CN100-Skeletal-System.pdf

 CHAPTER 4: SKELETAL SYSTEM College of Health Sciences Department of Nursing - RTA Overview 1. Function of the Skeletal System 2. Types of Bones 3. Divisions of the Skeletal System 4. Articulations 5. Bone Formation 6. Remodeling 7. Bone Repair 8. Types of Movements ...

 CHAPTER 4: SKELETAL SYSTEM College of Health Sciences Department of Nursing - RTA Overview 1. Function of the Skeletal System 2. Types of Bones 3. Divisions of the Skeletal System 4. Articulations 5. Bone Formation 6. Remodeling 7. Bone Repair 8. Types of Movements  LESSON 1. Function of the Skeletal System Objectives By the end of the discussion the student must have: described the main functions of the skeletal system Skeletal System Functions of the Ok, Hi,NoOk! I’ll I’m walk. Kelly! thanks.. Skeletal System 1. Support 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Storage & release 5. Blood cell formation 6. Triglyceride Storage I can dance too! LESSON 2. Types of Bones  Objectives By the end of the discussion the student must have: Ø Classified bones according to their distribution of spaces between cells and shapes or location Ø Described the function of each category of bones Ø Described the structure and functions of each part of a long bone Ø Explained why bone tissue is classified as a connective tissue. Ø Described the cellular composition of bone tissue and the functions of each type of cell. Ø Compared the structural and functional differences between compact and spongy bone tissue. Bone - rigid connective tissue - hardest tissue in the body - living organ with blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves MATRIX: q25 % water q25 % collagen fiber q50% crystallized mineral salts mainly hydroxyapatite (CaPO4 & CaCO3)  Bone matrix resembles like a reinforced concrete Collagen is like the steel bar – flexible strength Minerals are like the concrete – compression (weight bearing) strength. Bones are derived from embryonic hyaline cartilage that undergoes a process known as OSTEOGENESIS. Calcium cells are deposited in the matrix giving bone the “HARD” quality that describes it. Bone bone tissue = osseous tissue Question: Hardness of a bone depends on: a. inorganic mineral salts b. organic collagen fibers mineral salts deposited in the spaces between and around the collagen framework crystallization occurs tissue hardens Answer: crystallized salts + collagen = hardness of bone Types of Bones A. According to distribution of spaces between cells 1. Compact bone 2. Cancellous (spongy) bone B. According to shape 1. Long bones 4. Irregular bones 2. Short bones 5. Sesamoid bones 3. Flat bones 6. Accessory bones Types of Bones A. According to distribution of spaces between spaces 1. Compact bone 2. Cancellous/ Spongy bone Types of Bones B. According to shape 1. Long bone Types of Bones B. According to shape 2. Short bone Types of Bones B. According to shape 3. Flat bone Types of Bones B. According to shape 5. Sesamoid bone Types of Bones B. According to shape 4. Irregular bone Types of Bones B. According to shape 6. Accessory bone Anatomy of Bones A. Gross anatomy of Long Bones 1. diaphysis 2. epiphyses 3. metaphysis 4. articular cartilage Anatomy of Bones A. Gross anatomy of Long Bones 1. diaphysis 2. epiphyses 3. metaphysis 4. articular cartilage 5. endosteum 6. periosteum 7. medullary cavity Anatomy of Bones 2 Kinds of Bone Marrow 1. Red bone marrow 2. Yellow bone marrow Anatomy of Bones B. Microscopic anatomy of the bone 1. Osteon (Haversian system) 2. Central canal (Haversian canal) 3. Lamellae 4. Lacunae 5. Canaliculi 6. Volkmann’s canals/ perforating canals OSTEON: Basic Functional Unit of a compact Types of Bone Cells 1. Osteogenic/osteoprogenitor cells - unspecialized cells derived from -mesenchyme can undergo mitosis & develop new daughter cells: osteoblasts 2. Osteoblasts: immature cells - bone forming, repairing, and bone building cells - secrete collagen & other organic components needed to build bone tissue - secrete unmineralized ground substance (osteoid) 3. Osteocytes: mature bone cells - derived from osteoblasts - principal cells of fully developed bone tissue Types of Bone Cells 4. Osteoclasts “clast” – to break - bone destroying cells - responsible in bone resorption 5. Bone lining cells - derived from osteoblast -found on the surface of most bones in the adult skeleton Types of Bone Cells Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone LESSON 3. Division of Skeletal System  Objectives By the end of the discussion the student must have: Described the principal surface markings on bones and the functions of each Described how the skeleton is organized into axial and appendicular divisions. Named the cranial and facial bones and indicate whether they are paired or single. Described the following special features of the skull: sutures, paranasal sinuses, and fontanels.  