - Search and seizure: police can stop people and search them only if they have authority by law to do so, and the search must be performed reasonably. If the courts find that the search was not reasonable, any evidence or illegal goods obtained from the person will be inadmissible in trial as this is a violation of sec. 8 of Criminal Code - Detention: police have the power to detain someone for a brief amount of time, but the person must be released. Detention is on the basis that there are probable grounds the person has engaged in illegal activity. - Arrest: police have the power to arrest and keep people in custody if there is probable grounds that the person committed a crime. Upon arrest, officers must inform the arrestee of their rights, or it is a violation of sec. 10 of the criminal code. - Interrogation: police can use an information gathering approach such as interrogation to question individuals in custody. Police do not have the power however to compel information out of the person and cannot force them to speak. - Entrapment as limitation: A coercive technique that implores someone to commit a crime they wouldn’t have otherwise committed. Entrapment raises concerns about abuse of authority and power. 45. Describe the different types of police misconduct and the challenges of the complaint process.??? - Rotten apples: individual officers misconduct - Rotten barrels: group of officers - Rotten orchards: misconduct ingrained in culture of the police service - Challenges of complaint process: ppl r reluctant to file complains because its intimidating - Lack of trust in police because the police investigates themselves 50. Explain the limitations of restorative justice. - When forced to do restorative justice, ppl argue it no longer becomes restorative - Addresses needs of offender to reduce reoffending, focusing on healing - Process involves agreement on how offender will fix mistakes - Victims and offenders may be reluctant to engage, impacting effectiveness. - Differences in power between victims and offenders can create an unfair process. - Effective programs require trained facilitators and funding, which many communities lack. - For severe offenses, restorative justice may seem inadequate, raising concerns about addressing the harm properly. Questions Based on Lectures 1. Discuss the evolutionary roots that make critical thinking difficult.  - Brain tendencies shaped by evolution prioritize survival and reproduction. - Brain is wired for quick, practical solutions rather than complex problems in math/science. - Critical thinking require effort, which our instincts typically avoid - Disagreement within small groups was very dangerous, as people preferred to agree with the opinion of their group. - Psychologically, people prefer to be liked by significant others. - Ideology creates cognitive filters: “stop signals” for ideas incompatible with the specific ideology (e.g. left vs right ideology 2. Explain the role of universities as social institutions for cultivating critical thinking. Universities act as a neutral non political ground where we can have logical debates. 3. Describe the four types of arguments and their importance in critical thinking. Logic: There are two kinds of logical arguments: deductive (moves from general premise to a specific conclusion. If premises are true then conclusion must be also true.) and inductive reasoning (moves from specific observations to general conclusions. Conclusion is considered probable but not guaranteed to be true.). Logical arguments are powerful because they rely on solid reasoning and evidence. Facts: A fact-based argument uses evidence or data, such as research findings, statistics, or historical records, to support a claim and determine its truth. These arguments, essential in fields like criminology and academic writing, rely on factual evidence to prove or disprove a statement. Policy: A policy argument advocates for change by proposing solutions to problems and explaining what should be done and why. It identifies an issue and suggests a plan for addressing it, such as funding community-based rehabilitation centers instead of building more juvenile detention centers. These arguments are common in crime prevention and justice reform, focusing on actions needed to solve issues in law, public policy, and society. Values: Value-based arguments rely on personal values, ethical principles, and cultural standards to assess the worth, morality, or significance of something. They are subjective and aim to persuade by appealing to shared beliefs, making them important in debates on ethics, culture, and morality, though they cannot be proven true or false. 4. Explain the difference between crime and deviant behavior. Crime: prohibited by law Deviance: behavior that goes against societal norms and values of larger society. Can include criminal behavior but is not criminal behavior. 5. Discuss the gender disparities in federal criminal cases.?? There are gender disparities when it comes to sentencing. Women tend to receive more lenient sentences for similar cases of men who received a harsher outcome. This is due to judicial perceptions and biases, including the considerations of family responsibilities, women are considered easier rehabilitated than men and a woman's biological clock. Women of lower SES may also experience different circumstances than men, which affect their involvement in crime and their judicial outcomes. Women tend to be more traumatized than men by physical violence. - 6. Compare and contrast equality of opportunities versus equality of outcomes. The principle of equality of opportunities involves providing everyone with the same chances to succeed, regardless of their background, while ensuring a fair and just process. It assumes that everyone starts from the same point and faces similar challenges. In contrast, the principle of equality of outcomes emphasizes providing additional support to those who struggle more, aiming to achieve equity and social justice. This approach focuses on helping disadvantaged individuals make progress and ensures a fair distribution of resources, while addressing inequalities that arise from winning or losing. Questions Based on Videos 1. Based on the video “NYPD's Stop-and-Frisk: Racial Profiling or 'Proactive Policing'?” describe the arguments for and against the practice.?? 2. Discuss the reasons for using non-lethal force by the police based on the video “Man Armed with Kitchen Knives Attacks Police Officers.”?? - Officers in London can't use weapons other than batons. - Many countries split up the police forms into different branches - Britain, for example has foot patrol officers which are the standard police which you would see out on the streets. When deadly force is needed, then they would call in the armed police. The difference being the equipment they hold. Foot patrol officers only hold equipment that are for self defense purposes or communication purposes, meaning that no lethal weapons like guns are on their belt. - This can also be an answer - it aims to minimize harm, allowing officers to constrain a suspect while reducing the risk of serious injury or death to everyone involved. Non-lethal methofods help de-escalate volatile encounters, prioritizing public safety and preserving life, especially when mental health issues are a factor. They approach the man calmly and told him several time to drop the weapon and come forward Moreover, by using non-lethal force, officers can enhance public trust, showing a commitment to resolving conflicts with the least harm possible - - 3. Explain why the police did not use the +1 tactic in the video “Vancouver Police Tackle Man Armed With Machete!”?? Increase level of aggression to keep authority over suspect, can lead to suspect becoming more dangerous in some cases. The plus one tactic should be used with a level of caution and can be seen as very situational. The plus one tactic also would not be necessary for the video’s situation where the man is in possession of a concealed weapon and would be situationally more dangerous if they were to approach the man with the plus one tactic. Their best course of action was to immobilize the man as quickly as possible.