Chemistry_ The Central Science (2-downloads).pdf

 TWELFTH EDITION CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E  TWELFTH EDITION CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E Theodore L. Brown...

 TWELFTH EDITION CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E  TWELFTH EDITION CHEMISTRY T H E C E N T R A L S C I E N C E Theodore L. Brown University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign H. Eugene LEMay, Jr. University of Nevada, Reno Bruce E. Bursten University of Tennessee, Knoxville Catherine J. Murphy University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Patrick M. Woodward The Ohio State University Editor in Chief, Chemistry: Adam Jaworski Acquisitions Editor: Terry Haugen Marketing Manager: Erin Gardner Project Editor: Jennifer Hart Editorial Assistant: Catherine Martinez Marketing Assistant: Nicola Houston VP/Executive Director, Development: Carol Trueheart Development Editor, Text: Irene Nunes Development Editor, Art: Greg Gambino Managing Editor, Chemistry and Geosciences: Gina M. Cheselka Project Manager: Shari Toron Full-Service Project Management/Composition: Rebecca Dunn/Preparé, Inc. Senior Manufacturing and Operations Manager: Nick Sklitsis Operations Specialist: Maura Zaldivar Art Director: Mark Ong Senior Technical Art Specialist: Connie Long Art Studio: Precision Graphics Photo Research Manager: Elaine Soares Photo Researcher: Eric Schrader Senior Media Producer: Angela Bernhardt Associate Media Producer: Kristin Mayo Media Supervisor: Liz Winer Production Coordinator, Media: Shannon Kong Electrostatic Potential Maps: Richard Johnson, Chemistry Department, University of New Hampshire Cover Credit: Graphene by Dr. Jannik C. Meyer of the University of Ulm, Germany Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000, 1997, 1994, 1991, 1988, 1985, 1981, 1977 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chemistry: the central science / Theodore L. Brown... [et al.]—12th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-321-69672-4 (alk. paper) 1. Chemistry—Textbooks. I. Brown, Theodore L. (Theodore Lawrence), 1928- QD31.3.C43145 2012 540—dc22 2010043754 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-10: 0-321-69672-7/ISBN-13: 978-0-321-69672-4 (Student Edition) ISBN-10: 0-321-76754-3/ISBN-13: 978-0-321-76754-7 (Exam Copy)  To our students, whose enthusiasm and curiosity have often inspired us, and whose questions and suggestions have sometimes taught us. BRIEF CONTENTS Preface xxv About the Authors xxxv 1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement 2 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 38 3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 76 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 114 5 Thermochemistry 158 6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 206 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 248 8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 288 9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 330 10 Gases 382 11 Liquids and Intermolecular Forces 424 12 Solids and Modern Materials 462 13 Properties of Solutions 512 14 Chemical Kinetics 556 15 Chemical Equilibrium 610 16 Acid–Base Equilibria 650 17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 702 18 Chemistry of the Environment 748 19 Chemical Thermodynamics 784 20 Electrochemistry 826 21 Nuclear Chemistry 874 22 Chemistry of The Nonmetals 916 23 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 962 24 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry 1004 APPENDICES A Mathematical Operations 1051 B Properties of Water 1058 C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C) 1059 D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1062 E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C 1064 Answers to Selected Exercises A-1 Answers to Give it Some Thought A-33 Answers to Go Figure A-41 Glossary G-1 Photo/Art Credits P-1 vi Index I-1 CONTENTS PREFACE xxv About the Authors xxxv 1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement 2 1.1 THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY 4 The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry 4 Why Study Chemistry? 5 1.2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER 7 States of Matter 7 Pure Substances 7 Elements 7 Compounds 8 Mixtures 10 1.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER 11 Physical and Chemical Changes 12 Separation of Mixtures 13 1.4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 14 SI Units 15 Length and Mass 16 Temperature 17 Derived SI Units 18 Volume 18 Density 19 1.5 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT 20 Precision and Accuracy 21 Significant Figures 22 Significant Figures in Calculations 23 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 25 Using Two or More Conversion Factors 27 Conversions Involving Volume 28 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 30 KEY SKILLS 31 KEY EQUATIONS 31 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 31 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 35 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 6 A CLOSER LOOK The Scientific Method 15 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Chemistry in the News 20 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Estimating Answers 26 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY The Importance of Practice 29 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY The Features of this Book 30 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 38 2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER 40 2.2 THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 41 Cathode Rays and Electrons 41 Radioactivity 43 The Nuclear Model of the Atom 43 vii viii CONTENTS 2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE 44 Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes 46 2.4 ATOMIC WEIGHTS 47 The Atomic Mass Scale 47 Atomic Weight 48 2.5 THE PERIODIC TABLE 49 2.6 MOLECULES AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS 52 Molecules and Chemical Formulas 52 Molecular and Empirical Formulas 53 Picturing Molecules 54 2.7 IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS 54 Predicting Ionic Charges 55 Ionic Compounds 56 2.8 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 59 Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 59 Names and Formulas of Acids 64 Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 65 2.9 SOME SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 66 Alkanes 66 Some Derivatives of Alkanes 66 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 67 KEY SKILLS 68 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 69 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 73 A CLOSER LOOK Basic Forces 46 A CLOSER LOOK The Mass Spectrometer 49 A CLOSER LOOK Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium 52 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Elements Required by Living Organisms 58 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Pattern Recognition 58 3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations 76 3.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 78 Balancing Equations 78 Indicating the States of Reactants and Products 81 3.2 SOME SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY 81 Combination and Decomposition Reactions 82 Combustion Reactions 83 3.3 FORMULA WEIGHTS 84 Formula and Molecular Weights 85 Percentage Composition from Chemical Formulas 85 3.4 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE 86 Molar Mass 88 Interconverting Masses and Moles 90 Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles 91 3.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES 92 Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas 94 Combustion Analysis 95 3.6 QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS 96  CONTENTS ix 3.7 LIMITING REACTANTS 99 Theoretical Yields 102 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 104 KEY SKILLS 104 KEY EQUATIONS 104 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 105 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 111 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 113 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Problem Solving 86 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Glucose Monitoring 90 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY How to Take a Test 103 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 114 4.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 116 Electrolytic Properties 116 Ionic Compounds in Water 117 Molecular Compounds in Water 118 Strong and Weak Electrolytes 118 4.2 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS 119 Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds 120 Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions 121 Ionic Equations 122 4.3 ACIDS, BASES, AND NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS 124 Acids 124 Bases 125 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 125 Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes 126 Neutralization Reactions and Salts 127 Neutralization Reactions with Gas Formation 129 4.4 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS 131 Oxidation and Reduction 131 Oxidation Numbers 132 Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts 133 The Activity Series 135 4.5 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS 139 Molarity 139 Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte 140 Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume 140 Dilution 141 4.6 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 144 Titrations 145 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 149 KEY SKILLS 149 KEY EQUATIONS 149 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 150 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 154 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 156 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Antacids 130 A CLOSER LOOK The Aura of Gold 138 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Analyzing Chemical Reactions 138 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Drinking too much Water Can Kill You 143 5 Thermochemistry 158 5.1 THE NATURE OF ENERGY 160 Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 160 Units of Energy 162 System and Surroundings 162 Transferring Energy: Work and Heat 163 5.