BONE MARKING S  BONE MARKINGS A. Depression & Openings /Cavities B. Processes § Processes that form joints § Processes to which tendons, ligaments & other connective tissues attach  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 1. Fissure -narrow cleft-like opening - where blood vessels & nerves pass thru Superior Orbital Fissure of the Sphenoid Bone Bone Surface Markings Fissure: Narrow slit between bones for passage of blood vessels or nerves. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 2. Foramen - “hole” ; an opening thru which blood vessels, nerves or ligaments pass Foramen magnum - where the vertebral & spinal arteries pass Bone Surface Markings Foramen: Hole for passage of blood vessels, nerves or ligaments. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 3. Meatus - a tubelike passageway running within a bone External auditory meatus  Meatus: Tubelike opening Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 4. Paranasal sinuses - air-filled cavities within a bone connected to the nasal - purpose: cavity give resonance to voice Frontal sinus Ethmoid sinus Maxillary sinus Sphenoid sinus  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 5. Groove/Sulcus - furrow or depression that accommodates a soft structure s/a blood vessels and nerves Intertubercular groove Anterior Surface of Humerus  Sulcus: Furrow on a bone for passage of blood vessel, nerve or tendon. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 6. Fossa - a depression in or on a bone Olecranon fossa- posterior portion of the humerus which receives the olecranon process of the ulna when the forearm is extended Posterior Surface of Humerus  BONE MARKINGs A. Depressions & Openings/ Cavities 6. Fossa - a depression in or on a bone Acetabulum- socket of the head of the femur Pelvic Girdle Lateral View Bone Surface Markings Fossa: Shallow depression. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs B. Processes - any prominent projections * PROCESSES OF BONES THAT FORM JOINTS 1. Condyle - a smooth, large round, articular prominence Lower end of the femur where it articulates with the tibia Medial condyle Lateral condyle Posterior Surface of Femur Bone Surface Markings Condyle: Rounded projection with a smooth articular surface. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs B. Processes 2. Head - a rounded articular projection supported on the constricted portion (neck) of a bone Head of femur Posterior Surface of Femur Bone Surface Markings Head: Usually rounded articular process supported on a neck. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs B. Processes 3. Facet - a smooth, flat surface Superior articular facets of the axis Superior View of Axis (C2) Bone Surface Markings Facet: Smooth, flat, slightly concave articular surface. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs * PROCESSES TO WHICH TENDONS, LIGAMENTS AND OTHER CONNECTIVE TISSUES ATTACH 1. Tubercle - a small rounded process or projection Lesser tubercle Greater tubercle Anterior Surface of Humerus (upper end) Bone Surface Markings Tubercle: Variably sized rounded projection. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs 2. Tuberosity - a large, round, & usually roughened projection Tibial tuberosity- point of attachment of the patellar ligament Anterior Surface of Tibia Bone Surface Markings Tuberosity: Variably sized projection with rough, bumpy surface. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs 3. Trochanter - a large, usually rounded projection found only on the femur Lesser trochanter- points of attachment of the tendons of some thigh & buttocks muscles Greater trochanter Posterior Surface of Femur (proximal end) Bone Surface Markings Trochanter: Very large projection found ONLY on the femur. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs 4. Crest - a prominent border or ridge Iliac crest Lateral View of the Pelvis Bone Surface Markings Crest: Prominent ridge or elongated process. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs 5. Line - a less prominent ridge than a crest Linea aspera- point of attachment of the tendons of the thigh muscles Posterior Surface of Femur Bone Surface Markings Line: Long, narrow ridge or border (less prominent than a crest Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs 6. Spinous process - a sharp, slender process Spinous process of the vertebrae Lateral View of the Vertebra Bone Surface Markings Spinous process: Sharp, slender projection. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  BONE MARKINGs 7. Epicondyle - a prominence above a condyle Medial epicondyle Medial condyle Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Posterior Surface of Femur  Epicondyle: Usually roughened projection on a condyle. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Divisions of the Skeletal System The human skeleton consists of 206 named bones grouped into two principal divisions: Axial skeleton (80 bones) Appendicular skeleton (126 bones) Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.  