Chapter 8 STEM Project-Based Learning in Inclusive Settings: Students With and at Risk of Disabilities.pdf

Chapter 8 STEM Project-Based Learning in Inclusive Settings: Students With and at Risk of Disabilities Denise A. Soares Allison Oliver University of Mississippi University of Mississippi Judith R. Harrison...

Chapter 8 STEM Project-Based Learning in Inclusive Settings: Students With and at Risk of Disabilities Denise A. Soares Allison Oliver University of Mississippi University of Mississippi Judith R. Harrison Kimberly J. Vannest Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey University of Vermont Today's classroom is a heterogeneous grouping of students with diverse backgrounds and abilities in learning and behavior. This chapter focuses on how to reach all students through the use of project-based learning (PBL) to support the 21st century learning skills. Teachers teach students with a variety of characteristics, including those who learn easily and must be challenged, those at risk of school failure, and those who are challenged in typical learning environments, such as students with learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and emotion and behavioral disorders. Integrating PBL into the classroom for the purpose of developing 21st century skills provides a rich environment for all students to grow and learn in a way that leads to lifelong learning while also allowing students to explore areas relevant to their own life experiences, interests, and communities. Through group-based inquiry, students are taught to apply skills needed to learn and be innovative, explore and use information media and technology, and acquire skills for a successful transition to life and career after high school. This chapter begins with a discussion of the characteristics of and learning considerations necessary for exceptional and diverse learners, describes the 21st century skills and key elements of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) PBL, and concludes with the application of these elements to address learner characteristics and improve student participation and performance. 124 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings  Chapter Outcomes When you complete this chapter, you should better understand inclusive settings the characteristics and issues of students at risk of school failure and with disabilities the importance of 21st century skills for student success in STEM PBL fundamental elements of STEM PBL When you complete this chapter, you should be able to integrate activities that help develop 21st century skills into lessons define key features of STEM PBL projects differentiate instruction to enable successful inclusion during STEM PBL Chapter Overview In this chapter, we will first discuss the increasing need for teachers to be familiar with inclusive learning settings, what makes a student at risk of school failure, and the more common types of learning disabilities teachers may encounter among their students. We then describe the 21st century skills and why they are necessary for success in the modern world. We also describe the major characteristics of PBL. Finally, we explain how the merging of 21st century skills within STEM PBL learning can provide excellent and effective learning opportunities for at-risk students and provide examples of well-delivered lessons for students with various learning disabilities. Inclusive Settings Today’s classrooms are inclusive of students with a variety of characteristics and experiences (Gargiulo et al., 2017). Students with and without disabilities from diverse cultures and ethnicities learn and grow together. Within this context, teachers must maintain high expectations while differentiating instruction to reflect students' respective cultures and address the individual needs of all learners. Looking through the window of an inclusive classroom, we hope the observer will see teachers and students learning. It is likely that there will be more than one adult. The role of each adult will not be clear as they work simultaneously for the education of their students. It is not about labels, it is about supports and services needed for the success of all. With prior knowledge, the observer might know that one teacher is a general education teacher, typically the content expert. If the classroom is an upper elementary or middle school classroom, it is likely that this teacher has expertise in the content being taught (i.e., math, biology). The other adult in the classroom is likely to be a STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 125 special education teacher, with expertise in addressing the individual needs of students that are at-risk or have disabilities. Oftentimes, in addition to these two individuals, there will be teaching assistants helping the general education teacher maintain organization of materials and activities and providing individual or group assistance to students. The observer will not be able to identify students with disabilities based on adult actions. In addition, students in the classroom will be working in heterogeneous groups with multicultural materials and ideas. As such, the classroom and content reflect the richness of diverse cultures. Inclusive settings are flourishing for multiple reasons. First, instruction of students is driven by federal, state, and local initiatives that have evolved from recommending exclusionary practices to those of inclusive settings grounded in individuality. For example, in 2002, the Elementary and Secondary Act was reauthorized as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) and moved the focus from access to services to one of inclusion, accountability, and high standards for all students. Similarly, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was reauthorized as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA; 2004), which emphasized instruction for all students in the general education curriculum. These initiatives place a focus on states and local schools to boost academic progress for all students. The changes were driven by the theoretical benefits of inclusive settings and a focus on careful consideration of the civil rights of all students. Inclusive classrooms are tailored to meet the needs of all learners. As such, individual differences become a strength of the classroom community and are not perceived as significant deficits. This teaches all students to appreciate individual differences and demonstrate respect for one another. In inclusive settings, teachers maintain high expectations and provide supports as needed. These practices result in the maintenance of high expectations and standards for all students. Although there are many children with diverse needs, each is individual and should be first recognized as such. Nonetheless, disabilities are “named” to identify individuals with similar characteristics in order to research strategies and services to address common strengths and challenges. In addition, for students to receive special education resources and support, they must demonstrate sufficient characteristics to be identified as a student with one of the 13 eligibility categories. For our purposes in this chapter, we will discuss students currently and typically described by the educational terms of at-risk, learning disabilities (LD), attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). As more and more students from diverse backgrounds populate 21st century classrooms, efforts continue to identify effective teaching methods. This effort includes all students: children from multicultural backgrounds, children from homes in which English is not the primary language, and children with disabilities (Gonzalez et al., 2006; IDEIA, 2004; NCLBA, 2002). If all 126 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings children are going to reach their full potential, teachers must be sensitive to and familiar with the diverse needs of the children and families they serve and must be cognizant of using inclusive and developmentally appropriate practices on an ongoing basis in their classrooms. Students Who Are At-Risk Definition According to the National Research Council’s report Improving America’s Schools: The Role of Incentives (1996), at-risk status is defined as circumstances that decrease the likelihood of succeeding in “school as the schools are currently constituted because [the students] do not have the home, family, and community experiences on which school success is built” (p. 225). Prevalence and/or Incidence Unlike ADHD, LD, and EBD, the prevalence of at-risk students is not tracked