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 164 Internal Energy 164 Relating ¢E to Heat and Work 165 Endothermic and Exothermic Processes 167 State Functions 167 x CONTENTS 5.3 ENTHALPY 169 5.4 ENTHALPIES OF REACTION 172 5.5 CALORIMETRY 175 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 175 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 177 Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry) 178 5.6 HESS’S LAW 181 5.7 ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION 183 Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 185 5.8 FOODS AND FUELS 188 Foods 188 Fuels 190 Other Energy Sources 191 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 194 KEY SKILLS 195 KEY EQUATIONS 195 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 196 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 202 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 204 A CLOSER LOOK Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work 172 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Using Enthalpy as a Guide 175 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Regulation of Body Temperature 180 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK The Scientific and Political Challenges of Biofuels 192 6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 206 6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 208 6.2 QUANTIZED ENERGY AND PHOTONS 210 Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy 210 The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 211 6.3 LINE SPECTRA AND THE BOHR MODEL 213 Line Spectra 213 Bohr’s Model 214 The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom 214 Limitations of the Bohr Model 216 6.4 THE WAVE BEHAVIOR OF MATTER 216 The Uncertainty Principle 217 6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS 219 Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 220 6.6 REPRESENTATIONS OF ORBITALS 222 The s Orbitals 222 The p Orbitals 224 The d and f Orbitals 225 6.7 MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS 226 Orbitals and Their Energies 226 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 227 6.8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 229 Hund’s Rule 229 Condensed Electron Configurations 231 Transition Metals 232 The Lanthanides and Actinides 232  CONTENTS xi 6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 233 Anomalous Electron Configurations 237 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 238 KEY SKILLS 239 KEY EQUATIONS 239 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 240 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 244 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 246 A CLOSER LOOK The Speed of Light 209 A CLOSER LOOK Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 218 A CLOSER LOOK Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions 224 A CLOSER LOOK Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 227 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 228 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 248 7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE 250 7.2 EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE 251 7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS 254 Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii 255 Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii 256 7.4 IONIZATION ENERGY 259 Variations in Successive Ionization Energies 259 Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies 260 Electron Configurations of Ions 262 7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES 263 7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS 264 Metals 265 Nonmetals 267 Metalloids 268 7.7 TRENDS FOR GROUP 1A AND GROUP 2A METALS 268 Group 1A: The Alkali Metals 269 Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals 272 7.8 TRENDS FOR SELECTED NONMETALS 273 Hydrogen 273 Group 6A: The Oxygen Group 273 Group 7A: The Halogens 274 Group 8A: The Noble Gases 276 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 277 KEY SKILLS 278 KEY EQUATIONS 279 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 279 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 283 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 285 A CLOSER LOOK Effective Nuclear Charge 253 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Ion Movement Powers Electronics 258 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 271 8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 288 8.1 LEWIS SYMBOLS AND THE OCTET RULE 290 The Octet Rule 290 8.2 IONIC BONDING 291 Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 292 Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements 294 Transition-Metal Ions 296 xii CONTENTS 8.3 COVALENT BONDING 296 Lewis Structures 297 Multiple Bonds 298 8.4 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY 298 Electronegativity 299 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 300 Dipole Moments 301 Differentiating Ionic and Covalent Bonding 304 8.5 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES 305 Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures 307 8.6 RESONANCE STRUCTURES 309 Resonance in Benzene 311 8.7 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE 312 Odd Number of Electrons 312 Less than an Octet of Valence Electrons 312 More than an Octet of Valence Electrons 313 8.8 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS 315 Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 316 Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length 318 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 321 KEY SKILLS 322 KEY EQUATIONS 322 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 322 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 327 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 328 A CLOSER LOOK Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born–Haber Cycle 295 A CLOSER LOOK Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges 309 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Explosives and Alfred Nobel 319 9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 330 9.1 MOLECULAR SHAPES 332 9.2 THE VSEPR MODEL 334 Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles 338 Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells 339 Shapes of Larger Molecules 342 9.3 MOLECULAR SHAPE AND MOLECULAR POLARITY 343 9.4 COVALENT BONDING AND ORBITAL OVERLAP 345 9.5 HYBRID ORBITALS 346 sp Hybrid Orbitals 346 sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals 348 Hybrid Orbital Summary 350 9.6 MULTIPLE BONDS 351 Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and p Bonding 355 General Conclusions 356 9.7 MOLECULAR ORBITALS 358 The Hydrogen Molecule 358 Bond Order 360  CONTENTS xiii 9.8 PERIOD 2 DIATOMIC MOLECULES 361 Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 361 Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals 362 Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2 365 Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 366 Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 369 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 372 KEY SKILLS 373 KEY EQUATION 373 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 373 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 378 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 380 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Chemistry of Vision 357 A CLOSER LOOK Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals 363 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Orbitals and Energy 370 10 Gases 382 10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES 384 10.2 PRESSURE 385 Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 385 10.3 THE GAS LAWS 387 The Pressure–Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law 388 The Temperature–Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law 389 The Quantity–Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law 390 10.4 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 391 Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 394 10.5 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION 395 Gas Densities and Molar Mass 396 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 397 10.6 GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES 399 Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 400 Collecting Gases over Water 401 10.7 THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES 402 Distributions of Molecular Speed 403 Application of Kinetic-Molecular Theory to the Gas Laws 404 10.8 MOLECULAR EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION 405 Graham’s Law of Effusion 407 Diffusion and Mean Free Path 408 10.9 REAL GASES: DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR 409 The van der Waals Equation 411 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 413 KEY SKILLS 414 KEY EQUATIONS 414 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 415 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 421 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 422 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Blood Pressure 388 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Calculations Involving Many Variables 393 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Gas Pipelines 398 A CLOSER LOOK The Ideal-Gas Equation 405 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Gas Separations 408 xiv CONTENTS 11 Liquids and Intermolecular Forces 424 11.1 A MOLECULAR COMPARISON OF GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS 426 11.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 428 Dispersion Forces 429 Dipole–Dipole Forces 430 Hydrogen Bonding 431 Ion–Dipole Forces 434 Comparing Intermolecular Forces 434 11.3 SELECT PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 437 Viscosity 437 Surface Tension 437 11.4 PHASE CHANGES 438 Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes 439 Heating Curves 440 Critical Temperature and Pressure 441 11.5 VAPOR PRESSURE 442 Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature 443 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 444 11.6 PHASE DIAGRAMS 445 The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2 446 11.7 LIQUID CRYSTALS 448 Types of Liquid Crystals 449 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 452 KEY SKILLS 453 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 453 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 459 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 460 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Ionic Liquids 436 A CLOSER LOOK The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 444 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Liquid Crystal Displays 451 12 Solids and Modern Materials 462 12.