The core of the skeleton is referred to as the axial skeleton. It consists of 80 bones, including the skull bones, hyoid bone, vertebrae, ribs, and sternum. Attached to the axial skeleton is the appendicular skeleton. It is formed by 126 bones, including the pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula), bony pelvis, and upper and lower limbs Divisions of the Skeletal System The axial skeleton: Skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone, ribs, sternum (breastbone), and bones of the vertebral column. The appendicular skeleton: Bones of the upper and lower limbs (extremities) and the bones forming the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial skeleton. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton - skull, hyoid, vertebral column, thorax - 80 bones B. Appendicular Skeleton - bones of the upper & lower extremities, and pelvic girdle, pectoral girdle - 126 bones Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 a. Cranium Frontal 1  Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 a. Cranium Frontal 1 Parietal 2 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 a. Cranium Frontal 1 Parietal 2 Temporal 2 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 a. Cranium Frontal 1 Parietal 2 Temporal 2 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 a. Cranium Frontal 1 Parietal 2 Temporal 2 Occipital 1 Sphenoid 1 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 a. Cranium Frontal 1 Parietal 2 Temporal 2 Occipital 1 Sphenoid 1 Ethmoid 1 8 bones  Vomer – the vomer is a thin flat bone which extends upwards from the middle of the hard palate to form the main part of the nasal septum. Superiorly, it articulates with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone. Palatine bones - these are two L shaped bones. The horizontal parts unite to form the posterior part of the hard palate and the perpendicular parts project upwards to form part of the lateral walls of the nasal cavities. At their upper extremities they form part of the orbital cavities. Inferior nasal conchae (turbinates) - each concha is a scroll-shaped bone which form part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and projects into it below the middle concha. The superior and middle conchae are parts of the ethmoid bone. Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 b. Facial bones Maxilla 2 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 b. Facial bones Maxilla 2 Zygomatic 2 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 b. Facial bones Maxilla 2 Zygomatic 2 Mandible 1 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 b. Facial bones Maxilla 2 Zygomatic 2 Mandible 1 Nasal 2 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 b. Facial bones Maxilla 2 Zygomatic 2 Mandible 1 Nasal 2 Vomer 1 Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 b. Facial bones Maxilla 2 Zygomatic 2 Mandible 1 Nasal 2 Vomer 1 Lacrimal 2 Palatine 2 Nasal Concha 2 14 bones Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 c. Auditory ossicles Incus 2 Malleus 2 Stapes 2 6 bones Sutures Sagittal Sutures Frontal (Coronal) Sutures  Squamous Sutures  Lambdoid Sutures  frontal bone coronal suture parietal bone sagittal suture lambdoidal suture occipital bone FONTANELS  At birth, ossification of the cranial sutures is incomplete. Where three or more bones meet there are distinct membranous areas, or fontanelles. The two largest are the anterior fontanelle, not fully ossified until the child is 12-18 months old when it becomes the bregma. The posterior fontanelle usually ossifies 2-3 months after birth and when it closes it becomes the lambda. Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 1. SKULL - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 c. Auditory ossicles Incus 2 Malleus 2 Stapes 2 6 bones Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 Skull - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid - 1 bone Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 Skull - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid - 1 bone Vertebral Column - 26 bones (33 in children) Cervical 7 Thoracic 12 Lumbar 5 Sacrum 1 (5 fused bones) Coccyx 1 (4 fused bones) 26 bones Functions of the Vertebral Column: Collectively the vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal which provides a strong bony protection for the delicate spinal cord lying within it. Spinal nerves, blood, lymph vessels exit the vertebral canal through specific intervertebral foramina Because of the numerous individual bones, a certain amount of movement is possible It supports the skull Functions of the Vertebral Column: The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers, protecting the brain. It forms the axis of the trunk, giving attachment to the ribs shoulder girdle and upper limbs, pelvic girdle and lower limbs. Vertebra Vertebra Vertebral Column Regions of the Vertebral Column o The neck consists of 7 cervical vertebrae. o The upper back has 12 thoracic vertebrae, each articulated with one or more pairs of ribs. o The lower back consists of 5 lumbar vertebrae. o The fifth lumbar vertebra articulates with the sacrum, which articulates with the coccyx.  