nationally primarily due to a lack of definition of the at-risk categories. Nonetheless, the National Center for Children in Poverty identified prevalence based on the number of risk factors. As such, they found that 41% of children between the ages of 0 and 6 experienced between one and two risk factors and 20% of students experienced over three risk factors in the United States (Robbins et al., 2012). Additionally, the Institute for Education Sciences’ The Condition of Education 2020 reported that 5.3% of 16- to 24-year-olds in the United States dropped out of high school between 2006 and 2018 (Hussar et al., 2020). Furthermore, 22.3% of families with children lived in poverty, 10.1% were English Language Learners, and 14% were children with disabilities. Characteristics Students who are at risk of school failure are known to struggle academically, and, left unaddressed, these students amass a history of academic failure. This struggle is closely aligned with several characteristics of families and schools. First, they often are habitually truant/chronically absent from school (McFarland et al., 2019). In 2018, Garcia and Weiss reported that students who receive free or reduced lunch based on family income status were twice as likely to miss more than 10 days of school. This might be explained by several factors, including responsibilities beyond school, lack of relevance of content covered at school, lack of importance placed on educational attainment, and peer group. Often in high-poverty homes, older children take the responsibility for their younger siblings. This means that they are responsible for taking care of children younger than six at home and managing the care of elementary age children, including making their meals, transporting them to school, and getting homework done (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). When families are living in this level of poverty, it is possible that they do not place a great deal of importance on high school completion. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 127 In addition to family characteristics, school characteristics are known to contribute to at-risk status. When the school climate is poor, students are less likely to graduate (Hopson & Lee, 2011). Schools that make students feel like they do not belong and inherently describe low expectations of student academic or behavior success, then students are less likely to graduate. Hopson and Lee (2011) found that a cohesive social context is reduced by a severity of educational problems found in urban minority schools. It is more than simply lack of attendance; at times when students are at school, they are not engaged due to the accumulation of risk factors. When schools seem foreign to students, not aligning with their home life, culture, or experiences, they are less likely to want to be at school (Hopson & Lee, 2011). Students With Learning Disabilities Definition Learning disability (LD) is a legal term that schools use to classify a range of students for service provision under the IDEIA, a federal mandate. An LD is identified by a discrepancy in intelligence scores and performance or as a failure to respond to effective instruction and repeated intervention. LD is commonly demonstrated as a deficit in one or more of the following skill areas: language, reading, writing, listening, speaking, reasoning, and mathematics. The federal definition further states that disorders related to LDs include such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. LDs do not include learning problems that are caused by visual, hearing, or physical disabilities; emotional or behavioral disorders; cognitive impairment; sensory impairment; inadequate parenting; or a lack of educational opportunities. The criteria for identifying students with LD vary across the United States. Prior to the reauthorization of the IDEIA in 2004, LD was identified by a discrepancy between achievement and intelligence quotient; however, different states interpret “discrepancy” differently. As such, a student might receive services for an LD in one state but not in another. With the reauthorization of the IDEIA, school districts were given the option of using response to intervention to identify students with LD. Response to intervention is a process of providing increasingly intensive evidence- based interventions through multi-tier systems of support to determine student response. LD is determined when students make insufficient progress through the process. Prevalence and/or Incidence In the United States, as many as one out of every five individuals has a learning disability. In the school year 2018–19, a higher percentage of students ages 3–21 received special education services under IDEA for learning disabilities than for any other type of disability. In the academic year of 2018–19, 33% of all students who received special education services had learning disabilities (McFarland et al., 2019). 128 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings Characteristics Students with LDs are a heterogeneous group and exhibit difficulties in many different areas. LDs occur in the area of reading, comprehension, writing, and mathematics. Some students with LDs demonstrate performance that is inconsistent and struggle to retain information. One day they have mastered the content and the next they have completely forgotten it. Many have trouble following and understanding directions. Additionally, students with LDs might struggle to organize and sequence their thoughts. For many, these challenges result in a lack of self-esteem and confidence. Further, LD is comorbid with many other disabilities, such as ADHD and emotional and behavioral disorders. Students With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Definition ADHD is a neurobiological disorder. Students with ADHD demonstrate inattention and/or hyperactive impulsive behavior. According to the American Psychiatric Association’s (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), students must demonstrate at least six symptoms of inattention or six symptoms of hyperactive-impulsive behavior prior to the age of 12 years old to be diagnosed with ADHD. Additionally, impairment must be evident in two or more settings, such as home and school. Although ADHD is not an official eligibility criteria for special education per the IDEIA, a joint policy memorandum of understanding by Robert R. Davila, Assistant Secretary, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services; Michael L. Williams, Assistant Secretary, Office for Civil Rights; and John T. MacDonald, Assistant Secretary, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education clarified that ADHD falls under the category of “Other Health Impaired” if ADHD resulted in limited alertness that interfered with academic performance (see Davila et al., 1991). Further, ADHD is known to be comorbid with many other special education eligibility categories, such as LD and EBD. Prevalence and/or Incidence Approximately 8.5 to 10.6% of children and adolescents meet the criteria for ADHD (Wolraich et al., 2014). As such, all classrooms in the United States include at least one student with ADHD. Murray et al. (2014) found slightly over half (51.6%) of high school students who had a medical diagnosis of ADHD were receiving services through a special education eligibility or a 504 plan and that 64% of those students were in general education classrooms. Characteristics Students with ADHD are characterized by impairments in many areas, including behavior, academic, and social domains. Academic performance is impaired because students with ADHD struggle with materials and assignment organization, initiating and maintaining STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 129 attention to task, avoiding distractions (both internal and environmental), and managing time. Homework is especially problematic for students with ADHD, as they struggle to document homework to be completed, arrive at home with necessary materials, and plan and complete long-term assignments. Problems with classroom behavior include challenges to remain in their designated area and managing disruptive behavior, such as fidgeting with objects, calling out without permission, and talking to peers when attempting to complete independent work (Cortiella & Horowitz, 2014). Socially, students with ADHD are challenged to make and maintain friends because they may appear to be withdrawn (Mikami et al., 2007) or intrusive. Students with ADHD are frequently impatient, irritable, quickly frustrated, and easily annoyed or excited (Barkley & Fischer, 2010; Sacchetti & Lefler, 2017). Furthermore, students with ADHD are more likely to take unnecessary risks than their typically developing peers (Ronk et al., 2011), resulting in reluctance from peers to befriend them. Students Who Have Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Definition The term “Emotional and Behavioral Disorders” is used to identify a large heterogeneous group of students who have emotional and/or behavioral disabilities that interfere with school and learning. EBD is referred to as “emotional disturbance” in the IDEIA, and the definition includes the demonstration of severe social, emotional, or behavioral functioning that is significantly different from generally accepted, age-appropriate ethnic or cultural norms. These differences must appear for periods of time and across a variety of settings. Social, emotional, or behavioral functioning includes social relationships, personal adjustment, classroom adjustment, self-care, and vocational skills (Child With a Disability, 2002). Although the official language in the law is “emotional disturbance,” we refer to EBD throughout this chapter because we prefer the term and definition proposed by the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition in the 1990s (see Forness, 1989, for full definition), as it is less stigmatizing and takes into consideration behavioral as well as emotional challenges. As evident in the definition, an emotional disorder can affect a child in all aspects and areas beyond emotional disability. Prevalence and/or Incidence Children and youth identified as having EBD represent 5% of all students aged 6–21 being served under the IDEIA (McFarland et al., 2019). EBD is more common in boys than in girls. Boys outnumber girls by 3.5 to 1 (Oswald et al., 2003). However, the Report of the Surgeon General’s Conference on Children’s Mental Health (U.S. Public Health Service, 2000) proposed the actual number of students with EBD is much higher. This suggests that many of the children and youth who could qualify for service under the IDEIA may not be identified and 130 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings may not receive adequate support to assist them with the emotional and behavioral challenges they face both in and out of school settings. Characteristics Students with EBD demonstrate behaviors that range from severe aggression to anxiety and withdrawal that interfere with academic performance. In addition, these students may exhibit behaviors incongruent with their age level (e.g., temper tantrums, inappropriate crying, distorted thinking, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings). Not surprisingly, many students with EBD experience poor academic performance. They fail more courses, earn lower grade point averages, miss more days of school, and are retained more than students with other disabilities (Gage et al., 2014; Kauffman, 2001). Students with EBD are excluded from school twice as frequently than students with other disabilities (Office for Civil Rights, 2016). Based on the most recent data, approximately 35% of students with EBD leave school before graduating (McFarland et al., 2017). This represents a 17% decrease since we last published this chapter; however, 35% is still far too great and is still much higher than other disability categories. Furthermore, students with EBD were at least twice as likely to have been arrested. Students with EBD are more likely to use alcohol, illegal drugs, marijuana, and tobacco than their typically developing peers. Many children and adolescents who do not have EBD may display some of these same behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children have an emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time. Their behavior signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers. 21st Century Skills In our current educational environment, we are focused on content-driven standards and standardized testing. Traditional classrooms consist of teachers using didactic teaching methods (e.g., teacher selects the topic, dispenses information, controls instruction, obligates a response, evaluates the response, and provides reinforcement) that inhibits a student’s opportunity to think critically and discover how to solve problems (Dossey et al., 1988; National Research Council, 2012), skills defined as necessary 21st century skills (Dede, 2010). As such, we provide a brief description of three domains (see Figure 1) of 21st century skills in this section, followed by a section describing the integration of 21st century skills and STEM PBL in inclusive settings. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 131 Figure 1. 21st Century Skills The three domains of 21st century skills are learning and innovations skills or competencies, information media and technology, and life and career skills (Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development, 2005). Our society, including home and work environments, changes rapidly with ever-evolving technologies. Simply teaching students content knowledge is insufficient. Students must be taught to adapt and be responsive to changes. In order to do this, students must become flexible lifelong learners in a global community adapting to fast- paced life. The crux of 21st century skills are embedded and have been taught through PBL for decades. Learning and Innovation Skills Learning and innovations skills include the key elements labeled the “4 C’s”: critical thinking/problem solving, creativity, communication, and collaboration. This pillar teaches students about the processes required to adapt and improve upon a work environment. Critical Thinking/Problem Solving. The purpose of teaching critical-thinking and problem-solving skills is to teach students the mental processes required to adapt and improve environments. Students are taught to think critically by synthesizing, analyzing, and critiquing the situation and making evidence-based decisions. When students are taught to think critically, they learn to persist with difficult tasks without giving up, manage impulsivity by being reflective to disrupt impulsive decisions, to be flexible in their thinking without being rigid and hung up on their own ideas, to apply knowledge learned from past experiences to current situations (i.e., make connections), and to be lifelong learners (Costa & Kalllick, 2008). 132 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings In the classroom, students are taught to be critical thinkers through PBL by teaching students to make thoughtful decisions through projects that cannot be completed impulsively because they require thoughtful and patient reflection. Creativity. The purpose of fostering and enhancing students creatively is to encourage students to comfortably engage in the creation of new and innovative ideas and/or products. Students are encouraged to take risks and express their ideas without fear of being criticized or chastised. When students are allowed to explore their creativity, they learn to imagine, design, elaborate, and critically evaluate their own work and the work of others. When teachers implement PBL activities, the learning environment becomes one that encourages creativity. Collaboration. The purpose of teaching students skills for effective collaboration is to develop students’ skills to be good team members in order to work efficiently and effectively in today’s work environments. Collaboration is taught through group work where the teacher should direct the groups to establish leadership roles, delegate tasks, schedule team communication, listen, debate and then redelegate new tasks. They must learn to respect each other's ideas, compromise as appropriate, and ultimately build consensus around the cumulative group idea. Students are taught these skills so that the final piece is richer as a result of multiple minds working together. Teachers must identify the skills, provide the opportunity, and shape and reinforce the skills as they are demonstrated. In PBL, students learn these skills as they engage in developing projects. Communication. The purpose of fostering written and oral communication skills is to teach students the skills needed to exchange information, explain their ideas, or to persuade. Students learn to communicate in ways that are effective, respectful, persuasive, motivating, and instructive. Good communication involves the verbal or written delivery of ideas in a clear and concise manner. In the 21st century, written and verbal communication has taken many forms, including emails, podcasts, blogs, and video conferencing. Further, good communication involves active listening skills, such as reflecting, summarizing, comprehending, and responding. Good communication is at the center of all project-based activities. Information Media and Technology Information media and technology includes three key elements: information literacy, media literacy, and technology literacy. The pillar focuses on teaching students to utilize technology and to discern fact from opinion and misinformation and evaluate the trustworthiness of sources. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 133  Information Literacy. The purpose of teaching students to be information literate is to develop informed consumers. Students learn to seek and access accurate information from sources that target their topic of interest. They must be taught the skill of weighing all information to determine what is factual. In addition, they must have the skill and knowledge to apply the facts. Whereas in the past students have struggled to find information, searching endlessly through print materials, today’s students are bombarded with electronic information (e.g., websites, blogs, podcasts, documentaries, advertisements), some accurate and some not. Media Literacy. The purpose of teaching students to be media literate is to assist them in identifying different means and outlets of published information. Students are taught to identify credible sources and others that should be questioned. If students do not have this knowledge and skill, they will trust any sources that appear to be credible. Many consumers of information today simply ignore sources that are not credible, whereas consumers that are not media literate may turn to unreliable sources and get inaccurate information. Technology Literacy. The purpose of teaching students to be technology literate gives them the knowledge they need in relation to the machines, systems, software, and applications that drive modern technology. Students are taught basic information to help them understand how technology works. This understanding makes students feel less anxious about technology and increases their feelings of comfort when exploring available technology. Individuals who have sufficient levels of technology literacy are able to adapt to an ever-changing world filled with complex and powerful machines. Life and Career skills Life and career skills include five key elements: flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self- direction, productivity and accountability, social and cross-cultural skills, and leadership and responsibility. This pillar assists students in developing the qualities needed to function personally and professionally in modern society. Flexibility and Adaptability. The purpose of teaching students to be flexible and adapt to life circumstances is to enhance their ability to function successfully in current, ever- changing environments that require problem solving and team work. Being flexible requires students to actively listen and comprehend the contributions of others, even when you disagree. This flexibility is necessary for team decisions, as everyone cannot be “right” all of the time. Students have to know when to be willing to compromise, when to recognize the value in others' thoughts and ideas, and how to persuade others. This is a difficult skill to learn, but it is absolutely necessary for success in today’s professional environment. Individuals have to understand that they will be lifelong learners, learning from each other and ever-changing information. 134 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings  Initiative and Self-Direction. The purpose of teaching students to take initiative and be self-directive is to teach them to be self-starters and to reach their own goals without relying on others. Students who take initiative and are self-directed know how to identify their own goals, set their own goals, and reinforce themselves for reaching those goals. These students tend to be those who act and are avid risk-takers who step outside of their own comfort zones. Students who demonstrate initiative are self-starters, develop challenging goals, and overcome barriers to success. These skills are necessary in the classroom and workforce today, as most employers expect employees to utilize the many resources available to them to get the job done effectively and efficiently. Productivity and Accountability. The purpose of teaching students to value productivity and accountability is to teach them the skills and knowledge needed to be a hard worker, meet deadlines, and be accountable for their own actions. Students who are productive and accountable understand the amount of time necessary to complete the task at hand, manage time, and finish the project within a specified period of time. To get this done, they must learn to plan, prioritize, and take action. Students who perceive themselves as accountable for their work demonstrate these skills, self-monitor their own behavior, and demonstrate ethics, morals, and personal integrity. These individuals understand that their actions impact the work of others. Individuals who demonstrate high levels of productivity and hold themselves to high levels get the job done and are valued by employers. Social and Cross-Cultural Skills. The purpose of teaching social and cross-cultural skills is to equip students with the skills necessary to effectively interact and communicate with heterogeneous groups. Students must learn to respond appropriately to the social context. Students are taught communications skills and social expectations for learning and professional environments. In the age of technology, skills related to electronic communication must be understood. To effectively function in society, students must be knowledgeable and respectful when interacting with others and be willing to explore personal biases and confront inequities when they appear. Students who are culturally competent critically examine their environment and the actions of themselves and others, develop a deep understanding of the reality, and confront inequities. They evaluate solutions to issues, implement the solutions, and determine effectiveness. If the solution is not effective, then they adapt the solution until the problem is solved. Leadership and Responsibility. The purpose of teaching leadership and responsibility is to provide students with the ability to guide and lead others. Individuals with strong leadership skills set goals and lead teams through the procedures to meet those goals. Leaders have the skills to leverage individual strengths, inspire others, and influence to meet group STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 135 goals. Students must know when to act on the skills they have learned and when to utilize knowledge of those skills to understand the behavior of their supervisors and teachers. Ultimately, students who are taught and master leadership skills and demonstrate responsibility for their own actions will become the leaders of tomorrow. Key Elements of Project-Based Learning Today’s schools are designed to educate students with diverse backgrounds, learning abilities, languages, and social-emotional competencies in inclusive learning environments, which can add pressure to a stressed school system or single educator. Typically, STEM PBL is implemented in a general education classroom with a diverse population of students, allowing students to make connections with their own lives to what’s being learned in the classroom through engaging in meaningful assignments and generalizing skills across disciplines with peers collectively. PBL is an empirically supported teaching strategy that incorporates student- centered group activities, long-term projects, well-defined outcomes, and interdisciplinary tasks. In order to be successful in STEM PBL activities, students need to be able to successfully interact with an increasingly diverse society. Since general education classrooms today include various abilities and characteristics, students will have opportunities to work with others of various language backgrounds and intellectual, emotional, and physical developments. These skills and experiences generalize beyond individual projects. STEM PBL can be introduced and implemented in various ways depending on the learning setting and resources available. STEM PBL is student centered and piques the interests of individual students in an engaging manner while meeting the goals and objectives of the teacher. Repeated exposure to critical-thinking skills across disciplines aids students in generalizing