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOLIDS 464 12.2 STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS 465 Crystalline and Amorphous Solids 465 Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices 465 Filling the Unit Cell 467 12.3 METALLIC SOLIDS 468 The Structures of Metallic Solids 469 Close Packing 470 Alloys 473 12.4 METALLIC BONDING 476 Electron-Sea Model 478 Molecular-Orbital Model 478 12.5 IONIC SOLIDS 481 Structures of Ionic Solids 482 12.6 MOLECULAR SOLIDS 486  CONTENTS xv 12.7 COVALENT-NETWORK SOLIDS 486 Semiconductors 487 Semiconductor Doping 489 12.8 POLYMERIC SOLIDS 490 Making Polymers 492 Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers 494 12.9 NANOMATERIALS 496 Semiconductors on the Nanoscale 497 Metals on the Nanoscale 498 Fullerenes, Carbon Nanotubes, and Graphene 498 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 502 KEY SKILLS 503 KEY EQUATION 503 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 504 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 510 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 511 A CLOSER LOOK X-ray Diffraction 468 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Alloys of Gold 476 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Solid-State Lighting 491 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Recycling Plastics 494 13 Properties of Solutions 512 13.1 THE SOLUTION PROCESS 514 The Natural Tendency toward Mixing 514 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solution Formation 514 Energetics of Solution Formation 515 Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions 517 13.2 SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY 518 13.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY 520 Solute–Solvent Interactions 520 Pressure Effects 523 Temperature Effects 525 13.4 EXPRESSING SOLUTION CONCENTRATION 526 Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb 526 Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality 527 Converting Concentration Units 528 13.5 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES 530 Vapor-Pressure Lowering 530 Boiling-Point Elevation 533 Freezing-Point Depression 534 Osmosis 536 Determination of Molar Mass 539 13.6 COLLOIDS 541 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 542 Removal of Colloidal Particles 544 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 546 KEY SKILLS 547 KEY EQUATIONS 547 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 548 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 553 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 554 A CLOSER LOOK Hydrates 518 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins 522 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 525 A CLOSER LOOK Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components 532 A CLOSER LOOK Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 540 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Sickle-Cell Anemia 545 xvi CONTENTS 14 Chemical Kinetics 556 14.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES 558 14.2 REACTION RATES 559 Change of Rate with Time 561 Instantaneous Rate 561 Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 562 14.3 CONCENTRATION AND RATE LAWS 563 Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law 565 Magnitudes and Units of Rate Constants 567 Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws 568 14.4 THE CHANGE OF CONCENTRATION WITH TIME 569 First-Order Reactions 569 Second-Order Reactions 571 Zero-Order Reactions 573 Half-life 573 14.5 TEMPERATURE AND RATE 575 The Collision Model 576 The Orientation Factor 576 Activation Energy 577 The Arrhenius Equation 578 Determining the Activation Energy 579 14.6 REACTION MECHANISMS 581 Elementary Reactions 581 Multistep Mechanisms 582 Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions 583 The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism 584 Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step 585 Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step 586 14.7 CATALYSIS 589 Homogeneous Catalysis 589 Heterogeneous Catalysis 590 Enzymes 591 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 596 KEY SKILLS 597 KEY EQUATIONS 597 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 597 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 606 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 608 A CLOSER LOOK Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates 564 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere 574 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Catalytic Converters 592 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 594 15 Chemical Equilibrium 610 15.1 THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM 612 15.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 614 Evaluating Kc 616 Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp 617 Equilibrium Constants and Units 618 15.3 UNDERSTANDING AND WORKING WITH EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 619 The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 619 The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K 620 Relating Chemical Equation Stoichiometry and Equilibrium Constants 621 15.4 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA 623  CONTENTS xvii 15.5 CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 625 15.6 APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 627 Predicting the Direction of Reaction 627 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 628 15.7 LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE 630 Change in Reactant or Product Concentration 632 Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes 633 Effect of Temperature Changes 634 The Effect of Catalysts 637 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 640 KEY SKILLS 641 KEY EQUATIONS 641 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 642 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 647 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 648 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK The Haber Process 615 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 640 16 Acid–Base Equilibria 650 16.1 ACIDS AND BASES: A BRIEF REVIEW 652 16.2 BRØNSTED–LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES 652 The H+ Ion in Water 652 Proton-Transfer Reactions 653 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 654 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 656 16.3 THE AUTOIONIZATION OF WATER 658 The Ion Product of Water 659 16.4 THE pH SCALE 660 pOH and Other “p” Scales 662 Measuring pH 663 16.5 STRONG ACIDS AND BASES 664 Strong Acids 664 Strong Bases 665 16.6 WEAK ACIDS 666 Calculating Ka from pH 668 Percent Ionization 669 Using Ka to Calculate pH 670 Polyprotic Acids 674 16.7 WEAK BASES 676 Types of Weak Bases 677 16.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Ka AND Kb 679 16.9 ACID–BASE PROPERTIES OF SALT SOLUTIONS 681 An Anion’s Ability to React with Water 681 A Cation’s Ability to React with Water 682 Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution 683 16.10 ACID–BASE BEHAVIOR AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE 685 Factors That Affect Acid Strength 685 Binary Acids 685 Oxyacids 686 Carboxylic Acids 688 16.11 LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES 689 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 692 KEY SKILLS 693 KEY EQUATIONS 693 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 694 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 699 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 701 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 680 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids 689 xviii CONTENTS 17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 702 17.1 THE COMMON-ION EFFECT 704 17.2 BUFFERED SOLUTIONS 707 Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions 707 Calculating the pH of a Buffer 708 Buffer Capacity and pH Range 710 Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers 711 17.3 ACID–BASE TITRATIONS 714 Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations 714 Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations 716 Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 720 Titrating with an Acid–Base Indicator 721 17.4 SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA 722 The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp 722 Solubility and Ksp 723 17.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOLUBILITY 726 Common-Ion Effect 726 Solubility and pH 728 Formation of Complex Ions 731 Amphoterism 733 17.6 PRECIPITATION AND SEPARATION OF IONS 734 Selective Precipitation of Ions 735 17.