Spinal Curvature The spine is configured in 4 spinal curves: o cervical curve (concave) o thoracic curve (convex) o lumbar curve (concave) o sacral curve (convex) Spinal Curvature Vertebral Anatomy Vertebral Anatomy Vertebral Anatomy 3. The articular processes (lateral projections at the junction between laminae and pedicles, with smooth surfaces called articular facets on the articular faces) a. superior articular process (articulates with the inferior articular process of the superior vertebra) b. inferior articular process (articulates with the inferior vertebra) Vertebral Anatomy  lamina transverse process rib facet pedicle vertebral body foramen spinous process Vertebral Parts  Miscellaneous Info Together, the vertebral foraminae form the vertebral canal which encloses the spinal cord.  Miscellaneous Info Together, the vertebral foraminae form the vertebral canal which encloses the spinal cord. Vertebral bodies are separated by pads of fibrocartilage called intervertebral discs. Vertebral Anatomy  Miscellaneous Info Together, the vertebral foraminae form the vertebral canal which encloses the spinal cord. Vertebral bodies are separated by pads of fibrocartilage called intervertebral discs.  Miscellaneous Info Together, the vertebral foraminae form the vertebral canal which encloses the spinal cord. Vertebral bodies are separated by pads of fibrocartilage called intervertebral discs. Gaps between the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae form intervertebral foramina which allow nerves to run to and from the spinal cord.  Vertebral Column intervertebral disk intervertebral foramen Cervical Vertebrae Thoracic Vertebrae  Thoracic Vertebrae o The body is heart shaped, and larger than those of cervical vertebrae.  Thoracic Vertebrae o The body is heart shaped, and larger than those of cervical vertebrae. o The vertebral foramen is smaller. o Spinous processes are long and slender.  Thoracic Vertebrae o The dorsolateral surfaces of the body have costal facets which articulate with the heads of ribs. o T1-8 each articulate with 2 pairs of ribs (superior and inferior costal facets). o T9-11 each articulate with 1 pair of ribs. o T1-10 have transverse costal facets on thick transverse processes for rib articulation. o Ribs at T1-10 contact both costal and transverse costal facets. Thoracic & Lumbar Vertebrae lumbar vertebrae thoracic vertebrae Thoracic Vertebrae  Lumbar Vertebrae o largest vertebrae. o body is thicker than thoracic vertebrae, and oval-shaped. o Do not have costal or transverse costal facets.  Lumbar Vertebrae o Have slender transverse processes that project dorsolateraly. o vertebral foramen is triangular. o superior articular processes face up and in. o inferior articular processes face down and out. o spinous process is short and heavy, for attachment of lower back muscles. Lumbar Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae Vertebrae Sacrum Sacrum  Sacrum o adult sacrum consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae. o fuses between puberty and ages 25-30, leaving transverse lines. o is curved, more so in males than in females.  Sacrum o Protects reproductive, urinary and digestive organs. o Attaches the axial skeleton to the pelvic girdle of the appendicular skeleton. o Attaches broad muscles that move the thigh. o The sacral canal replaces the vertebral canal. o The thick, flattened auricular surface articulates with the pelvic girdle (sacroiliac joint). Sacrum sacral canal medial sacral crest sacral foramen sacral hiatus  Coccyx o The mature coccyx consists of 3 to 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae. o The coccyx attaches ligaments and a constricting muscle of the anus. o The first 2 coccygeal vertebrae have transverse processes and unfused vertebral arches. o The laminae of the first coccygeal vertebra form the coccygeal cornua. Coccyx Coccyx Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 Skull - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid - 1 bone Vertebral Column - 26 bones (33 in children) Cervical 7 Thoracic 12 Lumbar 5 Sacrum 1 (5 fused bones) Coccyx 1 (4 fused bones) 26 bones Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 Skull - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid - 1 bone Vertebral Column - 26 bones (33 in children) Rib Cage - 25 bones Ribs True 7 pairs False 3 pairs Floating 2 pairs 24 bones Sternum 1 bone  Rib Cage The thoracic cage is the skeleton of the chest, supporting the thoracic cavity. It consists of the thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum. The ribs and sternum form the rib cage. Two Main Functions: 1. To protect the organs of the thoracic cavity 2. To attach muscles for respiration, the vertebral column, and pectoral girdle and upper limbs. Rib Cage Costals (Ribs)  Rib Cage Rib costal groove shaft tubercle neck head Rib Cage Rib Cage Sternum Sternum  Sternum has 3 parts: 1. The manubrium: - the superior portion of the sternum, is broad and triangular - articulates with the collarbones (clavicles) and cartilages of the first rib pair - has a jugular notch, a shallow indentation on the manubrium, between the clavicular articulations Sternum Sternum – this flat bone can be felt just under the skin in the middle of the front of the chest. The manubrium is uppermost and articulates with the clavicles at the sternoclavicular joint and with the first two pairs of ribs. The middle part or body gives attachment to the ribs, the xiphoid process is the tip of the bone. It gives attachment to the diaphragm, muscles of the anterior abdominal wall and the linea alba.  