CHAPTER 5 Determining Training Needs PDF

CHAPTER 5 DETERMINING TRAINING AND...

CHAPTER 5 DETERMINING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this chapter you should be able to define the concept of training and development needs assessment differentiate between various levels of needs and types of needs assessment apply two models for determining training needs apply a variety of techniques for conducting a needs assessment establish training needs for a course, programme or module collect and analyse job data using various methods consider the various sources of data for determining student needs differentiate between the various types of student needs collect data with respect to student needs utilising the various methods available determine student needs explore the requirements of a workplace skills plan in accordance with the requirements of the skills development legislation and the requirements of the relevant SETA. 5.1 Overview Earlier in this book you were exposed to various aspects of training management. Although some of the aspects discussed were not part of the training process itself, the focus will now shift to deal with Copyright 2015. Oxford University Press Southern Africa. this aspect specifically. There are various approaches to the design of training and development which have been adopted by organisations and many of them are fairly diverse. We have already dealt with training models in Chapter 1, Section 1.6. One of the most frequently used approaches (or models) is the systems or systematic approach. This is a formal or planned approach to designing training and development and comprises a number of interrelated and connected steps, which are illustrated in Figure 5.1. This formal or planned approach is also referred to as an instructional design (ISD) model.1–2 EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY AN: 1161703 ; Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda, Nel.; Managing Training and Development 7e Account: s8416366.main.ehost 146  FIGURE 5.1 The systems model of training and development The model highlights the cyclical and continuous nature of the process in much the same way as employee development is an ongoing activity. Each phase of the model is made up of different procedural steps. In this chapter and the three subsequent chapters we will deal with these four phases of the training and development cycle. You will learn how to analyse training and development needs, how to design and develop a training and development programme and course, how to prepare and present training and development, and finally how to assess learning and evaluate training and development. This chapter deals with the process of determining training and development needs, which is the first step in planning a training and development programme. The concept of training needs assessment is discussed, followed by an indication of the levels of the enterprise at which training needs occur, and models for determining training needs. This, in turn, is followed by a discussion of the job analysis process and, finally, the requirements of workplace skills plans are addressed. 5.2 The concept of training needs assessment or analysis (TNA) According to Peter Drucker, ‘There is nothing so useless as doing efficiently that which should not be done at all’.5 The abovementioned quotation illustrates that it is a waste of time to invest time, effort and money into designing and delivering a training solution that is either unnecessary or inaccurate in its focus. These activities should be preceded by a comprehensive training and development needs analysis (TNA), also referred to as a Training and Learning Needs Analysis (TLNA), which should identify problems, shortcomings or gaps that can be overcome or minimised by training and development. Such needs could stem from a variety of aspects such as changes in the organisation, changes in technology, different business objectives, customer needs, individual and group needs and statutory requirements.6 TNA is a key activity of the systematic approach to training and development and essentially serves to identify discrepancies. In this section, we will look at the concept of TNA and identifying training needs. Goldstein and Ford7suggest that there is always the temptation to begin training without a thorough analysis of needs: EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 147  ‘This approach is risky since every enterprise, irrespective of its structure, has certain needs that must be satisfied to ensure that the enterprise is economically viable and continues to grow. An enterprise is in constant interaction with the external environment and, if it wants to be effective and competitive, it needs therefore to stay abreast of new production methods, changing consumer patterns and values and needs in the labour market. These factors represent only one facet of an enterprise’s needs for training. Such needs should be seen as strategic training and development needs since they are future oriented.8 An enterprise also has internal current needs for training and development, many of which can easily be identified by looking at the quality and quantity of its output variables. Other internal needs, however, are not so obvious, such as employees’ personal needs for job satisfaction, and growth and development. Therefore, for training to be effective, it is necessary to determine the training needs not only of the individual and the groups, but how their needs fit the overall objectives of the enterprise.’ 9 Training and development should consequently be based on needs, defined as gaps or discrepancies between the way things are and the way things ought to be. Such needs arise for various reasons, for example, from the job, from a comparison between desired and actual work methods, or between desired and actual work results.10 The training (or learning need) stems from a performance gap between current performance and future desired performance which is illustrated in Figure 5.2. FIGURE 5.2 Performance gap TNA can be defined as ‘the process of evaluating the organisation, individual employees and employees’ tasks to discover precisely what gaps exist between what people know, do or feel, and what they should know, do or feel in order to perform competently’.12 Noe et al.13 and Lussier & Hendon14 define TNA as ‘the process of ‘analysing the difference between what is currently occurring within the organisation within a job or jobs and what is required – either now or in the future – based on the organisation’s operational and strategic goals.’15 The TNA process can be thought of as an organisational intervention as it deals with identifying the gap between current and expected results. This implies a performance deviation: there should be a prescribed standard to which the employee should conform, and if the employee fails to do so, there is a deviation. Obviously the standards must be known during the process of determining training needs if any useful comparisons are to be made. The question may arise: Why is TNA so important for the organisation? TNA is important because it focuses the training effort on actual training and development needs and thereby helps to ensure that resources set aside for training are more appropriately utilised. TNA can help determine whether training is the appropriate solution to a performance deficiency. ‘If increasing an EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 148  employee’s knowledge and skills will not help resolve a deficiency, then training is not appropriate.’ 16 Kavanagh and Thite17 suggest that the TNA ensures the integration of employee training and development activities with the business needs of the organisation. 5.3 Levels of training needs Training needs are found at various levels in enterprises and can be divided into four main groups, namely macro level, meso level, micro level and mega level. 5.3 Macro-level training needs.1 Macro-level needs are those training needs that are found both nationally and internationally. Political, social, economic and welfare conditions have a considerable impact on the approach to training followed by an enterprise, and it is essential to take note of these factors to determine their effect. Technological development compels enterprises to keep abreast of the latest technical methods to ensure profitability. The possible adverse impact of worldwide trends on enterprises can be prevented by taking proactive steps at different enterprise levels to address these problems. A national problem in South Africa, such as illiteracy, can be addressed by enterprises sponsoring literacy programmes, or presenting such programmes to their employees. This will not only increase the credibility of the enterprise, but will also serve to confirm the enterprise’s commitment to its social responsibility. 