content learned in a multi-faceted manner across settings. Student Centered Framing learning as student centered in PBL implies that students become active participants who discover learning rather than be passive receivers of teacher knowledge, thus engaging students in the “work” of learning. Learning is driven by students’ individual interests, needs, and abilities. A STEM approach to learning is expected to give a meaningful learning experience to students through systematic integration of knowledge, concepts, and skills (Stohlmann et al., 2012). As such, the merging of STEM and PBL provides students with an opportunity to increase their knowledge of previously learned content by exploring it through a new lens. Therefore, learners potentially demonstrate more autonomy and self-determination over how they learn and, at times, what specifically they learn. This is theorized to facilitate maintenance of interest and motivation to take more responsibility for their learning and active engagement. More independence allows learners to "shape their projects to fit their interests 136 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings and abilities" (Moursund, 1998, p. 4) or accommodate their difference and (dis)ability. Maintaining access for all students in diverse classrooms to STEM disciplines in student- centered learning is critical in ensuring long-term benefits for students with exceptionalities in a society that is demanding more workers in high-level STEM fields, such as information technology and engineering. Students in history class were asked to design a Martian colony. Students were instructed to first design a model of their own living space. After they designed their own space, they were instructed to combine all of them together to create the residence portion of the colony. To complete this, students were instructed to research what would be needed to live on Mars and took field trips to the planetarium and the science museum. Furthermore, students were instructed to include their own interests and experiences in their living spaces. The teachers suggested that students reach out to experts in the fields of astronomy and architecture for additional information. Additionally, students were told to talk to any experts of their own choosing. Megan, an advanced reader and student, struggled to understand the concept of project-based learning. She struggled to generalize her knowledge to the project and wanted to simply regurgitate facts. She repeatedly said, “I need more directions. Please tell me what to do.” It was obvious that Megan had not experienced this degree of flexibility in an assignment. When the teacher would not provide additional assistance, Megan learned to work collaboratively with the peers in her group. Mario, an English language learner who was receiving services through special education due to behavior challenges and reading deficits, embraced project-based learning. He was excited to be actively involved and was motivated to demonstrate what he had learned. He was not subconscious about the quality of his project and ventured into uncommon territory. He was a new student with odds against him, and staff members believed he did not speak English well enough to successfully complete the course. However, when he was introduced to project-based learning, Mario began collaborating with peers, responding to instruction, and asking inquiry-based questions and demonstrated gains in his reading skills. Through collaboration with each other and peers, both students were able to develop their individual living spaces and cooperatively combine them into Martian colonies. Project- based learning freed a high-achieving student to be more creative and enabled a struggling student to flourish when they were able to apply their knowledge in practical authentic settings. The teacher in this classroom created an environment that was risk tolerant, collaborative, and safe in which all students were actively engaged. She provided scaffolds for success and encouraged students to be self-reliant problem solvers and critical thinkers. Long-Term Project Framing PBL as a long-term project indicates that the entire project cannot be completed within a single class period. The project requires multiple distributed efforts to complete. A project has multiple components, each requiring time to complete and all of which lead to the well-defined outcome. Learning is related to time on task or engaged time. The more time that students spend with opportunities to learn, lead, think, direct, respond, plan, and execute is STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 137 time well spent. Rather than a discrete task with no explicit connection to the following task or the one that came before, long-term projects compel the understanding and application of one set of knowledge and skills to the next. Long-term projects teach students the same content typically taught through lecture and discussion but adds a relevant and extended engagement time to the learning. STEM PBL teachers find that they do considerably less "busy work" activities in the classroom. And, although projects take time to plan, teachers have more time to work with students once a project is underway. Students in Ms. Zhang’s eighth grade inclusive English class completed a long-term literacy project in which they utilized multiple forms of technology to develop a digital narrative of themselves as the class of 2024. The project included grade-level English, math, and technology standards. In addition to teaching grade-level content standards, the teacher’s goal was to empower student independence and collaboration skills. The project lasted nine weeks. In the first week, Ms. Zhang conducted a pre-assessment using Thrively®, an assessment application that measures 21st century skills. After the assessment was completed, Ms. Zhang introduced the project through whole-group instruction. The students used Minecraft Digital portraits to design their own self- portrait. In a separate lesson, the counselor guided the students through a virtual tour of self in the Schoology platform. With the picture and information learned from the Schoology activity, students created a visual personal narrative. The narrative included descriptions of their perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses. At the end of the week, the students shared their digital portrait and presented their narrative projects to the class. In small groups, students received feedback from their peers regarding their personal narrative. The counselor participated in the activity and moved from group to group, providing support as needed. Next, the students created a personal digital story using their digital portrait as the main character and their perceptions of their school, community, and world. Students were instructed to draft a story by visualizing small moments in their lives and thinking about the sensations associated with the moments (i.e., smell, sound, sight, feel, touch). Additionally, students were instructed to write the ending of the story. For Darrius, a student with an emotional behavior disability, Ms. Zhang scaffolded the activity by allowing students to view examples of completed stories. In the final session, students used Skype and personal blogs to share their stories with eighth grade students across the school district. Students also connected with student groups in another eighth grade classroom to share. Next, Ms. Zhang assigned the class to create a digital personal narrative trailer to present to the high school counselor for the upcoming school year to introduce themselves as the class of 2024. Finally, students reflected on their growth as writers, their view of the world around them, and the similarities and differences of their experiences and others. Using this long-term project, Ms. Zhang was able to teach a diverse group of students to navigate media, think critically, and communicate with others through the integration of technology. The ongoing nature of the project fostered student engagement and self- discovery while enhancing academic writing skills. As the project lasted over a period of time, students worked through several challenges and thoughtfully developed an awareness of themselves and the world around them. 138 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings Well-Defined Outcomes Framing PBL as an approach with teacher-developed, well-defined outcomes is potentially the most challenging, as the procedures are unstructured and student centered. A well-defined outcome is a clear articulation of purpose and