Sternum 2. The sternal body: - is tongue-shaped - attaches to the manubrium - attaches to the costal cartilages of ribs 2-7 3. The xiphoid process: - is the smallest part of the sternum - attaches to the sternal body - attaches to the diaphragm and rectus abdominis muscles Sternum Jugular notch clavicular notch manubrium sternal angle body intercostal space xiphoid process Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton a. Cranial 8 Skull - 28 bones b. Facial 14 c. Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid - 1 bone Vertebral Column - 26 bones (33 in children) Rib Cage - 25 bones Ribs True 7 pairs False 3 pairs Floating 2 pairs 24 bones Sternum 1 bone Divisions of the Skeletal System A. Axial Skeleton - 28 bones Skull Hyoid - 1 bone Vertebral Column - 26 bones Rib Cage - 25 bones 80 bones Divisions of the Skeletal System B. Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle - 4 bones Clavicle - 2 bones Scapula - 2 bones  Pectoral Girdle Also called the shoulder girdle Connects the arms to the body Positions the shoulders Provides a base for arm movement Consists of: – 2 clavicles – 2 scapulae Pectoral Girdle Clavicles Also called collarbones Long, S-shaped bones Originate at the manubrium (sternal end) Articulate with the scapulae (acromial end) Pectoral Girdle Clavicles  Pectoral Girdle Clavicles acromial end sternal end Pectoral Girdle Scapula Also called shoulder blades Broad, flat triangles Articulate with arm and collarbone Pectoral Girdle Scapula Pectoral Girdle Scapula  Pectoral Girdle Scapula Scapular spine: ridge across posterior surface of body Separates 2 regions: supraspinous fossa infraspinous fossa  Pectoral Girdle Scapula acromial process coracoid process glenoid cavity superior angle subscapular fossa inferior angle Anterior  Pectoral Girdle acromion process Scapula supraspinous fossa infraspinous fossa spine lateral border medial border Posterior Divisions of the Skeletal System B. Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle - 4 bones Upper Limb - 60 bones Humerus - 2 bones Radius - 2 bones Ulna - 2 bones Carpals - 16 bones Metacarpal - 10 bones Phalanges - 28 bones  Upper Limb Humerus Head: rounded, articulating surface contained within joint capsule Trochlea: coronoid fossa & olecranon fossa articulate with ulna Capitulum: radial fossa articulates with radius Upper Limb Humerus Upper Limb Humerus Humerus head neck olecranon fossa Upper Limb Humerus lesser medial epicondyle deltoid tubercle tuberosity trochlea coronoid fossa intertubercular groove greater capitulum tubercle lateral epicondyle  Upper Limb Radius – Lies lateral or thumbside of the forearm – Consist of a shaft; with a large lower end and small upper end – Bigger than ulna Upper Limb Radius radial tuberosity styloid process head  Upper Limb Ulna Lies lateral to the radius Long, slender shaft With an enlarged upper end  Upper Limb Ulna trochlear notch coronoid process head radial notch styloid process olecranon process Upper Limb Upper Limb Upper Limb Carpals (8) 3 1 pollex Metacarpals (5) Digits (5) Divisions of the Skeletal System B. Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle - 4 bones Upper Limb - 60 bones Pelvic Girdle - 2 bones Coxae - 2 bones Ilium Ischium Pubis Pelvic Girdle Pelvic Girdle  Pelvic Girdle iliac crest anterior greater sciatic superior iliac notch spine ischial spine ischial tuberosity lesser sciatic notch Pelvic Girdle Pelvic Girdle sacroiliac joint ilium Sacrum iliac fossa ischium acetabulum obturator pubis pubic symphysis foramen Pelvic Girdle Divisions of the Pelvis True Pelvis Smaller and lower portion of the pelvis and its size is very important in child’s birth/delivery False pelvis Large upper part between the iliac bones of the hipbone Contains the bowel Pelvic Girdle Divisions of the Skeletal System B. Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle - 4 bones Upper Limb - 60 bones Pelvic Girdle - 2 bones Lower Limb - 60 bones Femur - 2 bones Tibia - 2 bones Fibula - 2 bones Patella - 2 bones Tarsal - 14 bones Metatarsal - 10 bones Phalanges - 28 bones  Lower Limb Femur Structures Proximal Epiphysis Femoral head: articulates with pelvis at acetabulum Neck narrow area between head & trochanters Greater & lesser trochanters tendon attachments  Lower Limb Femur – Distal Epiphysis Medial & lateral epicondyles: – above the knee joint Medial & lateral condyles: – form part of knee joint – Shaft Linea aspera: – most prominent ridge of shaft – attaches hip muscles  Lower Limb Femur Anterior Anterior Femur head patellar surface neck fovea capitis  Lower