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR METALLIC ELEMENTS 736 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 739 KEY SKILLS 740 KEY EQUATIONS 740 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 740 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 746 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 747 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Blood as a Buffered Solution 713 A CLOSER LOOK Limitations of Solubility Products 726 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Ocean Acidification 728 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 730 18 Chemistry of the Environment 748 18.1 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 750 Composition of the Atmosphere 750 Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 752 Ozone in the Stratosphere 754 18.2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 756 The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion 756 Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain 758 Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog 760 Greenhouse Gases: Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate 761 18.3 EARTH’S WATER 764 The Global Water Cycle 764 Salt Water: Earth’s Oceans and Seas 765 Freshwater and Groundwater 766 18.4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EARTH’S WATER 767 Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 768 Water Purification: Desalination 768 Water Purification: Municipal Treatment 769  CONTENTS xix 18.5 GREEN CHEMISTRY 771 Supercritical Solvents 773 Greener Reagents and Processes 773 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 776 KEY SKILLS 776 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 777 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 781 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 782 A CLOSER LOOK Other Greenhouse Gases 764 A CLOSER LOOK Water Softening 770 19 Chemical Thermodynamics 784 19.1 SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES 786 Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity 788 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 788 19.2 ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 790 Entropy Change 790 ¢S for Phase Changes 791 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 792 19.3 MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF ENTROPY 793 Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level 793 Boltzmann’s Equation and Microstates 794 Molecular Motions and Energy 796 Making Qualitative Predictions About ¢S 797 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 799 19.4 ENTROPY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 800 Entropy Changes in the Surroundings 802 19.5 GIBBS FREE ENERGY 803 Standard Free Energy of Formation 806 19.6 FREE ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE 809 19.7 FREE ENERGY AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 811 Free Energy Under Nonstandard Conditions 811 Relationship Between ¢G° and K 813 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 816 KEY SKILLS 816 KEY EQUATIONS 817 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 817 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 823 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 825 A CLOSER LOOK The Entropy Change when a Gas Expands Isothermally 792 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Entropy and Human Society 800 A CLOSER LOOK What’s “Free” about Free Energy? 808 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions 814 20 Electrochemistry 826 20.1 OXIDATION STATES AND OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS 828 20.2 BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS 830 Half-Reactions 830 Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions 830 Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 833 xx CONTENTS 20.3 VOLTAIC CELLS 835 20.4 CELL POTENTIALS UNDER STANDARD CONDITIONS 838 Standard Reduction Potentials 839 Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 843 20.5 FREE ENERGY AND REDOX REACTIONS 845 Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant 847 20.6 CELL POTENTIALS UNDER NONSTANDARD CONDITIONS 849 The Nernst Equation 849 Concentration Cells 852 20.7 BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS 854 Lead-Acid Battery 855 Alkaline Battery 855 Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-Ion Batteries 856 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 856 20.8 CORROSION 857 Corrosion of Iron (Rusting) 858 Preventing Corrosion of Iron 859 20.9 ELECTROLYSIS 860 Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 861 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 864 KEY SKILLS 865 KEY EQUATIONS 865 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 865 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 872 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 873 A CLOSER LOOK Electrical Work 849 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 853 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 857 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 862 21 Nuclear Chemistry 874 21.1 RADIOACTIVITY 876 Nuclear Equations 877 Types of Radioactive Decay 878 21.2 PATTERNS OF NUCLEAR STABILITY 880 Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 880 Radioactive Series 882 Further Observations 882 21.3 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS 884 Accelerating Charged Particles 884 Reactions Involving Neutrons 885 Transuranium Elements 885 21.4 RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 886 Radiometric Dating 887 Calculations Based on Half-Life 888 21.5 DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY 891 Radiotracers 892 21.6 ENERGY CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS 894 Nuclear Binding Energies 895 21.7 NUCLEAR POWER: FISSION 896 Nuclear Reactors 898 Nuclear Waste 900 21.8 NUCLEAR POWER: FUSION 902  CONTENTS xxi 21.9 RADIATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND LIVING SYSTEMS 902 Radiation Doses 904 Radon 906 SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 908 KEY SKILLS 909 KEY EQUATIONS 909 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 909 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 913 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 915 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Medical Applications of Radiotracers 893 A CLOSER LOOK The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 898 A CLOSER LOOK Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements 903 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Radiation Therapy 907 22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals 916 22.1 PERIODIC TRENDS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 918 Chemical Reactions 919 22.2 HYDROGEN 920 Isotopes of Hydrogen 920 Properties of Hydrogen 921 Production of Hydrogen 922 Uses of Hydrogen 923 Binary Hydrogen Compounds 923 22.3 GROUP 8A: THE NOBLE GASES 924 Noble-Gas Compounds 925 22.4 GROUP 7A: THE HALOGENS 926 Properties and Production of the Halogens 926 Uses of the Halogens 927 The Hydrogen Halides 928 Interhalogen Compounds 929 Oxyacids and Oxyanions 929 22.5 OXYGEN 930 Properties of Oxygen 930 Production of Oxygen 930 Uses of Oxygen 931 Ozone 931 Oxides 932 Peroxides and Superoxides 933 22.6 THE OTHER GROUP 6A ELEMENTS: S, Se, Te, AND Po 934 General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements 934 Occurrence and Production of S, Se, and Te 934 Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium 934 Sulfides 935 Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur 935 22.7 NITROGEN 937 Properties of Nitrogen 937 Production and Uses of Nitrogen 937 Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen 937 Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen 939 22.8 THE OTHER GROUP 5A ELEMENTS: P, As, Sb, AND Bi 941 General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements 941 Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus 942 Phosphorus Halides 942 Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 942 22.9 CARBON 945 Elemental Forms of Carbon 945 Oxides of Carbon 946 Carbonic Acid and Carbonates 948 Carbides 948 Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon 949 22.10 THE OTHER GROUP 4A ELEMENTS: Si, Ge, Sn, AND Pb 949 General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements 949 xxii CONTENTS Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon 950 Silicates 950 Glass 952 Silicones 952 22.11 BORON 953 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 954 KEY SKILLS 955 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 956 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 960 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 960 A CLOSER LOOK The Hydrogen Economy 922 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE How Much Perchlorate is Too Much? 930 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease 941 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Arsenic in Drinking Water 945 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Carbon Fibers and Composites 947 23 Transition metals and Coordination chemistry 962 23.1 THE TRANSITION METALS 964 Physical Properties 964 Electron Configurations and Oxidation States 965 Magnetism 967 23.2 TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXES 968 The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner’s Theory 969 The Metal–Ligand Bond 971 Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries 972 23.3 COMMON LIGANDS IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 974 Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 976 23.4 NOMENCLATURE AND ISOMERISM IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 979 Isomerism 981 Structural Isomerism 981 Stereoisomerism 982 23.5 COLOR AND MAGNETISM IN COORDINATION CHEMISTRY 985 Color 985 Magnetism of Coordination Compounds 987 23.6 CRYSTAL-FIELD THEORY 987 Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 990 Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 991 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 995 KEY SKILLS 996 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 996 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 1000 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 1002 A CLOSER LOOK Entropy and the Chelate Effect 977 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 978 A CLOSER LOOK Charge-Transfer Color 993 24 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry 1004 24.