expectation. Well-defined outcomes ensure two things: explicit expectations for the student and an appropriate outcome for assessment. Well-defined outcomes produce structure, goals, and a mutual understanding about purpose. This concept promotes three basic premises: (1) All students can learn and succeed, but not all at the same time or in the same way; (2) Successful learning promotes even more successful learning; and (3) Schools (and teachers) control many of the conditions that determine whether or not students are successful at school learning. Well-defined outcomes allow diverse learners to have appropriate levels of scaffolding to make choices about task relevance and to better understand teacher expectations for performance. "Without a destination, any road will take you there" is a good adage for the use of STEM PBL. Well- defined is not the same as predetermined. For example, a teacher may assign an artistic representation of the voyage of the pilgrims that includes three factual depictions and one illustration of causation. However, it does not predetermine that the project must show a model ship or Plymouth Rock or reflect oppression and religious freedom. The desired outcome is selected first and then the curriculum is created to support the intended outcome, in this case facts about the voyage and to create an understanding of causation. Students in Ms. Grammar and Mrs. Bullard’s fifth grade inclusive co-taught class were learning about animal classification and categorization. The class was diverse, with students who were typically developing, English language learners, and/or students with learning disabilities. The PBL project was the creation of a new animal and to identify its name, how it lived, how it reproduced, how it grew, and how it responded to the environment. From this information, students were instructed to identify the animal’s categorization and classification. Prior to beginning the project, the teachers identified outcomes and defined them in order to assess student learning. Specifically, the teachers, in collaboration, decided that students should learn to describe characteristics that define a species. In the first lesson, the teachers directed students to conduct research about their favorite animals and describe why they selected that animal. The following day, Ms. Grammar separated students into five groups of five students and assigned a group project to create an unknown animal and create a digital animal card. Using classroom instructional videos and science texts, students collaborated to create their digital animal cards using a PowerPoint template. The digital animal card included information on each animal and required students to collect evidence to support the focus questions. Once cards were created, students had to work within their groups to develop a classification system using a dichotomous key to inform the creation of their own newly discovered animal species. With minimal teacher-directed support, students collaborated in groups to research, develop animals, and create their presentation. Furthermore, students were directed to create a blog post. To assess student learning, teachers had students create a video of themselves describing their new animal and its STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 139  characteristics in relation to a species using Flipgrid. Students reported their learning experiences to be both fun and challenging because they had to work in diverse groups with peers and rely on technology and creative input from each other. Ms. Grammar and Ms. Bullard liked this activity because their students demonstrated resilience, risk taking, and reflection as they learned the science standard. Interdisciplinary Framing PBL as an interdisciplinary approach is vitally important within the field of STEM. The interdisciplinary approach of STEM PBL refers to learning themes across disciplines as well as their relationship to the authentic settings and understanding their connections in a wider perspective. Interdisciplinary/cross-curricular teaching is a method by which students can use knowledge learned in one context (e.g., technology) as a knowledge base in other contexts (e.g., science) in and out of school (Collins et al., 1989). Interdisciplinary teaching and curriculum require additional planning time and thoughtful curricula choices. Throughout the STEM PBL projects, teachers can integrate content areas and engage students in meaningful and functional learning activities (Tompkins, 1998). The design of interdisciplinary PBL often centers on (a) authentic “real-world” problems (e.g., COVID-19), as the starting point of projects; (b) opportunities to read and respond to scientific literature; (c) discussions with peers and the teacher about what has been read or heard; (d) teacher-led lessons for the whole class or small groups that focus on a needed concept, strategy, or skill; and (e) self-selected student activities, such as books to be read or activities to be done. Interdisciplinary projects also allow for instructional collaboration, cross-pollination of ideas, and the repetition of concepts in new and different applications to understand the relevance of learning and to facilitate fluency, mastery, and generalization of skills. Cause-and-effect relationships exist in literature, science, and social studies. Interdisciplinary cross-curricular teaching supports and promotes this transfer by providing different applications and practice opportunities that are relevant and more naturally occurring. Students in an inclusive sixth grade social studies class were learning about digital citizenship through an interdisciplinary method to address reading, writing, speaking, listening, and language standards. The teacher, Ms. Thompson, divided the class into groups of five students with varying abilities and skills. The teacher began the project with questions for students to brainstorm in their group, such as “With whom do people connect virtually? What are the different reasons people connect with one another? How do you communicate and connect with other people and with the world? How do you like to connect?” The groups were given five minutes and then were asked to tell Ms. Thompson their answers, which she recorded on the whiteboard. Next, within their groups, students were given a scenario to address and research as a group to later present to the class about how individuals communicate digitally and identify how to be a responsible digital citizen. As such, this activity represented interdisciplinary learning in that the students learned and practiced speaking, listening, writing, language, and social studies skills. 140 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings  Features of STEM PBL STEM PBL involves seven features: (a) introduction, (b) task, (c) investigation, (d) scaffolding, (e) collaboration, and (f) reflection. Table 1 provides an outline of common features with descriptions. Table 1 Features of Project-Based Learning (Grant, 2002) Features Description Introduction “The Big Ideas" or anchor for the project. This often contributes to motivating learners, provides focus, and increases performance. Tasks and Explain what will be accomplished and embed the content to be Guided studied. The tasks should be engaging, challenging, and doable. This Questions allows the learner to choose, plan, and design based on previous knowledge, background, and skills on how to obtain new knowledge. Students need frequent opportunities to respond and variations in how to respond. Investigation The steps necessary to complete the task and reinforce participation at each step, including answering the guiding question. The process includes activities that require higher level and critical-thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of information. Resources Provide data to be used that can be gathered from eyewitnesses; experts; and technology, such as computer hardware, software, and applications; scientific probes; compasses’ and others. All students should have access to resources that are needed for the project or the resources should not be necessary for project completion. Scaffolding Guidance is needed at different levels for different students and may include organization, social, planning, resource help, student- teacher interactions, practice worksheets, peer counseling, guiding questions, job aids, and project templates. Collaboration Work with groups or teams, especially where resources are limited, and/or implement rounds of peer reviews or group brainstorming sessions. Reflection and Serious thought and consideration of the project process, outcomes, Assessment content learned, and assessment of learning conducted through relevant in-class discussions, journal entries, and follow-up questions. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 141 Introduction The most essential aspect of planning a project begins with the introduction of the project to students. While there is great variation in motivational levels from learner to learner, the importance of high motivation for diverse learners is clear. To increase motivation, teachers start with the big ideas or anchors, which will provide the conceptual focus and activate prior knowledge. In addition to activating prior knowledge and generating interest, teachers need to prepare students conceptually for big ideas and concepts. Teachers must seek concrete ways, such as visuals, objects, or metaphors to represent the concepts and big ideas their students do not already know. Since many students do not learn best through tasks requiring literacy or numerical representation, both the experiential and conceptual introductions should incorporate diverse modalities and precede grade-appropriate literacy or abstract mathematical tasks. The goal is for students to understand key concepts and big ideas and to be excited about learning the concepts prior to reading about them or solving abstract problems. Task The tasks involved in PBL are structured to have a strong conceptual focus and are designed to evoke critical thinking and problem solving. Students are presented with guiding questions for their projects and tasks, allowing them to explore the answers and develop new knowledge. Tasks are founded on lesson objectives that clearly identify how students will demonstrate the knowledge they learned from the task. Tasks are designed to build on prior knowledge and to create common experiences that generate new learning. The purpose of these activities is not only to provide relevant experiences but also to generate curiosity and motivate diverse learners. Tasks within the project might include researching, identifying, defining, comparing and contrasting, describing, and/or designing. Investigation During the investigation phase of the project, students will task analyze and be able to complete the steps necessary to complete the project. Teachers must seek every opportunity to promote higher-order thinking. Students who think analytically and creatively and who develop strategies for learning always achieve “head and shoulders'' above the rest. Teachers need to provide mental challenges and specifically teach the strategies that enable all students to more effectively develop the thought processes and procedures for meeting their thinking goals. There are multiple ways to promote higher order thinking, but the procedures used should be related to the big ideas being taught. For example, students engage in activities that enable them to construct meaning and discover those important ideas for themselves. Seven steps of investigation teach students to think abstractly and critically. First, students are taught observation skills. They observe and document their observations. This can be done by physically observing a phenomenon or through exploration of “evidence” found in readings. 142 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings Second, students compare their observations by connecting core ideas and evaluating similarities and differences. If needed, teachers can provide a graphic organizer to help connect their comparisons back to the guiding question. Graphic organizers are particularly valuable for assisting students in processing tasks and organizing related details. To that end, educators choose organizers that match the thinking required for understanding the big ideas being taught. Third, students sort or organize materials based on evidence gathered, leading to an understanding that facts can belong to different groups. Sorting and resorting help students identify different group characteristics. Fourth, students are taught to predict and hypothesize, with teacher prompts and questioning being provided to assist in generalizing as needed. This is often done through “If, Then” statements. Fifth, students are taught to test and explore ideas and predictions. Sixth, students are taught to infer and record results through graphs, drawings, and charts. Lastly, students extend, explain, and apply their knowledge. This is completed through open-ended questioning. Resources Many types of resources can be used when conducting PBL. However, instructional decisions should not be based on the materials available; instead, they should be made based on the insightful selection of materials that are the most appropriate for the educational goals. Educational materials take a lot of work and often need to be cut, shaped, strengthened, and polished. It is rarely possible to purchase a program that would be an exact match for the curriculum in any discipline. As such, teachers need to plan time for material discovery and/or development. Examples of resources are listed in Figure 2. Figure 2. Resources for PBL STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 143 Scaffolding Students at risk for school failure and with LD, ADHD, and EBD sometimes have difficulty working independently and might require guidance when introduced to PBL projects. Scaffolding refers to the personal guidance, assistance, and support that a teacher, peer, or task provides to a learner. One way to scaffold instruction for diverse learners is to differentiate learning tasks and materials and provide a variety of verbal and academic supports, from both teacher and peers, so that students can meaningfully engage in content area learning and acquire the necessary language and academic skills for independent learning. Successful scaffolding strategies include visuals, modeling, connecting to background knowledge, graphic organizers, sentence starters, read aloud, and small groups. For example, teaching students to complete the following sentence is a scaffold: “I know ______ because _________.” Collaboration The collaboration of students within groups provides learners with essential opportunities to use language in meaningful, purposeful, and interesting ways; build self-esteem and self- confidence; and develop academic, communication, and social skills. The students are responsible for one another's learning as well as their own, which requires group interdependence, motivation, persistence, and flexibility (Abrami & Bures, 1996). Considerations to increase collaboration include (a) classroom arrangement so that students sit in close proximity and face their group members; (b) grouping practices organized in a variety of ways, including mixed academic achievement, interests, languages, projects, and friendship; and (c) structure of small group work so that students are interested in the learning of all group members as well as themselves. Groups are expected to help and encourage their members to master academic content. Although each student in the group is individually accountable for their own learning, collaborative skill instruction occurs regularly to increase knowledge learned. Reflection and assessment Reflection and assessment are an integral, ongoing part of instruction. Although reflection and assessment generally occur last in the STEM PBL phases, they are considered at each phase of planning. Different methods for reflection include (a) journaling, interest inventories, and classroom observations to demonstrate what students know, can do, and how they feel; (b) student-initiated authentic reflections of learning, self-assessment, and assessment by peers; and (c) assessment of the classroom climate for learning. Assessment enables us to meaningfully report learning, provide feedback, determine needs, and improve instruction. Through these methods, students are allowed to verbally demonstrate their understanding of the big ideas and key concepts, transfer skills by applying what they have learned to unique situations, and act on their learning in personally meaningful and socially relevant ways. 144 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings  STEM PBL With 21st Century Skills for Diverse Learners Teachers in inclusive classrooms teaching STEM PBL increase critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, communication, collaboration, and social skills, all skills that challenge students with disabilities and are needed for students to be successful in the 21st century workplace (see figure 3). As such, STEM PBL is a perfect approach to teach