Limb Posterior Femur lesser trochanter medial epicondyle gluteal tuberosity medial condyle linea aspera Intercondylar fossa greater trochanter lateral condyle lateral epicondyle  Lower Limb Patella A sesamoid bone Base attaches quadriceps femoris Apex attaches patellar ligament Lower Limb Tibia Figure 8–13  Lower Limb Tibia medial condyle medial malleolus anterior crest tibial tuberosity lateral condyle  Lower Limb Fibula Fibula/tibia articulations: – head – inferior tibiofibular joint Interosseous membrane: – binds fibula to tibia Lateral malleolus: – lateral projection of ankle  Lower Limb Fibula head lateral malleolus Lower Limb Tarsals Metatars als alan ges Ph Figure 8–14a  Lower Limb 5 metatarsal bones – long bones of foot – numbered I–V, medial to lateral – Articulate with toes phalanges – bones of the toes – hallux: big toe, 2 phalanges (distal, proximal) – Other 4 toes: 3 phalanges (distal, medial, proximal) Foot Lower Limb Tarsals (7) Digits (5) Talus Calcaneus Lower Limb Hallux (Great Toe) 1 3 Lower Limb Figure 8–14b Divisions of the Skeletal System B. Apendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle - 4 bones Upper Limb - 60 bones Pelvic Girdle - 2 bones Lower Limb - 60 bones Femur - 2 bones Tibia - 2 bones Fibula - 2 bones Patella - 2 bones Tarsal - 14 bones Metatarsal - 10 bones Phalanges - 28 bones Divisions of the Skeletal System B. Apendicular Skeleton Pectoral Girdle - 4 bones Upper Limb - 60 bones Pelvic Girdle - 2 bones Lower Limb - 60 bones 126 bones JOINTS Classification: Fibrous joint/Synarthroses Suture/skull type Syndesmoses Gomphoses Synchondroses (primary cartliaginous joint)  LESSON 4. ARTICULATION  Objectives By the end of the discussion the student must have: described the structural and functional classifications of Joints. described the structure and functions of the three types of fibrous joints described the structure and functions of the two types of cartilaginous joints. described the structure of synovial joints. discussed the structure and function of bursae and tendon sheaths. JOINTS Classification: Cartilaginous Joints/Amphiarthroses Synchondroses (primary cartliaginous joint) Symphyses (secondory synchondrosis) Synoviai Joint (Diarthroses) Fibrous joint/Synarthroses Suture/skull type Fibrous joint/Synarthroses Syndesmoses Fibrous joint/Synarthroses Gomphoses Cartilaginous Joints/Amphiarthroses Synchondroses Cartilaginous Joints/Amphiarthroses Symphyses Cartilaginous Joints/Amphiarthroses Synovial Joint  Synovial – made up of a fibrous capsule that encloses a synovial cavity between the articulating bones: Plane Joint – between two carpal bones Spheroid -- (cotyloid, ball and socket) – hip and shoulder joint Condylar – modified ball and socket with a shallow eilipsoid socket (metacarpophalangeal joint) Ellipsoid – allows flexion, extension, abduction and adduction but no rotation (eg radiocarpal joint) Trochoid / Pivot – chief movement is rotation (atlanto-axial joint) Sellar/Saddle – with curved surfaces resembling those of a saddle (eg between the trapezium and metacarpal of the thumb) Ginglymus / Hinge – movement can take place only through one axis (elbow and knee joints) Cartilaginous Joints/Amphiarthroses Structures of Synoviai Joint According to Mobility 1. Synathroses – immovable joints. Example: SUTURES 2. Amphiarthoses – slightly movable joints Example: INTERVERTEBRAL DISC 3. Diarthroses – freely movable joints with ligaments; with synovial cavity Movements: a) Gliding – simple slipping or rubbing; no angular nor rotary movement; example: in between vertebral bodies b) Angular – Flexion, Extension, Adduction, Abduction c) Circumduction – circular motion d) Rotation – movement along a central axis e) Supination – f) Pronation – g) Inversion – h) Eversion -  LESSON 5. Bone Formation  Objectives By the end of the discussion the student must have: described the steps of intramembranous and endochondral ossification. explained how bone grows in length and thickness. described the process involved in bone remodeling. Ossification 2 Patterns of Ossification 1. Intramembranous Ossification - formation of bone directly on or within loose fibrous connective tissue membrane mesenchyme bone 2. Endochondral Ossification - formation of bone within hyaline cartilage mesenchyme cartilage (hyaline) bone Bone formation occurs in 4 principal situations: 1. the initial formation of bones in an embryo and fetus, 2. growth of bones during infancy, childhood, and adolescence until their adult sizes are reached, 3. the remodeling of bone (replacement of old bone by new bone tissue throughout life), and 4. the repair of fractures (breaks in bones) throughout life. Intramembranous Ossification center of ossification site where bone will develop mesenchymal cells in fibrous CT membranes cluster Osteoprogenitor cells 1 Osteoblasts - secrete organic matrix (osteoid) of bone until they are completely surrounded secretion of matrix stops Osteocytes (after a few days) Ca & other mineral salts are deposited 2 CALCIFICATION Intramembranous Ossification