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES 1006  CONTENTS xxiii The Structures of Organic Molecules 1006 The Stabilities of Organic Substances 1007 Solubility and Acid–Base Properties of Organic Substances 1007 24.2 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS 1008 Structures of Alkanes 1009 Structural Isomers 1009 Nomenclature of Alkanes 1010 Cycloalkanes 1013 Reactions of Alkanes 1013 24.3 ALKENES, ALKYNES, AND AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS 1014 Alkenes 1015 Alkynes 1017 Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes 1017 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1019 Stabilization of p Electrons by Delocalization 1020 Substitution Reactions 1020 24.4 ORGANIC FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 1021 Alcohols 1023 Ethers 1024 Aldehydes and Ketones 1024 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 1025 Amines and Amides 1028 24.5 CHIRALITY IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1028 24.6 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY 1029 24.7 PROTEINS 1029 Amino Acids 1030 Polypeptides and Proteins 1030 Protein Structure 1032 24.8 CARBOHYDRATES 1034 Disaccharides 1035 Polysaccharides 1036 24.9 LIPIDS 1037 Fats 1037 Phospholipids 1038 24.10 NUCLEIC ACIDS 1038 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND KEY TERMS 1043 KEY SKILLS 1044 VISUALIZING CONCEPTS 1044 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 1049 INTEGRATIVE EXERCISES 1050 CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Gasoline 1014 A CLOSER LOOK Mechanism of Addition Reactions 1019 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY What Now? 1042 Appendices A Mathematical Operations 1051 B Properties of Water 1058 C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C) 1059 D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1062 E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C 1064 Answers to Selected Exercises A-1 Answers to Give it Some Thought A-33 Answers to Go Figure A-41 Glossary G-1 Photo/Art Credits P-1 Index I-1 CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS AND ESSAYS CHEMISTRY PUT TO WORK Water Softening 770 The Entropy Change when a Gas Expands Isothermally 792 Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 6 What’s “Free” about Free Energy? 808 Chemistry in the News 20 Electrical Work 849 Antacids 130 The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 898 The Scientific and Political Challenges of Biofuels 192 Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements 903 Ion Movement Powers Electronics 258 The Hydrogen Economy 922 Explosives and Alfred Nobel 319 Entropy and the Chelate Effect 977 Orbitals and Energy 370 Charge-Transfer Color 993 Gas Pipelines 398 Mechanism of Addition Reactions 1019 Gas Separations 408 Ionic Liquids 436 Liquid Crystal Displays 451 Alloys of Gold 476 CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Solid-State Lighting 491 Elements Required by Living Organisms 58 Recycling Plastics 494 Glucose Monitoring 90 Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere 574 Drinking too much Water Can Kill You 143 Catalytic Converters 592 The Regulation of Body Temperature 180 The Haber Process 615 Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 228 Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 640 The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 271 Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 680 The Chemistry of Vision 357 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 857 Blood Pressure 388 Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 862 Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Vitamins 522 Carbon Fibers and Composites 947 Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 525 Gasoline 1014 Sickle-Cell Anemia 545 Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 594 The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids 689 A CLOSER LOOK Blood as a Buffered Solution 713 Ocean Acidification 728 The Scientific Method 15 Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 730 Basic Forces 46 Entropy and Human Society 800 The Mass Spectrometer 49 Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions 814 Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium 52 Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 853 The Aura of Gold 138 Medical Applications of Radiotracers 893 Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work 172 Radiation Therapy 907 The Speed of Light 209 How Much Perchlorate is Too Much? 930 Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle 218 Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease 941 Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions 224 Arsenic in Drinking Water 945 Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin 227 The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 978 Effective Nuclear Charge 253 Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born–Haber Cycle 295 Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges 309 STRATEGIES IN CHEMISTRY Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals 363 The Ideal-Gas Equation 405 Estimating Answers 26 The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 444 The Importance of Practice 29 X-ray Diffraction 468 The Features of this Book 30 Hydrates 518 Pattern Recognition 58 Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Problem Solving 86 Components 532 How to Take a Test 103 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 540 Analyzing Chemical Reactions 138 Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates 564 Using Enthalpy as a Guide 175 Limitations of Solubility Products 726 Calculations Involving Many Variables 393 Other Greenhouse Gases 764 What Now? 1042 xxiv PREFACE TO THE INSTRUCTOR Philosophy The cover of this new edition of Chemistry: The Central Science features a striking illus- tration of the structure of graphene, a recently discovered form of carbon. As we began preparing the previous edition in 2006, single-layer graphene was virtually unknown. The extraordinary properties of graphene, and its promise for future applications, has already resulted in a Nobel Prize. An understanding of the structure and many of the properties of graphene is well within the reach of an undergraduate student of general chemistry. Through such examples, it is possible to demonstrate in a general chemistry course that chemistry is a dynamic science in continuous development. New research leads to new applications of chemistry in other fields of science and in technology. In addition, environmental and economic concerns bring about changes in the place of chemistry in society. Our textbook reflects this dynamic, changing character. We hope that it also conveys the excitement that scientists experience in making new discoveries that contribute to our understanding of the physical world. New ideas about how to teach chemistry are constantly being developed, and many of them are reflected in how our textbook is organized and in the ways in which topics are presented. This edition incorporates a number of new methodologies to assist stu- dents, including use of the Internet, computer-based classroom tools, Web-based tools, particularly MasteringChemistry®, and more effective means of testing. As authors, we want this text to be a central, indispensable learning tool for stu- dents. It can be carried everywhere and used at any time. It is the one place students can go to obtain the information needed for learning, skill development, reference, and test preparation. At the same time, the text provides the background in modern chemistry that students need to serve their professional interests and, as appropriate, to prepare for more advanced chemistry courses. If the text is to be effective in supporting your role as teacher, it must be addressed to the students. We have done our best to keep our writing clear and interesting and the book attractive and well illustrated. The book has numerous in-text study aids for students, including carefully placed descriptions of problem-solving strategies. Together we have logged many years of teaching experience. We hope this is evident in our pacing, choice of examples, and the kinds of study aids and motivational tools we have employed. Because we believe that students are more enthusiastic about learning chemistry when they see its importance to their own goals and interests, we have highlighted many important applica- tions of chemistry in everyday life. We hope you make use of this material. A textbook is only as useful to students as the instructor permits it to be. This book is replete with features that can help students learn and that can guide them as they acquire both conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills. But the text and all the supplementary materials provided to support its use must work in concert with you, the instructor. There is a great deal for the students to use here, too much for all of it to be absorbed by any one student. You will be the guide to the best use of the book. Only with your active help will the students be able to utilize most effectively all that the text and its supplements offer. Students care about grades, of course, and with en- couragement they will also become interested in the subject matter and care about learning. Please consider emphasizing features of the book that can enhance student appreciation of chemistry, such as the Chemistry Put to Work and Chemistry and Life boxes that show how chemistry impacts modern life and its relationship to health and life processes. Learn to use, and urge students to use, the rich Internet resources avail- able. Emphasize conceptual understanding and place less emphasis on simple manipu- lative, algorithmic problem solving. xxv xxvi PREFACE What’s New in This Edition? A great many changes have been made in producing this twelfth edition. The entire art program for the text has been reworked, and new features connected with the art have been introduced. Nearly every figure in the book has undergone some modification, and hundreds of figures have been entirely redone. A systematic effort has been made to move information that was contained in figure captions directly into the figures. Explanatory labels have been employed extensively in figures to guide the student in understanding the art. In several important places, art has been modified to convey the notion of progres- sion in time, as in a reaction. See, for instance, Figures 4.4 and 14.27. New designs have been employed to more closely integrate photographic materials into figures that convey chemical principles, as in Figure 2.21. A new feature called Go Figure has been added to about 40% of the figures. This feature asks the student a question that can be answered by examining the figure. It tests whether the student has in fact examined the figure and understands its primary message. Answers to the Go Figure questions are provided in the back of the text. New end-of-chapter exercises have been added, and many of those