5.3 Meso-level training needs (needs at organisational level).2 Needs assessment at meso-level focuses on the enterprise as a whole and addresses factors such as changing the organisational strategy, objectives, the availability and utilisation of resources, management support for training and development activities as well as a changing organisational climate that can give rise to training needs. It assesses current and future employee training and development requirements that an organisation has to fulfil in order to attain its strategic long-term objectives.18–19 Training needs can also be derived from performance problems that managers have identified, such as customers’ complaints, delays, excessive maintenance cost and waste, absenteeism, poor morale and high accident rate.20 An example of satisfying an organisational need is ‘to ensure a supply of individuals with the skills necessary for promotion and transfer, and a culture which would enable staff to see the bigger picture’.21 5.3 Micro-level training needs.3 There are two aspects to micro-level needs: the operational level which emphasises the content of a person’s work, and individual performance. First, when the work content is investigated, an effort is made to determine which competencies an employee must have in order to do his or her job. Specific attention is given to the knowledge and skills that the individual requires to do that job. Once the content of a job has been determined, the so-called ‘standard’ or ‘optimal’ performance required is used to determine the training gap. An example of an operational or occupational need is ‘to develop nurses and managers and careers within the hospital.22 Second, the performance of individual employees is assessed. During this process, the performance of the individual incumbent is measured to determine in which performance areas the incumbent is lacking in terms of knowledge, skills and/or attitude. However, one cannot assume that training is the problem in the case of current underperforming employees. It may be something else that is causing the underperformance, for example, personal problems or domestic problems EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 149  (divorce, a child that is ill, etc.). The process of performance assessment or performance analysis at the micro level implies verifying that there is a performance deficiency and determining whether the employer should correct such deficiencies through training or some other means.23 Dessler24 suggests several ways to identify how well or how poorly a current employee is performing. This can be done through the normal performance assessment process, assessment centre results, observation by supervisors, interviews with the employee or with supervisors, and job-related data such as productivity, absenteeism, tardiness and customer complaints. An assessment centre consists of the observation of candidates carrying out a variety of assignments, individually or in a group over a stipulated period. It is an evaluation process used to identify the future potential of employees (see also Chapter 9, Section 9.3.4.1). In the normal course of needs assessment, the training gap is essentially identified at micro level. This is done by comparing the ‘standards’, as determined by the requirements of the job content, to the individual performance of an employee. The difference identified represents the training gap. 5.3 Mega-level needs.4 Roger Kaufman25 identifies another level of needs assessment, namely mega-level needs assessment. Mega-level needs assessment refers to needs that stem from organisational contributions that add measurable value to society and external clients, i.e. value that the organisation adds outside itself. Examples of such needs are health, well-being of family, and survival and safety.26 This kind of needs assessment could address aspects such as pollution, deaths, disabilities, substance abuse, corruption, crime, fraud, greed, civil unrest, positive quality of life, etc. With this kind of need, the organisation has to determine how it will add measurable value to the societal bottom line. REFLECTION Think about the different levels at which TNA are done in your organisation. Apply these levels to your own organisation by supplying examples of each. Make suggestions on how this can be done effectively across all levels in your organisation. 5.4 Types of needs assessment There are five different but complementary types of needs assessment, namely: organisational, group, individual (person), job, and national and sectoral.27–30 5.4 Organisational needs assessment.1 The starting point for a needs analysis has to be at the corporate or business plan.31 The purpose of this type of needs analysis is to examine the internal environment of the organisation that may influence employee job performance.32 Organisational needs are those needs that are unique to the enterprise and its strategy, such as improving productivity, broader customer base, building morale, better utilisation of technology and better competitive status. For example, if throughout the enterprise certain behaviour hinders achievement of a corporate goal, such as poor interpersonal skills that affect staff and customer retention, there is an organisational need which must be assessed. An organisational needs analysis is concerned with the system-wide components of an enterprise, including an examination of organisational future plans and goals, resources available, and internal and external constraints. This may include aspects such as government policy, economic realities and value systems, the enterprise’s future plans, the organisational training climate, facilities and resources. These needs are sometimes difficult to assess, since they have to be derived from group activities where aspects such as the organisational goals, objectives and EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 150  priorities are determined. A typical organisational need would be knowledge, skills and attitudes which all members, irrespective of their job, are required to develop due to changes in policy, new objectives which the organisation wishes to achieve, the introduction of new technology, or new legislation which may impact on the organisation. In essence therefore, training and development must be synchronised with an organisation’s mission, strategy, goals and culture.33 5.4 Group needs assessment.2 Group needs are related to a number of employees doing the same type of work who lack certain skills, and refer to a specific job level or category of employees. This category of needs should enable the training and development practitioner to identify requirements in respect of specific job-related training and development, interventions such as team-building programmes, leadership and management training and development. 5.4 Individual (or person) needs assessment.3 Individual (or person) needs assessment is the process of looking at individuals’ needs and readiness for training and development. These needs examine performance deficiencies, such as 34 an employee who lacks certain skills, understanding or behaviours that limit performance – for example, a secretary who does not know the basics of telephone etiquette. There is therefore a ‘gap’ between the knowledge, skills and attitudes currently possessed by the employee, and those specified by the job. The assessment of the individual will indicate the range of knowledge, skills and attitudes that is to be acquired.35 Such needs can be identified by analysing the background, education and training, aptitude, personality, experience, knowledge and skills of individual employees and then comparing them to the requirements of the job. Such needs could also be obtained from a 360-degree feedback system where inputs are provided by managers, peers, customers and other stakeholders and self-evaluation.36 The needs that flow from this information are easily addressed by a variety of individual development programmes such as induction training, skills training, technical training, supervisory development and executive development. 5.4 Job needs assessment.4 A variety of needs can stem from the occupational level, i.e. the job itself, and close examination of that job can assist in identifying how training needs arise as a result of changes in the requirements of the job – for example, changes in systems, processes and procedures or technology, or changes in the work environment. Job needs assessment entails the analysis of individual jobs and the associated tasks, knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviours required in order to determine the content of training and development programmes and courses. Needs that stem from this type of assessment normally require specific knowledge, skills and attitudes to be developed in the employee. 5.4 National and sectoral needs assessment.5 A further type of needs assessment, is the so-called national and sectoral needs assessment.37 This type of needs assessment focuses on identifying skills shortages that may exist at the national level, for example a need within the public service or within a specific sector of the economy such as the construction industry or the agricultural sector. Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) are required to develop specific sector plans for the development of skills and abilities within a sector as a whole. 5.4 Content analysis EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 151.6 A content analysis is an analysis of documents, laws, and procedures used on the job. This analysis focuses on questions about what knowledge or information is used on this job. This information is derived from manuals, documents, or regulations. An experienced employee can act as a subject matter expert in determining the appropriate content for this kind of analysis.38 5.5 Models for determining training needs 5.5 Introduction.1 In order to determine training needs meaningfully, it is essential to use a systematic approach. According to Flanagan and Finger,39 a systematic approach is: ‘ … an essential requirement for improving performance, and a natural consequence of staff performance appraisal. Staff morale, satisfaction and motivation are enhanced when individuals and teams know that their development is a priority and, importantly, it allows management to prioritise resources in accordance with an effective organisational development plan.’ There are a variety of approaches, models and techniques that follow a systematic approach to establish needs. The advantages of using models are that they provide direction and focus in the process, prevent the analyst from becoming sidetracked, and provide a framework within which to work and for reporting results to management. In this section, two models are discussed: the model of Graham and Mihal, and the model of Michalak and Yager. 