bone matrix develops into - fuse with one another to TRABECULAE create spongy bone spaces between trabeculae fill with 3 vascularized connective tissue differentiates into RBM At the outside of the bone… mesenchyme condenses & develops into the PERIOSTEUM superficial layers of the spongy bone are replaced by compact bone but spongy bone 4 remains at the center Much of the newly formed bone is remodled (destroyed & reformed), a process that slowly transforms the bone into its adult size & shape  Endochondral Ossification mesenchymal cells crowd together in the shape of the future bone differentiate into CHONDROBLAST - secrete cartilage matrix a membrane PERICHONDRIUM differentiate into develops around the cartilage model CHONDROCYTES - develops new chondroblasts - undergo continual cell division Appositional Growth Interstitial Growth growth of cartilage model CALCIFICATION Nutrients no longer diffuse quickly thru the matrix Other chondrocytes die, forming lacunae which merge into small cavities  NUTRIENT ARTERY penetrates the perichondrium & calcifying cartilage model thru the nutrient foramen Stimulation of osteogenic cells in the perichondrium to differentiate into OSTEOBLASTS osteoblasts secrete thin shell of compact bone, called the Periosteal Bone Collar, beneath the perichondrium Capillaries + periosteal cappilaries grow into the Osteoblasts + disintegrating calcified cartilage Osteoclasts + RBM cells = (Periosteal Bud) growth of 1° OSSIFICATION CENTER Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix over the remnants of calcified cartilage formation of spongy bone TRABECULAE  Osteoclasts break down the newly formed trabeculae Leaves a cavity in the core of the model (Medullary Cavity) cavity fills with RBM blood vessels enter epiphyses development of 2° OSSIFICATION CENTER (around the time of birth) Formation of articular cartilage & epiphyseal plate > The hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphyses becomes the articular cartilage. > Before adulthood: hyaline cartilage remains bet. the diaphysis & epiphyses as the epiphyseal plate. Bone Disorders Osteoporosis Rickets Osteomalacia Osteomyelitis Fracture Dislocation Subluxation Bone Disorders Osteoporosis – in this condition the amount of bone tissue is reduced because its deposition does not keep pace with resorption, which may be due to diminished deposition or increased resorption. The imbalance may be continuously progressive or the balance may be temporarily or permanently restored. Spongy bone is usually affected before compact bone and the disease may be localized or general. It may also develop in post menopausal women and elderly men because of hormonal imbalance. Bone Disorders Rickets – calcification of bone is incomplete because of Vitamin D deficiency. Causes of deficiency include poor diet, malabsorption syndromes, lack of exposure to sunlight. Although growth of the epiphyseal cartilage continues, growth generally is stunted. The bones remain soft and those of the lower limbs become bowed by the weight of the body. Bone Disorders Osteomalacia – in osteomalacia, the normal process of resorption and replacement of bone tissue are defective. As in rickets the bones become soft, bowed and prone to fractures. Bone Disorders Osteomyelitis – Severe infection of bones commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Bone Disorders Fracture – Complete or incomplete break in the continuity of bone Bone Disorders Dislocation – Total loss of contact between the joints Shoulder dislocation – anterior more common than posterior Hip dislocation – posterior more common than anterior Subluxation – Partial dislocation Remodeling of Bone Like skin, bone forms before birth but continually renews itself thereafter. ØBone remodeling is the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. ØIt involves bone resorption, the removal of minerals and collagen fibers from bone by osteoclasts, and bone deposition, the addition of minerals and collagen fibers to bone by osteoblasts. Remodeling of Bone Thus, bone resorption results in the destruction of bone extracellular matrix, while bone deposition results in the formation of bone extracellular matrix. ØAt any given time, about 5% of the total bone mass in the body is being remodeled. ØThe renewal rate for compact bone tissue is about 4% per year, and for spongy bone tissue it is about 20% per year. ØRemodeling also takes place at different rates in different regions of the body. Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Bone Remodeling 1. Normal bone metabolism—growth in the young and bone remodeling in the adult—depends on several factors. ØThese include adequate dietary intake of minerals and vitamins, as well as sufficient levels of several hormones. Minerals. ØLarge amounts of calcium and phosphorus are needed while bones are growing, as are smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride, and manganese. ØThese minerals are also necessary during bone remodeling. 