carried over from the eleventh edition have been significantly revised. Results from analysis of student responses to MasteringChemistry, the online homework program connected with the text, have been used to eliminate questions that did not appear to be functioning well and to assess the degree to which instructors have used the end-of-chapter materials. On the basis of these analyses, many exercises have been revised or eliminated. Chapter introductions have been redesigned to enhance the student’s exposure to the aims of the chapter and its contents. The presentation of hybrid orbitals in Chapter 9 and elsewhere has been rewritten to limit the treatment to s and p orbitals, based on theoretical work indicating that d orbital participation in hybridization is not significant. The treatment of condensed phases, liquids and solids, has been reorganized into two chapters that contain much new material. Chapter 11 deals with liquids and intermolecular forces, while Chapter 12 deals with solids, starting from the basics of crystal structures and covering a broad range of materials (including metals, semi- conductors, polymers, and nanomaterials) in a cohesive manner. Chapter 18 on the Chemistry of the Environment has been substantially revised to focus on how human activities affect Earth’s atmosphere and water, and to enlarge the coverage of the green chemistry initiative. The treatment of metals, Chapter 23 of the eleventh edition, has been reorganized and augmented. Structure and bonding in metals and alloys are now covered in Chapter 12 (Solids and Modern Materials), and other parts of Chapter 23 have been combined with material from Chapter 24 of the eleventh edition to form a new chapter, Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry. Material covering occur- rences and production of metals that was not widely used by instructors has been eliminated. Throughout the text, the writing has been improved by enhancing the clarity and flow of ideas while achieving an economy of words. Thus, despite the addition of new features, the length of the text has not changed significantly. Organization and Contents The first five chapters give a largely macroscopic, phenomenological view of chemistry. The basic concepts introduced—such as nomenclature, stoichiometry, and thermo- chemistry—provide necessary background for many of the laboratory experiments  PREFACE xxvii usually performed in general chemistry. We believe that an early introduction to ther- mochemistry is desirable because so much of our understanding of chemical processes is based on considerations of energy changes. Thermochemistry is also important when we come to a discussion of bond enthalpies. We believe we have produced an effective, balanced approach to teaching thermodynamics in general chemistry, as well as provid- ing students with an introduction to some of the global issues involving energy produc- tion and consumption. It is no easy matter to walk the narrow pathway between—on the one hand—trying to teach too much at too high a level and—on the other hand—resort- ing to oversimplifications. As with the book as a whole, the emphasis has been on im- parting conceptual understanding, as opposed to presenting equations into which students are supposed to plug numbers. The next four chapters (Chapters 6–9) deal with electronic structure and bonding. We have largely retained our presentation of atomic orbitals. For more advanced students, Closer Look boxes in Chapters 6 and 9 deal with radial probability functions and the phases of orbitals. Our approach of placing this latter discussion in a Closer Look box in Chapter 9 enables those who wish to cover this topic to do so, while others may wish to bypass it. In treating this topic and others in Chapters 7 and 9 we have materially enhanced the accompanying figures to more effectively bring home their cen- tral messages. The focus of the text then changes (Chapters 10–13) to the next level of the organiza- tion of matter, examining the states of matter. Chapters 10 and 11 deal with gases, liquids, and intermolecular forces, much as in earlier editions. Chapter 12, however, is now devot- ed to solids, presenting an enlarged and more contemporary view of the solid state as well as of modern materials. This change is appropriate, given the ever-increasing importance of solid-state materials in solar energy, illumination, and electronics. Chapter 12 provides an opportunity to show how abstract chemical bonding concepts impact real-world appli- cations. The modular organization of the chapter allows you to tailor your coverage to focus on materials (semiconductors, polymers, nanomaterials, and so forth) that are most relevant to your students and your own interests. Chapter 13 treats the formation and properties of solutions in much the same manner as the previous edition. The next several chapters examine the factors that determine the speed and extent of chemical reactions: kinetics (Chapter 14), equilibria (Chapters 15–17), thermodynamics (Chapter 19), and electrochemistry (Chapter 20). Also in this section is a chapter on environmental chemistry (Chapter 18), in which the concepts developed in preceding chapters are applied to a discussion of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. This chapter has been revised to focus more sharply on the impacts of human activities on Earth’s water and atmosphere and on green chemistry. After a discussion of nuclear chemistry (Chapter 21), the book ends with three survey chapters. Chapter 22, on nonmetals, has been consolidated slightly from the eleventh edition. Chapter 23 now deals with the chemistry of transition metals, includ- ing coordination compounds, and the last chapter deals with the chemistry of organic compounds and elementary biochemical themes. These final four chapters are devel- oped in a parallel fashion and can be treated in any order. Our chapter sequence provides a fairly standard organization, but we recognize that not everyone teaches all the topics in just the order we have chosen. We have therefore made sure that instructors can make common changes in teaching sequence with no loss in student comprehension. In particular, many instructors prefer to introduce gases (Chapter 10) after stoichiometry (Chapter 3) rather than with states of matter. The chapter on gases has been written to permit this change with no disruption in the flow of material. It is also possible to treat balancing redox equations (Sections 20.1 and 20.2) earlier, after the introduction of redox reactions in Section 4.4. Finally, some instructors like to cover organic chemistry (Chapter 24) right after bonding (Chapters 8 and 9). This, too, is a largely seamless move. We have brought students into greater contact with descriptive organic and inorganic chemistry by integrating examples throughout the text. You will find pertinent and rele- vant examples of “real” chemistry woven into all the chapters to illustrate principles and applications. Some chapters, of course, more directly address the “descriptive” properties xxviii PREFACE of elements and their compounds, especially Chapters 4, 7, 11, 18, and 22–24. We also in- corporate descriptive organic and inorganic chemistry in the end-of-chapter exercises. Changes in This Edition The What’s New in This Edition on page xxvii details changes made throughout the new edition. Beyond a mere listing, however, it is worth dwelling on the general goals we set in formulating the twelfth edition. Chemistry: The Central Science has traditionally been valued for its clarity of writing, its scientific accuracy and currency, its strong end-of-chapter exercises, and its consistency in level of coverage. In making changes, we have made sure not to compromise these characteristics, and we have also continued to employ an open, clean design in the layout of the book. The major systemic change in the new edition involves the art program. It is widely recognized that contemporary students rely more on visual learning materials than in the past, yet for the most part textbook art has not evolved greatly in response other than a greater use of molecular art. In this edition, with the help of a strong editorial development team, we have redone a large portion of the figures with the aim of in- creasing their power as teaching tools. What can we do to encourage students to study a figure, and how can we help them learn from it? The first step has been to incorporate elements that direct attention to the figure’s major features. The flow from one impor- tant aspect to the next, particularly involving processes occurring over time, has been emphasized through new layouts and through the use of both visual and textual cues, as in Figures 2.15, 4.3, 4.9, and 14.17. Our aim is to draw the student into a more careful and thoughtful viewing through extensive use of explanatory labels and other devices. A new feature called Go Figure, analogous to the Give It Some Thought exercises we pioneered in the tenth edition, directs attention to the art and provides an opportunity for students to judge whether they have really absorbed the content of the figure. We have also found new and more effective ways to show trends and relationships in figures involving presentations of data, as in Figures 7.6, 8.8, and 8.15. We have continued to use the What’s Ahead overview at the opening of each chapter, introduced in the ninth edition. Concept links ( ) continue to provide easy- to-see cross-references to pertinent material covered earlier in the text. The essays titled Strategies in Chemistry, which provide advice to students on problem solving and “thinking like a chemist,” continue to be an important feature. The Give It Some Thought exercises that we introduced in the tenth edition have proved to be very popu- lar, and we have continued to refine their use. These informal, sharply focused questions give students opportunities to test whether they are “getting it” as they read along. We have continued to emphasize conceptual exercises in the end-of-chapter exer- cise materials. The Visualizing Concepts exercise category has been continued in this edition. These exercises are designed to facilitate concept understanding through use of models, graphs, and other visual materials. They precede the regular end-of-chapter exercises and are identified in each case with the relevant chapter section number. The Integrative Exercises, which give students the opportunity to solve problems that integrate concepts from the present chapter with those of previous chapters, have been continued. The importance of integrative problem solving is highlighted by the Sample Integrative Exercise that ends each chapter beginning with Chapter 4. In gen- eral, we have included more conceptual end-of-chapter exercises and have made sure that there is a good representation of somewhat more difficult exercises to provide a better mix in terms of topic and level of difficulty. The results from student use of MasteringChemistry have enabled us to more reliably evaluate the effectiveness of our end-of-chapter exercises and make changes accordingly. New essays in our well-received Chemistry Put to Work and Chemistry and Life series emphasize world events, scientific discoveries, and medical breakthroughs that have occurred since publication of the eleventh edition. We maintain our focus on the positive aspects of chemistry without neglecting the problems that can arise in an increasingly technological world. Our goal is to help students appreciate the real-world perspective of chemistry and the ways in which chemistry affects their lives.  