5.5 Graham and Mihal’s model.2 Graham and Mihal’s model40 is specifically directed at determining training needs for managers, and entails specific steps (see Figure 5.3): Step 1: This requires drawing up a comprehensive list of tasks, competencies and characteristics that are related to the manager’s work. These characteristics can be general in nature, and are submitted to different levels of managers to determine the importance of each task. During this process, managers (incumbents) are involved in their own tasks, and a job analysis is conducted. Step 2: Managers are requested to indicate what tasks they would like to perform more effectively, what areas of specialisation they would like to know more about and what skills they would like to improve. Step 3: Managers are requested to place their needs in order of priority and to link objectives to these needs. Step 4: The immediate superiors of managers evaluate tasks and establish a final list of training needs. This model emphasises the judgement of managers and the personal value they attach to the identified needs. The fact that higher management levels evaluate the various tasks of managers should eliminate subjectivity to some extent. Graham and Mihal emphasise that managers (supervisors) are involved in evaluating their own needs, and can therefore make a major contribution to identifying the content of their work. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 152  FIGURE 5.3 Graham and Mihal’s model for determining the training needs of managers 5.5 Michalak and Yager’s model.3 Michalak and Yager’s model42 (see Figure 5.4) is primarily used as an aid for analysing training needs at the micro level. This model is based on the model of Mager and Pipe 43 and is used mainly as a guideline in formulating questions for interviews and questionnaires, or to conduct analyses of investigation results. Step 1 – Identify behavioural contradictions: When a problem is experienced, it is essential to identify the actual problem and not the symptoms, as is usually the case. It is important to analyse the contradictions in behaviour, so that problems are not all regarded as mere ‘deviations’. Step 2 – Analyse cost and value: When a potential training programme is investigated, it must be established whether the proposed change is not merely the result of personal preference. A EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 153  comparison must be made between the cost of the training and the return it brings for the enterprise. The following question can be asked: ‘What does the enterprise lose if training is not presented?’ Step 3 – Identify lack of skills/knowledge: As indicated in Figure 5.3, it must be established whether there is a lack of skills and/or knowledge among employees. If so, the ‘can’t do’ path (Steps 4 to 8) is followed, and if no lack of skills and/or knowledge is identified, the ‘does not do’ path is followed. Step 4 – Offer job assistance: One of the methods of enabling people to do their jobs is to provide them with direct assistance in completing their tasks. Step 5 – Provide training: If a problem cannot easily be solved and training offers a possible solution, it must be applied. It must, however, be emphasised that training should not be regarded as the first and best solution in all cases. Step 6 – Practise: After training has been completed, the acquired skills must be continually exercised. Step 7 – Change the job: Changing a person’s job must be considered after all possibilities of solving a performance problem have been exhausted. Step 8 – Transfer or dismiss: Another possibility is to transfer an employee to a section where his or her expertise can be of value, while a last resort is to dismiss the employee. The ‘does not do’ path indicates that an employee has the knowledge and skills, and that training is not a solution. Step 9 – Assess the reward/punish system: Thorough investigation of the reward and punishment system used in an enterprise is essential, since this system may possibly be the cause of the problem. Step 10 – Improve inadequate feedback: It is important for any employee to receive feedback for services rendered. It is, therefore, important to ensure that feedback is provided. Step 11 – Remove obstacles in the system: Sometimes there are obstacles in the system that prevent the employee from doing the work properly, for example in cases where too much work is allocated, or where the structure does not support the employee’s skills and knowledge. Michalak and Yager’s model clearly distinguishes between the ‘can’t do’ and ‘does not do’ paths, dealing with a training need that has been identified, and training that must be provided. Although this model can be used on a preventative basis, it is too simple to be successfully applied to more complex problems. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 154  FIGURE 5.4 Michalak and Yager’s model for determining training needs REFLECTION Consider what you have learned about models for needs assessment in this chapter. Apply the Graham and Mihal model to determine the training and development needs of supervisors in your organisation. 5.6 Techniques of needs assessment 5.6 Introduction.1 A considerable number of proven techniques are available to establish training needs. The method EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 155  used will depend to a large extent on the nature of the proposed course, the amount and type of information needed, and the ability of the training and learning designer. This section briefly discusses some of the more common techniques used for conducting a needs assessment. 5.6 Questionnaires.2 Questionnaire studies are probably the most widely used information-gathering techniques. Correctly used, a questionnaire study will provide a variety of information about needs, problems, potential problems, employee perceptions, attitudes and opinions. A questionnaire study normally takes the form of a survey or poll of a random or stratified sample of respondents from an entire ‘population’. Surveys and polls can be used in a variety of question formats. They may be open-ended, forced-choice or priority-ranking, self-administered (by mail) under controlled or uncontrolled conditions, and they may require the presence of an interpreter or assistant.45–46 The same authors cite the various advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire studies. A questionnaire study can reach a large number of people in a short time, is relatively inexpensive, gives opportunity of expression without fear of embarrassment and the yield data can be easily summarised and reported. It also automates data collection if online survey tools are used and tests assumptions over a large population. However, the survey study has some serious disadvantages as well. It is difficult to predict how the respondent will interpret questions and does not allow a lot of follow-on, probing questions. The questions in questionnaires are often poorly stated, make little provision for free expression of unanticipated responses and are of limited value in getting at causes of problems or possible solutions. Another big disadvantage of a questionnaire study is that it often yields a low return rate. 47 Because of the many pitfalls of survey studies, the following decision criteria are suggested:48 Can the purpose of the study be stated clearly and briefly in terms of what you wish to know, why the information is necessary and what will happen as a result of answering the research question? Are you familiar enough with the topic to discuss the theme with experts should you be questioned about it? Are you sure the target population will cooperate with the study and are you prepared to assure their anonymity? Are you prepared to give them feedback on the results of the study? Does the proposed questionnaire lend itself to easy interpretation of information? If the answers to these questions are positive, then one can consider the development of a questionnaire for the proposed study. In addition, clear and specific objectives must be established for the study, and questions must be clear, unambiguous and understandable to employees, be easy to answer quickly, and deal with issues of interest and concern to employees. The questionnaire should also avoid asking two (or more) questions in one. An important guideline is that the questionnaire should be subjected to a pilot test, reviewed and revised and tested again before it is used on the wider population. Results must be carefully tabulated, analysed, evaluated and reported to top management, supervisors, labour organisations and employees. 5.6 Individual interviews.3 The interview is very popular and versatile and is considered to be the most common technique. The popularity of the interview lies in the fact that first it is ‘expected’ and ‘accepted’ by managers, supervisors, employees and clients as an information-gathering technique as it gives them and their employees the opportunity to contribute. Second, certain information can only be obtained in a face-to-face situation. Some of the advantages of interviews are as follows: They are good at uncovering details of training needs as well as causes and solutions of problems. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 156  They can explore unanticipated issues that arise. Respondents are provided with maximum opportunity to represent themselves spontaneously on their own terms (especially when conducted in an open-ended, non-directive manner). In-depth questioning during interviews is useful for revealing feelings, causes and possible solutions of problems. It also has a higher response rate than in the case of questionnaire studies, and there is a better chance that all the questions will be answered. Good interviewers can adjust their questions and the sequence of questions depending on the preferences of the respondent. 