2. Vitamins. ØVitamin A stimulates activity of osteoblasts. Vitamin C is needed for synthesis of collagen, the main bone protein.  ØAs you will soon learn, vitamin D helps build bone by increasing the absorption of calcium from foods in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood. Vitamins K and B12 are also needed for synthesis of bone proteins. 3. Hormones – During childhood, the hormones most important to bone growth are the insulin like growth factors (IGFs), which are produced by the liver and bone tissue. ØIGFs stimulate osteoblasts, promote cell division at the epiphyseal plate and in the periosteum, and enhance synthesis of the proteins needed to build new bone. ØIGFs are produced in response to the secretion of human growth hormone (hGH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) from the thyroid gland also promote bone growth by stimulating osteoblasts. In addition, the hormone insulin from the pancreas promotes bone growth by increasing the synthesis of bone proteins. Fracture and Repair of Bone A fracture is any break in a bone. ØFractures are named according to their severity, the shape or position of the fracture line, or even the physician who first described them. ØIn some cases, a bone may fracture without visibly breaking. A stress fracture is a series of microscopic fissures in bone that forms without any evidence of injury to other tissues. ØIn healthy adults, stress fractures result from repeated, strenuous activities such as running, jumping, or aerobic dancing. Fracture and Repair of Bone Reactive phase. This phase is an early inflammatory phase. Blood vessels crossing the fracture line are broken. ØAs blood leaks from the torn ends of the vessels, a mass of blood (usually clotted) forms around the site of the fracture. This mass of blood, called a fracture hematoma, usually forms 6 to 8 hours after the injury. Fracture and Repair of Bone ØBecause the circulation of blood stops at the site where the fracture hematoma forms, nearby bone cells die. ØSwelling and inflammation occur in response to dead bone cells, producing additional cellular debris. ØPhagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages) and osteoclasts begin to remove the dead or damaged tissue in and around the fracture hematoma. This stage may last up to several weeks. Fracture and Repair of Bone Reparative phase: Fibrocartilaginous callus formation. The reparative phase is characterized by two events: the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus and a bony callus to bridge the gap between the broken ends of the bones. ØBlood vessels grow into the fracture hematoma and phagocytes begin to clean up dead bone cells. Formation of the fibrocartilaginous callus takes about 3 weeks. Fracture and Repair of Bone Reparative phase: Bony callus formation. ØIn areas closer to well-vascularized healthy bone tissue, osteoprogenitor cells develop into osteoblasts, which begin to produce spongy bone trabeculae. ØThe trabeculae join living and dead portions of the original bone fragments. In time, the fibrocartilage is converted to spongy bone, and the callus is then referred to as a bony (hard) callus. The bony callus lasts about 3 to 4 months. Fracture and Repair of Bone Bone remodeling phase. The final phase of fracture repair is bone remodeling of the callus. Dead portions of the original fragments of broken bone are gradually resorbed by osteoclasts. ØCompact bone replaces spongy bone around the periphery of the fracture. Sometimes, the repair process is so thorough that the fracture line is undetectable, even in a radiograph (x-ray). However, a thickened area on the surface of the bone remains as evidence of a healed fracture. Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis Bone is the body’s major calcium reservoir, storing 99% of total body calcium. One way to maintain the level of calcium in the blood is to control the rates of calcium resorption from bone into blood and of calcium deposition from blood into bone. Both nerve and muscle cells depend on a stable level of calcium ions (Ca2#) in extracellular fluid to function properly. Blood clotting also requires Ca2#. Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis Also, many enzymes require Ca2# as a cofactor (an additional substance needed for an enzymatic reaction to occur). For this reason, the blood plasma level of Ca2# is very closely regulated between 9 and 11 mg/100 mL. Even small changes in Ca2# concentration outside this range may prove fatal—the heart may stop (cardiac arrest) if the concentration goes too high, or breathing may cease (respiratory arrest) if the level falls too low. The role of bone in calcium homeostasis is to help “buffer” the blood Ca2# level, releasing Ca2# into blood plasma (using osteoclasts) when the level decreases, and absorbing Ca2# (using osteoblasts) when the level rises.  END Thank you for listening Get in Touch With Us Send us a message or visit us City of Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines (63) 77-600-0459 [email protected] Follow us for updates facebook.com/MMSUofficial www.mmsu.edu.ph