PREFACE xxix TO THE STUDENT Chemistry: The Central Science, Twelfth Edition, has been written to introduce you to modern chemistry. As authors, we have, in effect, been engaged by your instructor to help you learn chemistry. Based on the comments of students and instructors who have used this book in its previous editions, we believe that we have done that job well. Of course, we expect the text to continue to evolve through future editions. We invite you to write to tell us what you like about the book so that we will know where we have helped you most. Also, we would like to learn of any shortcomings so that we might further improve the book in subsequent editions. Our addresses are given at the end of the Preface. Advice for Learning and Studying Chemistry Learning chemistry requires both the assimilation of many concepts and the develop- ment of analytical skills. In this text we have provided you with numerous tools to help you succeed in both tasks. If you are going to succeed in your chemistry course, you will have to develop good study habits. Science courses, and chemistry in particular, make different demands on your learning skills than do other types of courses. We offer the following tips for success in your study of chemistry: Don’t fall behind! As the course moves along, new topics will build on material already presented. If you don’t keep up in your reading and problem solving, you will find it much harder to follow the lectures and discussions on current topics. Experienced teachers know that students who read the relevant sections of the text before coming to a class learn more from the class and retain greater recall. “Cramming” just before an exam has been shown to be an ineffective way to study any subject, chemistry included. So now you know. How important to you in this competitive world is a good grade in chemistry? Focus your study. The amount of information you will be expected to learn can sometimes seem overwhelming. It is essential to recognize those concepts and skills that are particularly important. Pay attention to what your instructor is emphasizing. As you work through the Sample Exercises and homework assignments, try to see what general principles and skills they employ. Use the What’s Ahead feature at the beginning of each chapter to help orient yourself to what is important in each chapter. A single reading of a chapter will simply not be enough for successful learning of chapter concepts and problem-solving skills. You will need to go over assigned materials more than once. Don’t skip the Give It Some Thought and Go Figure features, Sample Exercises, and Practice Exercises. They are your guides to whether you are learning the material. The Key Skills and Key Equations at the end of the chapter should help you focus your study. Keep good lecture notes. Your lecture notes will provide you with a clear and concise record of what your instructor regards as the most important material to learn. Using your lecture notes in conjunction with this text is the best way to determine which material to study. Skim topics in the text before they are covered in lecture. Reviewing a topic before lecture will make it easier for you to take good notes. First read the What’s Ahead points and the end-of-chapter Summary; then quickly read through the chapter, skipping Sample Exercises and supplemental sections. Paying attention to the titles of sections and subsections gives you a feeling for the scope of topics. Try to avoid thinking that you must learn and understand everything right away. After lecture, carefully read the topics covered in class. As you read, pay attention to the concepts presented and to the application of these concepts in the Sample xxx PREFACE Exercises. Once you think you understand a Sample Exercise, test your understanding by working the accompanying Practice Exercise. Learn the language of chemistry. As you study chemistry, you will encounter many new words. It is important to pay attention to these words and to know their meanings or the entities to which they refer. Knowing how to identify chemical substances from their names is an important skill; it can help you avoid painful mistakes on examinations. For example, “chlorine” and “chloride” refer to very different things. Attempt the assigned end-of-chapter exercises. Working the exercises selected by your instructor provides necessary practice in recalling and using the essential ideas of the chapter. You cannot learn merely by observing; you must be a participant. In particular, try to resist checking the Student-Solutions Manual (if you have one) until you have made a sincere effort to solve the exercise yourself. If you get stuck on an exercise, however, get help from your instructor, your teaching assistant, or another student. Spending more than 20 minutes on a single exercise is rarely effective unless you know that it is particularly challenging. Use online resources. Some things are more easily learned by discovery, and others are best shown in three dimensions. If your instructor has included MasteringChemistry with your book, take advantage of the unique tools it provides to get the most out of your time in chemistry. The bottom line is to work hard, study effectively, and use the tools available to you, including this textbook. We want to help you learn more about the world of chemistry and why chemistry is the central science. If you really learn chemistry, you can be the life of the party, impress your friends and parents, and... well, also pass the course with a good grade.  PREFACE xxxi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The production of a textbook is a team effort requiring the involvement of many people besides the authors who contributed hard work and talent to bring this edition to life. Although their names don’t appear on the cover of the book, their creativity, time, and support have been instrumental in all stages of its development and production. Each of us has benefited greatly from discussions with colleagues and from correspondence with instructors and students both here and abroad. Colleagues have also helped immensely by reviewing our materials, sharing their insights, and providing sugges- tions for improvements. On this edition we were particularly blessed with an exceptional group of accuracy checkers who read through our materials looking for both technical inaccuracies and typographical errors. Twelfth Edition Reviewers Michael Hay Pennsylvania State University Rebecca Barlag Ohio University Carl Hoeger University of California at San Diego Hafed, Bascal University of Findlay Kathryn Rowberg Purdue University at Calumet Donald Bellew University of New Mexico Lewis Silverman University of Missouri at Columbia Elzbieta Cook Louisiana State University Clyde Webster University of California at Riverside Robert Dunn University of Kansas Troy Wood University of Buffalo Twelfth Edition Accuracy Reviewers Louis J. Kirschenbaum University of Rhode Island Rebecca Barlag Ohio University Barbara Mowery York College Kelly Beefus Anoka-Ramsey Community College Maria Vogt Bloomfield College Twelth Edition Focus Group Participants Thomas J. Greenbowe Iowa State University Robert Carter University of Massachusetts at Boston Harbor Kingston Jesudoss Iowa State University Tom Clayton Knox College Daniela Kohen Carleton University Elzbieta Cook Louisiana State University Sergiy Kryatov Tufts University Debra Feakes Texas State University at San Marcos Jeff McVey Texas State University at San Marcos Robert Gellert Glendale Community College Michael Seymour Hope College John Gorden Auburn University Matthew Stoltzfus The Ohio State University MasteringChemistry® Summit Participants Gary Michels Creighton University Phil Bennett Santa Fe Community College Bob Pribush Butler University Jo Blackburn Richland College Al Rives Wake Forest University John Bookstaver St. Charles Community College Joel Russell Oakland University David Carter Angelo State University Greg Szulczewski University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa Doug Cody Nassau Community College Matt Tarr University of New Orleans Tom Dowd Harper College Dennis Taylor Clemson University Palmer Graves Florida International University Harold Trimm Broome Community College Margie Haak Oregon State University Emanuel Waddell University of Alabama, Huntsville Brad Herrick Colorado School of Mines Kurt Winklemann Florida Institute of Technology Jeff Jenson University of Findlay Klaus Woelk University of Missouri, Rolla Jeff McVey Texas State University at San Marcos Steve Wood Brigham Young University Reviewers of Previous Editions of Chemistry: The Victor Berner New Mexico Junior College Central Science Narayan Bhat University of Texas, Pan American S.K. Airee University of Tennessee Merrill Blackman United States Military Academy John J. Alexander University of Cincinnati Salah M. Blaih Kent State