49–52 The disadvantages of interviews are: Deliberate twisting of facts cannot be excluded. Due to stress factors, the respondent may forget important information. Information obtained from an interview may be biased or distorted. The technique is time-intensive and expensive. Inexperienced interviewers may go off the topic or may make respondents feel self-conscious or suspicious and results can be difficult to analyse and quantify. Interviews require a lot of data synthesis, and due to the subjectivity of the data, there is a need for corroboration of information from other sources.53 Regardless of its disadvantages, the interview is still one of the most popular techniques for information gathering. With a clear interview guide and proper training given to the interviewers, many of these limitations can be overcome and their subjectivity restricted. 5.6 Observation.4 In its most elementary form, observation means ‘to watch the job or specific tasks being performed’. According to Goldstein and Ford54, observations can be as technical as time-motion studies, or as functionally or behaviourally specific as observing a staff member performing a job or a task. The advantages of observation are that it generates data that are relevant to the work environment, minimises interruption of work flow or of group activity, and that the technique is highly relevant to the situation where responses to identified training needs will have an impact. With this technique, one can often detect self-created job aids and other aids that good employees utilise and it is the only method that allows training and development practitioners to see the barriers that are present at the so-called ‘coalface’ or front line.55 Some of the main disadvantages of this technique are that it requires a highly-skilled person with both process and content knowledge, and that it holds the potential for respondents to perceive the observation activity as ‘spying’.56 Consequently, the people being observed should be informed well in advance why they were selected and what information is sought. 5.6 Group techniques.5 There are a variety of group techniques that are useful for assessing training needs at meso-and micro levels. In this section we will focus on one technique – the group discussion. This technique implies a face-to-face interview with a group of employees, during which structured or unstructured questions are asked or themes discussed. The discussion can be formal or informal, or somewhere in between. The group discussion can focus on job analysis, group problem analysis, group goal-setting or any number of group tasks or themes, such as the leadership training needs of a particular level of managers or supervisors. The facilitator of a group discussion can use one or several of the group-facilitating techniques, such as focus group interviews, nominal group technique, brainstorming, simulation or force-field analysis. A group discussion can be very effective for TNA, especially if it allows participants to build on each other’s ideas and enable the consolidation of individual responses. Apart from being time-consuming, however, a major disadvantage of this technique is that it can produce data that are difficult to synthesise and EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 157  quantify, especially if a less-structured technique is used. It also has the potential risk of deteriorating into a ‘whining session’ and it does not work very well if participants feel intimidated by other participants. 5.6 Document review.6 Document review57–58 implies almost a literature study of various documents such as technical manuals, organisational charts, audit and budget reports, and quality control documents, goal statements, evaluation reports, staffing and scheduling reports, planning documents, policy manuals, employee records, minutes of meetings, etc. A document review is used to provide data and information for a content analysis (as referred to in Section 5.4.6). The advantages of this technique are that information can be collected with minimum interruption of workflow, it is a good source of information on procedure and performance, it can provide excellent clues to trouble areas and it can provide objective evidence. It is also quick compared to more qualitative forms of data generation, and it is less subjective to interpretation. However, some of the disadvantages are that it requires a skilled data analyst to ensure that clear patterns and trends are identified, documents can be difficult to access, and the review of some documents may be perceived as a violation of privacy. It is therefore wise to obtain written permission to access sensitive documents and to only review documents that are directly linked to the research task. 5.6 Content analysis.7 A content analysis implies an analysis of documents, laws, and procedures used on the job. The analysis focuses on questions about what knowledge or information is used on this job. This information is derived from manuals, documents, or regulations. An experienced employee can act as a subject matter expert in determining the appropriate content for this kind of analysis.59 5.6 Job description and analysis.8 Job descriptions contain a vast mass of information with respect to the skills, knowledge, training and experience required to ensure success in a job. We will discuss this method in more detail in Section 5.7. 5.6 Other techniques.9 There are other techniques that can be utilised to assess training and development needs. These techniques include performance management data, personal development plans, focus group interviews, skills and knowledge tests, examining work samples, training committees, online monitoring, assessment centres and SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analyses. The 2011/2012 American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) Report on the State of the South African Learning and Development Industry found that 68,9% of organisations use performance management data to determine training needs, 57,8% use data from customer complaints and 40% use interviews. The use of questionnaires as a source of data for determining training needs has dropped from 78% in 2010 to 46,7% in the 2011/2012 survey.60 5.6 Criteria for selecting a needs assessment method.10 With so many techniques described so far, it is evident that the training designer needs some EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 158  guidelines for the selection of a data collection method and procedure for conducting a needs assessment. The criteria one can employ in choosing an appropriate method are aspects such as the level of analysis (macro, meso, micro or mega), the involvement of employees and management, the time required, cost, the type of data needed, the importance and sensitivity of the problem, and the geographical distribution of respondents.61 The abovementioned criteria should therefore be used when a decision is required that deals with the needs assessment methods most appropriate to a particular situation. Meyer62 makes an important observation regarding needs assessment methods in general: ‘Bear in mind that the gathering of data does not in itself constitute the needs analysis process – the data still has to be analysed to produce information, which must be interpreted for conclusions to be drawn, on the strength of which recommendations can be made.’ 5.7 Job analysis for training and development purposes 5.7 Introduction.1 If training programmes are to provide a worthwhile return on investment, they must be relevant to the job. This means that the learning experiences provided for students during the training must be directly related to the duties and tasks they will have to perform in the job situation. Consequently, it is essential that the job performance requirements, including accurate and objective job data, be gathered and analysed. From these, accurate training and development needs can be determined. However, in order to obtain meaningful data, we have to separate the person from the job and concentrate on the job alone as the focus is on the description of the work. In this section, the various aspects related to the analysis of jobs and the different methods of conducting job analysis are examined. This will be followed by the next step – the task analysis for determining training requirements. These steps are essential to satisfy the requirements of training in the South African context. 5.7 Job description and analysis.2 5.7.2 Introduction.1 A comprehensive job description and the subsequent task analysis can provide the trainer with a mass of useful information. It is argued that such analysis identifies tasks that need to be performed in order to do the job, how they should be performed, and thereby what needs to be learned in order to perform well.63–64 Every job consists of a variety of duties (or functions), each of which consists of different tasks. Each task in turn is a series of actions leading to a meaningful outcome, such as typing a letter or performing a procedure on a lathe, and each task consists of several subtasks (or elements). The elements of a job are illustrated in Figure 5.5. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 159  FIGURE 5.5 The elements of a job 5.7.2 Definitions.2 Job analysis: A job analysis ‘involves collecting, analysing and presenting information about the content of jobs’.65 It is defined as ‘the process of systematically obtaining information about jobs by determining the duties, tasks or activities of jobs and the specifications that an employee must have to perform it, from which knowledge, skills and abilities can be estimated.’66–67 Job description: A job description is an outline of the purpose and responsibilities of the job.68 It is the product of job analysis and comprises a list of the functions (or duties), responsibilities, reporting relationships, working conditions and all the tasks and subtasks within a particular job, as illustrated in Figure 5.5. It is a detailed statement of the physical and mental activities involved in the job. The specification ‘is usually expressed in terms of behaviour, i.e. what the worker does, what knowledge he or she uses in doing it, the judgements he or she makes and the factors taken into account when making them.’69 The job description defines the working contract between the employee and the organisation. Job descriptions are often referred to as the ‘heart’ of the HRM system since virtually every personnel-related action one takes, whether interviewing applicants, selection, training or performance appraisal, depends on knowing what the job entails.70 Job: This is seen as a collection of duties that an employee has to perform. This collection is usually generic for a group of employees, such as accountants, salespeople and secretaries. Duty: A duty is a major subdivision of a job. It is characterised as being one of the employee’s principal responsibilities. Task: A task is an ‘employee’s work activity in a specific job’.71 Each duty comprises a number of tasks. The tasks within a particular job are characterised by four aspects. First, it includes those activities that occur regularly in the job; second, it would take a considerable amount of time to perform; third, it is aimed at meeting an objective with predetermined standards; and fourthly, it normally has a start and an end. Subtasks: Subtasks are the smaller elements within a task and are normally the different movements, steps or procedures to be followed when a task is performed. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 160  5.7.2 Guidelines for job analysis.3 The result of a job analysis can usually become the starting point for a more detailed task analysis or content analysis. A job analysis is the first and most critical step in the development of an instructional or learning system, and the data collected during this activity provide the basis for the instructional system. The subsequent steps in training design, development and evaluation are therefore extremely dependent on the completeness, validity and reliability of the job data obtained during the job analysis phase. It is suggested that job analysis should only be performed when job descriptions are non-existent, outdated and inconsistent with information required by decision makers, or inadequate for guiding more detailed task analysis.72 Below are some guidelines for conducting a job analysis:73–74 Identify the jobs to be analysed. Clarify the results desired from the analysis. Prepare a plan that answers questions such as: Who will conduct the analysis? What is the purpose of the analysis? How will the results be used? What sources or methods will be used to collect and analyse job information? Determine what the job entails. Review relevant background information such as organisation charts, process charts and job descriptions. Decide about which positions to focus the job analysis on. Actually analyse the job – by collecting data on the activities of the job, how the work must be done, various duties and tasks, the conditions under which the job incumbent works, and the skills and abilities required to do the job. Verify the job analysis information with the job incumbent, with his/her immediate supervisor, and with his/her subordinates. Develop the job description which includes a hierarchy of duties, tasks, task elements, responsibilities and working conditions. Linked to the job description should be the compilation of the job specification which delineates the personnel qualities, skills, traits and background employees require to properly perform the job. Get knowledgeable persons to verify the description of the job and the sequence of the tasks and subtasks. Analyse and use the results of the job analysis. 5.7.2 Methods for collecting job analysis information.4 There are several techniques used to determine what a job entails, for example, direct observation, questionnaires, interviews with the job incumbent and with the supervisor, participant diaries/logs, critical incident techniques (the identification of the critical job or task requirements to compare successful and unsuccessful performance), work performance, work procedures and daily work records. Furthermore, one can also use techniques such as the walk-and-talk technique (where the analyst accompanies the job incumbent in the work situation, with the analyst pointing out all the relevant actions and procedures, and so on, that the incumbent follows), the task matrix (where the actions of the incumbents are arranged in such a way that the various tasks can easily be identified), and Internet-based job analysis (using standardised job analysis questionnaires to geographically dispersed employees with the request to complete the questionnaire and returning it via the company’s intranet). Finally, one should not ignore the fact that technical publications, maintenance manuals, instruction manuals, etc, could also be useful sources of job analysis information.75–76 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 161  5.7 Task analysis.3 5.7.3 Nature, aims and steps of task analysis.1 Nature of task analysis: Once the job analysis and description have been completed, the next step in the design process is to conduct a task analysis. A task analysis is an intensive examination of how people perform work activities.77 Cekada78 mentions that a task analysis looks at the knowledge and skills requirements of each specific job and compares these requirements to employees’ actual knowledge and skills. A task analysis results in a description of work activities, including all the tasks performed by the employee and the knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviours required to complete the tasks.79–80 Aims of task analysis: The aims of a task analysis are to provide a comprehensive description of all the critical activities performed on the job, to isolate the required behaviour, to identify the conditions under which the behaviour will occur in the work situation, and to determine the criteria of acceptable performance. 81–82 Steps of task analysis: Truelove83 suggests that many training situations do not require a detailed breakdown of tasks into small component parts. However, he also mentions that some complex tasks must be painstakingly analysed in order that an accurate and detailed picture can be created. This will provide the basis of an operator or maintenance manual. The task analysis can be done in four steps as outlined in Table 5.1. TABLE 5.1 The four steps of task analysis STEP ACTIVITY REMARKS 1 Select the job or jobs to be analysed. You may consider any job or jobs of your choice for this purpose. 2 Develop a tentative list of tasks performed on the This can be done by talking to expert employees job. and their managers or talking to other persons who have performed a task analysis. 3 Confirm the tentative list of tasks by involving a Possible questions could include: How important group of job incumbents and managers to answer is the task? How frequently is the task in a meeting, or in a meeting or an opinion performed? How much time is spent on the task? questionnaire survey, answer questions regarding the tasks. 4 Identify the knowledge, skills or abilities Every task should require certain amount of necessary to successfully perform the tasks. knowledge or skills or other competency which should be identified. Source: Noe84 5.7.3 Required information and task analysis form.2 The information necessary to conduct a task analysis is usually obtained using a combination of methods such as observation, interviews, questionnaires, work-study procedures, and by studying the relevant instruction manuals. Once the information has been obtained, it is usually recorded on a task analysis form. The format of this form varies from situation to situation and Figure 5.6 is one such example of a task analysis form. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 162  FIGURE 5.6 One example of a format for task analysis In Figure 5.6: The ‘steps’ column must reflect a brief description of the main activities of the task. It must indicate ‘what must be done’. The ‘key points’ column must cover a detailed description of all the steps in the task. Guidelines for the writing of key points are as follows: The key points must be in a logical sequence. Use clear, unambiguous and brief language. Underline important points. Indicate problem areas. Each point should begin with a functional verb identifying the key operation. Key points may be broken down into subparagraphs to facilitate referencing. Point out the differences between the correct and incorrect way of handling a task. A variety of types of information may be included under key points in a task analysis, for example what the worker does, how the worker does it, and to whom, what and why the worker does it. It should be stated completely but not so detailed that it becomes a time and motion study! 5.7.3 Task flow-charting.3 Flow-charting is a useful method for conducting a task analysis. The task analysis in Figure 5.7 illustrates how a flow chart can depict the process of using a public telephone. 86 The diamonds show questions to be answered (yes or no), while the squares indicate specific activities. The flow chart can include additional questions or break down each activity into smaller steps. A flow chart should enable the training designer to determine the decisions encountered by the performer, the results of making the various decisions, and steps and feedback loops in the system. All relevant information collected from the task analysis should be reflected in the flow chart and all steps and feedback loops should be connected to indicate every possible route through the flow chart. In other words, the flow chart should be a complete reflection of the task from start to finish. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 163  FIGURE 5.7 Example of flow-charting 5.7.3 Behaviour pyramids.4 The behaviour pyramid is considered a very useful technique for conducting a task analysis and is ideally suited to the training designer who is also an expert in the particular subject of the course. It entails identifying the main skills to be acquired by the end of the course. Thereafter, the designer can systematically analyse the tasks through all the sublevels until the skills which the target population should already possess when entering the course are reached. The procedure for developing a behaviour pyramid is:88–89 Determine the final and main skills to be acquired. Analyse each of these skills in order to determine the prerequisite for each skill: What must the student know or do before performing this particular action? Each of the subskills is then recorded on the first level. The same questions are now asked with respect to each of the subskills which must be analysed in order to determine their components. These are then recorded for the second level. The procedure is then repeated several times for each of the preceding levels until the task has been analysed completely to the lowest level, bearing in mind the entry level of the students for whom the course has been developed. An example of such a behaviour pyramid is illustrated in Figure 5.8. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 164  FIGURE 5.8 Example of a behaviour pyramid 5.7.3 Concluding remarks.5 In this section, a number of aspects relating to task analysis were discussed. These included the various terms associated with a job analysis and a task analysis, and a variety of methods used for task analysis. Special emphasis was placed on the format for a task analysis as well as task flow-charting and the behaviour pyramid as techniques for conducting a task analysis. 5.8 Identifying student needs 5.8 Introduction.1 Every individual experiences a need to work, to survive, and to achieve. In view of the circumstances in which people find themselves today due to the explosion of knowledge as well as the ever-increasing scarcity of work, workers inherently feel that they have to keep abreast of events around them, live up to the demands imposed upon them, and perform the job to the best of their abilities. Since most people’s waking hours are spent at their jobs, it is important that they must be happy in the job and with their achievements at work. They must experience personal growth and fulfilment of their various needs within the work situation. Usually workers are not adequately equipped to fulfil all the demands of a job. Invariably they experience a need for further training and development in one or another area of their job. There is therefore a need for training or further training to ensure successful job performance, and there is a need for personal growth. Identifying these needs is an essential step in designing effective training programmes. 5.8 Types of student needs.2 We have already defined a need as the gap between the way things ‘are’ and the way things ‘ought to be’. It can also be seen as the difference between what is expected (the preferred goal) and what actually exists. So far we have examined needs essentially from an enterprise’s point of view. We will now focus on the needs of the individual. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 165  Six types of needs are identified:96 Normative needs: A normative need is present when an individual or group has less than some established standard – for example, when a person’s performance is less than the national standard. Felt needs: A felt need is seen as synonymous with want. It is usually determined by simply asking people what they wish for themselves. Expressed needs (or demands): An expressed need is similar to the economic idea that if people need something, they will create a demand – for example, if more students sign up for a course than there are vacancies, the administrators will start asking for more staff and facilities. Comparative needs: A comparative need exists when the characteristics of a population that does not receive a service are similar to the characteristics of a population that does receive such a service. If one school, for example, has a modern computer laboratory and a similar school has no laboratory, then a comparative need may be said to arise. Anticipated or future needs: These needs have to do with the demands of the future, such as the future need for students to cope with technological changes. Critical incident needs: Such needs relate to incidents where failures occur and where such failures may have profound consequences. It almost always implies some form of crisis. 5.8 Data gathering for the identification of student needs.3 5.8.3 Basis of data.1 The gathering of accurate and relevant data is a prerequisite for the identification of learning needs. There are a number of sources and methods that are useful for collecting data determining student needs. The sources of data should be as specific as possible. For job-related training, it must be the people actually doing the job – the potential students. 5.8.3 Sources of data.2 The following sources can be utilised to obtain data with respect to student needs: Production/output records: These are records of quantity and quality of production. Where there is no measurable production, you should look for output records such as a log of calls made, completed letters processed or some other way of quantifying the output. Performance appraisals: Performance appraisals can be very important sources of data for assessing learning needs, provided they are valid and reliable. They can be a useful source of data for determining individual needs if used correctly. The supervisors: The supervisor is a fundamental source of data. Supervisors normally have a great deal of data available, which may support the need for training of the individual, and they are consequently a useful source, especially if a number of supervisors can be consulted in respect of similar needs. The employee: By using the employee as a source, the training designer can verify whether or not employees have the ability to perform the job expected of them. This can be done by using the job performance requirements determined previously and comparing these with the actual ability and knowledge of the employee. 5.8.3 Methods of collecting data.3 A number of methods can be used for collecting data with respect to student needs. Some of these methods have already been discussed in Section 5.6. Interviews: Preferably with potential students or a sample of potential students. Interviews can be done on a one-on-one basis or by telephone. During the interview it could be useful to use a EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 166  structured or semi-structured questionnaire to provide purpose and structure for questions to be asked. It would also be advisable to make an appointment before starting interviews, even for telephone interviews. The advantages of interviews are that specific information can be gathered directly from specialists, non-verbal messages can be read, rapport can be developed and personal feelings heard. The disadvantages are that it takes time and is expensive, may not feel confidential, may be affected by the interviewer’s bias and is not a practical method if information has to be obtained from a large number of people. Observation: This entails observations of the employees actually doing the job, particularly those who are considered by the supervisor to have a need for training. During observations, people are watched while they are performing their jobs. It is suggested that the reason for the observation should be explained and that the observation is unobtrusive. This method should also be used in conjunction with other methods. The advantages are that the actual situation – where and how the job is performed – is observed. It is therefore a very objective method of obtaining facts. Furthermore, workers are not removed from their jobs. The disadvantages are that people may modify their behaviour if they know that they are being watched, and not all aspects of the job are subject to observation. Focus group interviews: Focus group interviews are established with individuals who share an interest in the subject on which information is gathered. For example, it may be a group of subject specialists who meet to establish the responsibilities of a training manager in a specific enterprise. The process is normally facilitated by a person responsible for data gathering. The facilitator should ensure that the focus group is representative of all the stakeholders. It is suggested that the agenda be kept short and concise, and that interruptions be minimised to ensure the workflow. The advantages of focus groups are that they create an open atmosphere for discussion, and participants react to suggestions by others. A number of ideas and information can be generated. The disadvantages of focus groups are that the information is subjective and can be difficult to manage. It can also be expensive and time consuming. Questionnaires and surveys: As discussed earlier, the questionnaire is a useful method of obtaining data for determining needs. In this context, it may be used to obtain related information for verification. Bear in mind, however, that although the questionnaire is appropriate for obtaining data about knowledge requirements, it is not suitable for assessing skills. Questionnaires are developed with closed and/or open-ended questions, and information is gathered without having to make appointments, as the questionnaire is filled in by respondents in their own time. Clear instructions must be provided for the respondents and a covering letter explaining the purpose and reasons for the questionnaire and the survey must be provided. The advantages are that many employees may be reached, confidentiality can be assured and it is relatively inexpensive. The results are also more objective. The disadvantages are that the response rate could be low and employees may not feel involved. Poorly formulated questions will provide unsatisfactory answers. Document analysis: Document analysis requires that relevant documents be studied to determine the contents and context of the problem. This method should ideally be used in combination with other methods, and the reason for this must be clearly explained to the job incumbents. Annual reports, work documents, job descriptions and tasks, and reports are examples of documents to be analysed. Some of the advantages are that it provides background information without imposing on other people’s time, and provides examples and clues to be used during interviews. The disadvantages are that the focus is limited, it can be time consuming and not many documents may be available. Skills and knowledge tests: Testing is a method of obtaining information with respect to the student’s potential to do the job, but the other methods already discussed are considered more appropriate to assess learning needs. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 167  5.8.3 Formula for determining the training need.4 ‘Once the job performance requirements are known, the designer must determine the difference between the skills possessed by those targeted for training and the skills required to operate the system or master the educational challenge.’97 See Nadler’s model98 (Chapter 1) to determine the need, which is seen as the difference between expected and actual job performance. For ease of reference, the model for determining the training need dealt with in Chapter 1 is illustrated below: P – KD = N where P = represents expected performance KD = represents what the employee already knows N = represents needs. It is important that the results of the differences determined above be listed and organised properly, and that the words used by the designer have the same meaning to other people in the enterprise. 5.8 Analysis of training and development needs.4 The next step requires the analysis of the list of needs obtained from the needs assessment in order to ensure that these relate to the organisation and job performance requirements. Furthermore, the list should be categorised and related items should be grouped together. If there are variations due to individuals, these variations should be noted and the analysis should indicate which individuals have specific needs. It is highly probable that the needs identified during a TNA will be much more extensive than what can be met through current capacity, infrastructure and resources. For this reason, it is imperative that the needs be prioritised. The following guidelines are suggested:99 Some of the training and development needs will be automatically dictated by the policy or strategy of the organisation. For example, the organisation may have decided, as part of its strategy, to embark on a specific management development programme, specific skills programme or to provide training for specified occupational groups to ensure that they are up to date with current best practise. A second consideration is that one would have to differentiate between training needs and training wants, that is, between the essential and the desirable. The focus should be on the essential needs that can be linked to organisational objectives and outcomes and that can be costed. Pareto analysis is one of the techniques that can be used to define the highest priority training needs for the organisation. In essence, the Pareto principle states that for many phenomena, 20% of invested input is responsible for 80% of the results obtained.100 The value of the Pareto principle for the training practitioner is that by focusing on the 20 per cent of the training needs that really matter, one can produce 80 per cent of the results. The essential needs can therefore be prioritised via the Pareto principle. The British Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development (CIPD) developed an approach with the acronym RAM (Relevance, Alignment, Measurement) which can guide the training practitioner to focus the analysis of needs on the key business and organisational outcomes:101 Relevance: How will the planned training meet new opportunities and challenges for the business, i.e. how relevant is the training need to the needs of the organisation? Alignment: Is the intended training aligned to the requirements of key managers and other stakeholders about what they are seeking and how the function can help them achieve it? Furthermore, is the training need aligned to other key strategies of human resource and other functional departments such as marketing, finance, operations and other dimensions of corporate strategy? Measurement: It is furthermore crucial that any intended training intervention be consistently EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 168  measured and evaluated in terms of the return on investment (ROI). This RAM approach can therefore help to ensure that the needs analysis does not become too inward-focused, but rather maintains a clear focus on business improvement. 5.8 Feedback.5 When all the learning needs have been identified and systematically organised, their correctness has to be monitored by means of evaluation and feedback. This is best done by using the supervisors involved as well as those who were involved in the initial determination of needs. The list of needs should be circulated to those concerned to get their comments. It is recommended that the training designer should obtain specific answers to the following questions before proceeding with the next step of the design process: Will job performance improve if these needs have been satisfied? Will the problem be solved if the needs are satisfied? How important are the needs? Is there a need for the job to be redesigned? Should any of the tasks be reallocated? Should some employees be transferred instead of undergoing training? What is the availability of the employees to undergo the required training? What other constraints need to be considered that might influence decisions with respect to training? 5.9 The Workplace Skills Plan (WSP) and the skills audit 5.9 Introduction.1 The last topic that will be dealt with in this chapter is the so-called ‘Workplace Skills Plan’ that enterprises are required to compile in terms of the Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998) (see Chapter 2, Section 2.5.3) and the Skills Development Levies Act (No. 9 of 1999) (see Chapter 2, Section 2.5.4). The WSP has already been referred to in Chapter 2 (see Section 2.5.3.8). In essence, the WSP is a plan approved by the SETA which outlines the training and development requirements for an enterprise for one year. The WSP is closely linked to the training and development needs assessment process discussed earlier in this chapter, since the results of the TNA of the enterprise, of groups in the enterprise and of individual students can now be used as inputs for the compilation of the WSP. However, in terms of national initiatives and the training-related legislation, there are other factors that should also be taken into consideration when compiling the WSP. These are, for example, the government’s national human resource strategy, the requirements of the relevant sector plans that are promulgated by the relevant SETA, and the requirements of employment equity as prescribed in the relevant legislation on employment equity. The relevant SETA should be approached for guidelines and directions for compiling the WSP and for the list of priorities relevant to all organisations within that sector. 5.9 Benefits of the WSP.2 WSPs can impact positively on a number of areas within the enterprise. First, training needs and skills requirements are identified and positive ways are devised to address them. Second, once management and employees start to discuss the skills requirements and other training needs in the workplace, they could uncover the undiscovered talent and skills in the enterprise. Last, the enterprise can obtain some return on its investment in terms of the levy-grant system associated with the Skills Development Levies Act. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 169  5.9 Requirements of the WSP.3 The outline of the WSP is prescribed by the relevant SETA. The following information should be contained in the WSP102 (see Annexure G for a discussion of the steps for compiling a WSP): the number of persons to be trained by occupational group and race the enterprise’s strategic priorities for the skills development qualitative information relevant to skills planning (referring to the recruitment and filling procedure) the training and education needed to ensure the development of the business and employees, including proposed training interventions, estimated costs, specific job types and whether the interventions are to be conducted by external or internal training providers of the organisations themselves issues relating to employment equity in the enterprise. 5.9 Skills audit.4 The WSP should flow from the strategic human resource training and development plan (see Chapter 1). Its aim is to develop the capacity of employees in an enterprise to achieve the business goals. The needs analysis process, as described in this chapter, is therefore an essential ingredient for a meaningful WSP. In addition, one of the steps in the compilation of a WSP (Step 3) is the requirement for a skills audit. The skills audit is an investigation which is undertaken to determine the actual skills of the current workforce in order to define the skills gaps and real skills requirements of the enterprise. According to Meyer,103 it is a process where skills held by employees are identified and compared to skills required now and in the future so that the skill shortfall (or gap) or surplus can be determined.’ The ultimate aims of a skills audit are to establish the following (see Annexure G for a discussion of the requirements and process of the skills audit): What skills actually exist within the enterprise? How do they compare to the organisational skills requirements as determined through the workforce planning and job analyses process? Is the individual employee performing to standard, and if not, what is the gap between the current and desired standard?104 What are the skills development priorities (per occupational group, levels, and demographic profile)? How and when can the skills development priorities best be addressed through a systematic plan? What are the key success indicators/measures of the WSP? How can we implement, track and monitor progress? What should be reported to management and the relevant SETA? A skills audit requires time, money and expertise. Unfortunately, many enterprises undertake training without making this essential preliminary investment. Often there is no systematic plan to predict future skills development needs or to determine whether perceived skills development requirements can be addressed by training. Several data gathering techniques may be used for the purpose of a skills audit. This includes interviews, basic questionnaires, checklists and document reviews. The information required for this purpose could be obtained from managers, employees, students, ETD practitioners, subject matter experts, previous audits, training records, and student records.105 The following stages for a skills audit are suggested:106 Stage 1: First ascertain what skill sets the organisation will require in order for business strategies EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 170  to be achieved. Stage 2: Establish what skills are required per role, per job, per task or per organisational process. Combine the two skills sets into a matrix to form the ‘desired’ skills set for the organisation. Stage 3: The desired skills set is then compared to the ‘current’ skills, which are determined through the assessment of the skills of individual employees. Developing a WSP is a systematic process which entails: workforce planning proper job analysis as an input to the workforce planning process identifying and defining the skills requirements of the organisation as derived from the workforce planning process a skills audit to determine the actual skills of the current workforce defining skills training priorities as derived from the skills training needs identifying skills programmes to address the skills training needs implementing the WSP monitoring, evaluating and reporting on the WSP establishing a quality assurance system to ensure effective and value-added skills training and development. REFLECTION Find out whether your organisation has developed a WSP for this year and if so, what aspects have been included in the WSP. Are there any additional aspects that should be included in your opinion? Summary This chapter started with a discussion of the concept of TNA and the various levels of types of needs assessment in the enterprise. It also dealt with the models and techniques for needs assessment. Specific attention was given to job analysis as an element of the needs determination process as well as task analysis, and the determination of student needs. The chapter concluded with a discussion of WSPs and the skills audit which are closely associated with TNA. Questions for self-evaluation 1 Explain the concept of training needs assessment and its importance in terms of training and development in general. 2 Briefly describe the different levels at which a TNA is done in an organisation. Apply these levels to your own working environment by supplying examples of each level. 3 Describe the various techniques that are used for conducting a TNA. 4 What are the steps to be taken to determine training needs according to Graham and Mihal? 5 Explain the steps that need to be taken to determine training needs according to Michalak and Yager. 6 Differentiate between the concepts of job analysis and task analysis. 7 What methods are used to establish student needs for training? 8 Discuss the requirements and benefits of WSPs. 9 Discuss the relationship between the TNA process and a WSP. 10 What is the relation between a skills audit and the WSP? 11 Why is the TNA considered a key activity of the systems approach to training and development? Discuss. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 171  CASE STUDY 1 NANO SPEED COMPUTER SERVICES (PTY) LTD Founding partners Sipho Pityani and Violet Oliphant formed Nano Speed Computer Services in 1997. The company focused on consulting services for all industries with regard to diversity applications and performance excellence as well as strategic managerial advice to improve productivity and profitability in enterprises. Nano Speed Computer Services, soon known as NSCS, was very successful, with its turnover and profits growing in leaps and bounds. Staff numbers also grew very rapidly and soon reached 64 full-time employees. The founders realised in 2000 that other areas could also be addressed in the field of management consulting and that good money could be made. Top management went ahead and established a wholly-owned subsidiary, Business Ahoy Services (BAHS), in April 2001. A new managing director, Rowan Chetty, was recruited. The new consulting subsidiary within NSCS started doing business in April 2001. A new vision and business model was also established in October 2001 to which the original senior staff provided a major input. BAHS was to be a niche-market consultancy, primarily consulting in human resources and concentrating on industrial relations-related issues. The company embarked on an aggressive recruitment drive, and individuals in management positions in competing consultancies were handsomely rewarded if they joined BAHS. The model focused strongly on the ‘Centres of Excellence’ approach and gave support to NSCS where possible, but also aggressively sought their own business opportunities. Teams aligned themselves to this new model and organised themselves and sales staff strategically to hunt for business opportunities. This subsidiary grew from a complement of three initial staff members in April 2001 to 44 in November 2001. From the word go, the business grew rapidly due to the driving force of the managing director. In September 2001, however, a new general manager by the name of Mbuli Muzarewa was appointed. He joined the company from Bongani Computers Warehouse in Port Elizabeth after he was given a lucrative offer. His task was to expand business rapidly in Gauteng and head up the expansion of BAHS to achieve a 35% profit by the end of the financial year, 28 February 2002. The staff worked hard and was under the impression that they were successful. However, by the end of the financial year they had only achieved a 20% profit margin. On 1 April 2002 top management announced the possible retrenchment of staff due to the company’s inability to reach the targeted profit margin. The approach proceeded under the direct authority of Mr Muzarewa in terms of the following point of departure. The proposed selection criteria concerning employees for possible retrenched were based on: redundancy LIFO (Last in, first out, but with the retention of key skills). Ten staff members were identified for retrenchment. Considering their background, the conditions presented to them were as outlined above. One of the persons identified for retrenchment was Sibusizo Dladla. His personal details are as follows: Dladla was recruited as one of the first four people in April 2001 to assist in the establishment of the consulting service of BAHS. It originally took the managing director four months until September 2000 of recruitment effort to obtain Dladla’s services at a competitive remuneration package. He had been in a very successful private consulting practice for five years prior to his appointment. Demand for his type of expertise at BAHS was so high that his team soon grew to eight staff members, who were very successful in their consulting endeavours. His success was encouraged by the highest possible salary increase that BAHS could afford at the end of 2001, which included share options to be redeemed from 2005. However, after extensive consultation between management and the representative union for computer workers, no agreement could be reached. It was decided not to retrench the workers but that they should rather be retrained to become computer sales persons to enter the currently lucrative market for computers and accessories in South Africa. A consultant would be appointed to do the job. Question You are the consultant. Demonstrate your skill in executing a TNA for computer sales people to become competent in selling computers and laser printers in particular. Use the principles you know and employ the needs analysis approach of the models you have studied. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/2/2023 1:09 PM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 172  CASE STUDY 2 TZANEEN BEST TEA GROWERS ASSOCIATION (TBTGA) TBTGA has 90 employees who are mainly semi-skilled. The company’s core business consists of servicing farmers who grow tea. It also deals with other related factors, such as drying and packaging tea. TBTGA has been in existence for 51 years and has assets of just over R60 million and an annual turnover of R700 million. Tea farming has never been easy in South Africa. Climatic conditions, which often result in droughts or flooding, such as the recent floods in Limpopo Province, provide major risks for farming in that province. Th