University Robert Allendoerfer SUNY Buffalo James A. Boiani SUNY Geneseo Patricia Amateis Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Leon Borowski Diablo Valley College University Simon Bott University of Houston Sandra Anderson University of Wisconsin Kevin L. Bray Washington State University John Arnold University of California Daeg Scott Brenner Clark University Socorro Arteaga El Paso Community College Gregory Alan Brewer Catholic University of America Margaret Asirvatham University of Colorado Karen Brewer Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Todd L. Austell University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University Melita Balch University of Illinois at Chicago Edward Brown Lee University Rosemary Bartoszek-Loza The Ohio State University Gary Buckley Cameron University Boyd Beck Snow College Carmela Byrnes Texas A&M University Amy Beilstein Centre College B. Edward Cain Rochester Institute of Technology xxxii PREFACE Kim Calvo University of Akron Carl A. Hoeger University of California, San Diego Donald L. Campbell University of Wisconsin Gary G. Hoffman Florida International University Gene O. Carlisle Texas A&M University Deborah Hokien Marywood University Elaine Carter Los Angeles City College Robin Horner Fayetteville Tech Community College Robert Carter University of Massachusetts Roger K. House Moraine Valley College Ann Cartwright San Jacinto Central College Michael O. Hurst Georgia Southern University David L. Cedeño Illinois State University William Jensen South Dakota State University Dana Chatellier University of Delaware Janet Johannessen County College of Morris Stanton Ching Connecticut College Milton D. Johnston, Jr. University of South Florida Paul Chirik Cornell University Andrew Jones Southern Alberta Institute of Technology William Cleaver University of Vermont Booker Juma Fayetteville State University Beverly Clement Blinn College Ismail Kady East Tennessee State University Robert D. Cloney Fordham University Siam Kahmis University of Pittsburgh John Collins Broward Community College Steven Keller University of Missouri Edward Werner Cook Tunxis Community Technical John W. Kenney Eastern New Mexico University College Neil Kestner Louisiana State University Elzbieta Cook Louisiana State University Leslie Kinsland University of Louisiana Enriqueta Cortez South Texas College Louis J. Kirschenbaum University of Rhode Island Thomas Edgar Crumm Indiana University of Pennsylvania Donald Kleinfelter University of Tennessee, Knoxville Dwaine Davis Forsyth Tech Community College David Kort George Mason University Ramón López de la Vega Florida International University George P. Kreishman University of Cincinnati Nancy De Luca University of Massachusetts, Lowell North Paul Kreiss Anne Arundel Community College Campus Manickham Krishnamurthy Howard University Angel de Dios Georgetown University Brian D. Kybett University of Regina John M. DeKorte Glendale Community College William R. Lammela Nazareth College Daniel Domin Tennessee State University John T. Landrum Florida International University James Donaldson University of Toronto Richard Langley Stephen F. Austin State University Bill Donovan University of Akron N. Dale Ledford University of South Alabama Stephen Drucker University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Ernestine Lee Utah State University Ronald Duchovic Indiana University-Purdue University at David Lehmpuhl University of Southern Colorado Fort Wayne Robley J. Light Florida State University David Easter Southwest Texas State University Donald E. Linn, Jr. Indiana University-Purdue University Joseph Ellison United States Military Academy Indianapolis George O. Evans II East Carolina University David Lippmann Southwest Texas State James M. Farrar University of Rochester Patrick Lloyd Kingsborough Community College Gregory M. Ferrence Illinois State University Encarnacion Lopez Miami Dade College, Wolfson Clark L. Fields University of Northern Colorado Arthur Low Tarleton State University Jennifer Firestine Lindenwood University Gary L. Lyon Louisiana State University Jan M. Fleischner College of New Jersey Preston J. MacDougall Middle Tennessee State University Paul A. Flowers University of North Carolina at Pembroke Jeffrey Madura Duquesne University Michelle Fossum Laney College Larry Manno Triton College Roger Frampton Tidewater Community College Asoka Marasinghe Moorhead State University Joe Franek University of Minnesota Earl L. Mark ITT Technical Institute David Frank California State University Pamela Marks Arizona State University Cheryl B. Frech University of Central Oklahoma Albert H. Martin Moravian College Ewa Fredette Moraine Valley College Przemyslaw Maslak Pennsylvania State University Kenneth A. French Blinn College Hilary L. Maybaum ThinkQuest, Inc. Karen Frindell Santa Rosa Junior College Armin Mayr El Paso Community College John I. Gelder Oklahoma State University Marcus T. McEllistrem University of Wisconsin Paul Gilletti Mesa Community College Craig McLauchlan Illinois State University Peter Gold Pennsylvania State University William A. Meena Valley College Eric Goll Brookdale Community College Joseph Merola Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State James Gordon Central Methodist College University Thomas J. Greenbowe Iowa State University Stephen Mezyk California State University Michael Greenlief University of Missouri Eric Miller San Juan College Eric P. Grimsrud Montana State University Gordon Miller Iowa State University John Hagadorn University of Colorado Shelley Minteer Saint Louis University Randy Hall Louisiana State University Massoud (Matt) Miri Rochester Institute of Technology John M. Halpin New York University Mohammad Moharerrzadeh Bowie State University Marie Hankins University of Southern Indiana Tracy Morkin Emory University Robert M. Hanson St. Olaf College Barbara Mowery Yorktown, VA Daniel Haworth Marquette University Kathleen E. Murphy Daemen College Inna Hefley Blinn College Kathy Nabona Austin Community College David Henderson Trinity College Robert Nelson Georgia Southern University Paul Higgs Barry University Al Nichols Jacksonville State University  PREFACE xxxiii Ross Nord Eastern Michigan University Kathy Thrush Shaginaw Villanova University Jessica Orvis Georgia Southern University Susan M. Shih College of DuPage Mark Ott Jackson Community College David Shinn University of Hawaii at Hilo Jason Overby College of Charleston Vince Sollimo Burlington Community College Robert H. Paine Rochester Institute of Technology David Soriano University of Pittsburgh-Bradford Robert T. Paine University of New Mexico Eugene Stevens Binghamton University Sandra Patrick Malaspina University College James Symes Cosumnes River College Mary Jane Patterson Brazosport College Iwao Teraoka Polytechnic University Tammi Pavelec Lindenwood University Kathy Thrush Villanova University Albert Payton Broward Community College Domenic J. Tiani University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Christopher J. Peeples University of Tulsa Edmund Tisko University of Nebraska at Omaha Kim Percell Cape Fear Community College Richard S. Treptow Chicago State University Gita Perkins Estrella Mountain Community College Michael Tubergen Kent State University Richard Perkins University of Louisiana Claudia Turro The Ohio State University Nancy Peterson North Central College James Tyrell Southern Illinois University Robert C. Pfaff Saint Joseph’s College Michael J. Van Stipdonk Wichita State University John Pfeffer Highline Community College Philip Verhalen Panola College Lou Pignolet University of Minnesota Ann Verner University of Toronto at Scarborough Bernard Powell University of Texas Edward Vickner Gloucester County Community College Jeffrey A. Rahn Eastern Washington University John Vincent University of Alabama Steve Rathbone Blinn College Maria Vogt Bloomfield College Scott Reeve Arkansas State University Tony Wallner Barry University John Reissner University of North Carolina Helen Richter University of Akron Lichang Wang Southern Illinois University Thomas Ridgway University of Cincinnati Thomas R. Webb Auburn University Mark G. Rockley Oklahoma State University Karen Weichelman University of Louisiana-Lafayette Lenore Rodicio Miami Dade College Paul G. Wenthold Purdue University Amy L. Rogers College of Charleston Laurence Werbelow New Mexico Institute of Mining and Jimmy R. Rogers University of Texas at Arlington Technology Steven Rowley Middlesex Community College Wayne Wesolowski University Of Arizona James E. Russo Whitman College Sarah West University of Notre Dame Theodore Sakano Rockland Community College Linda M. Wilkes University at Southern Colorado Michael J. Sanger University of Northern Iowa Charles A. Wilkie Marquette University Jerry L. Sarquis Miami University Darren L. Williams West Texas A&M University James P. Schneider Portland Community College Troy Wood SUNY Buffalo Mark Schraf West Virginia University Thao Yang University of Wisconsin Gray Scrimgeour University of Toronto David Zax Cornell University Paula Secondo Western Connecticut State University Dr. Susan M. Zirpoli Slippery Rock University We would also like to express our gratitude to our many team members at Pearson Prentice Hall whose hard work, imagination, and commitment have contributed so greatly to the final form of this edition: Nicole Folchetti, our former Editor in Chief, brought en- ergy and imagination not only to this edition but to earlier ones as well; Terry Haugen, our Chemistry Editor, for many fresh ideas and his unflagging enthusiasm, continuous encouragement, and support; Jennifer Hart, our Project Editor, who very effectively coordinated the scheduling and tracked the multidimensional deadlines that come with a project of this magnitude; Erin Gardner, our marketing manager, for her energy, enthusiam, and creative promotion of our text; Irene Nunes, our Development Editor, whose diligence and careful attention to detail were invaluable to this revision, especially in keeping us on task in terms of consistency and student understanding; Donna Mulder, our Copy Editor, for her keen eye; Greg Gambino, our Art Developmental Editor, who man- aged the complex task of bringing our sketches into final form and who co