students who are at-risk or with disabilities in inclusive settings. In the following sections, we demonstrate the benefits of STEM PBL and how the challenges faced by at-risk students and students with LD, ADHD, and EBD are directly addressed as skills are taught and learned. Figure 3. Venn Diagram of PBL and 21st Century Skills At-Risk Consider Megan from the scenario at the end of the “Student Centered” section above. She lived in poverty with her single mother and was expected to get her brother, Sean, to school in the morning and to help him complete his homework in the afternoon, feed him dinner, and get him to bed. Megan’s mother worked two jobs and left the house in the morning at 6 a.m. and returned at 11 p.m. Although Megan was a strong reader, she was not interested in school and was failing most classes. She complained that the teacher made the students read about things that she had never heard of and that had no relevance in her life. She missed more days of school than she attended. Her history and science teachers developed an interdisciplinary PBL project to teach students about colonization and settlement; climate; and economic, social, and cultural development through the project. As such, the teacher instructed her students to make their Martian home look like their own. She instructed them to make their Martian colony reflect their lives. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 145 After the colony was developed, the teams were instructed to create a community very similar to their own. Megan’s friends are on her team, as the teacher allowed them to pick their own team members. Her friends got very excited about the project, talking about it on the way home from school and planning their next steps. The team developed a local park where they could go to listen to music and be together. Megan’s team decided to write a song to reflect their neighborhood. Another team developed a school and brainstormed solutions to truancy related to their responsibilities with their siblings. They decided that they would talk to their principal about arriving at school 30 minutes later and leaving 30 minutes early. They suggested going to school more weeks in the year with less time during the day. As such, in their Martian colony, school started at 9 a.m. and ended at 2 p.m. They decided this would allow students to come to school and be at home for their siblings. As the content became very relevant to the students’ lives, Megan’s attendance increased to 100% and she became excited about school. She asked her neighbor if she could watch her brother and hurried home from school as soon as class was finished. The friends even worked on the project in the afternoon. It is obvious that Megan’s teacher used PBL to make learning relevant and reflective of the community in which students lived and to teach the content that she was covering. This project taught students to think critically about their situation and identify means of being self-reliant, problem solvers, and critical thinkers while addressing issues relevant to themselves. In doing so, Megan’s teacher increased student interest, engagement, and excitement about learning. Through this lesson, Megan and her classmates learned to work collaboratively, communicate, and to take initiative and be self-directed. Furthermore, they learned to be culturally conscious. With PBL, Megan’s teacher helped Megan overcome some of the factors that were placing her at risk of not completing high school. Learning Disability Consider Thereheis and Phillip, students in Ms. Grammar and Mrs. Bullard’s fifth grade inclusive co-taught class. Both had learning disabilities. Thereheis had a reading disability and struggled to retain information. Phillip had a reading disability and struggled to process what he read and to write what he was thinking. During the PBL project on animal classification and categorization, both students excelled. They were on the same team with three other peers and created an animal, called a Rhinonkey. Together with their team, they created a digital animal card using a PowerPoint template. As the team researched the information for their animal, another student read the information out loud and Thereheis wrote down the information as it was read. Phillip was very creative and decided upon the animal name and drew a picture of it. As a team, the students collaboratively discussed the characteristics of the animal and decided that the animal originated from Africa, where the average temperature is 82 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer and 64 degrees in the winter. As such, the Rhinonkey grew short hair in the 146 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings winter and shed its hair in the summer. The Rhinonkey was an herbivore and ate grass and leaves. The female Rhinokey partnered with one male by the age of four and remained with that male for all of her life. Together, they produced a young Rhinokey every five years. The Rhinokey was in the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Perissodactyla, family Rhinocerequidae, genus Rhino Equus, and species Black Equus (see Figure 4). Phillip was excited to participate in classifying the animal, Figure 4. Rhinonkey Animal Card but struggled to write his thoughts down. Sarah, one team member, told Phillip that she loved his answers and volunteered to write them for Phillip. As part of the PBL team, the teacher noticed that both Thereheis and Phillip became excited about learning and were very cooperative and collaborative during the lesson. In fact, both cooperated fully and were part of the description of the animal created on Flipgrid. Furthermore, it was obvious that their confidence grew as they worked with their peers. This PBL lesson allowed two students with LDs to participate and contribute fully to the learning project. No standards were lowered, and the expectations remained high. As students were able to maximize on their strengths to overcome challenges, their content knowledge and self-esteem increased. They utilized the 21st century skills of creativity, collaboration, and information technology literacy to overcome challenges associated with their learning disabilities. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Consider Rae, a student with ADHD in Ms. Thompson’s sixth grade social studies class. Rae struggled to maintain attention during monotonous tasks, complete long-term projects, and organize her thoughts, and she continually annoyed her friends with her disruptions and constant talking. During a PBL project on digital citizenship, Ms. Thompson allowed the students to form their own groups. Rae wanted to be with Kay, but Kay told her that she could only be in the group if she paid attention and did not interrupt the team members. Rae agreed. At the beginning of the project, the group had to identify who they communicated with virtually. Rae immediately began to talk about communicating with her grandmother in Texas via Zoom. Kay asked her to let others have a turn, but she continued talking. Ms. Thompson asked Rae to tally when she contributed and only contribute once to every question. Rae agreed, and the team was satisfied. In fact, the team agreed to use her example for the class. As STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 147 the group continued with the larger project of describing how to plan a trip and be digitally responsible, Rae continued to self-manage her participation. The team researched ways to plan a trip through a google search. They found 20 websites and explored each together as a team determining which website was reliable by looking for top level domains (TLD,.com,.net,.gov,.org,.edu), cross referencing, fact checking, determining the credibility of the author and of the organization, and reading reviews. First, the team planned together to complete the task across the next five days. One team member, Arun, agreed to develop a spreadsheet that could be shared across the group members to monitor team progress. In addition, Joey made a spreadsheet to organize the information that they uncovered. Arun and Joey were both especially organized and loved these tasks. Rae, along with Kay, was assigned to find the websites and add them to the spreadsheet. This was a task that she found exciting, as she loved to explore websites and considered herself quite the investigator. Once the team found the websites and determined that they were trustworthy, they decided to reach out to each on either a chat stream or through email. The team communicated with travel agencies and the United States consulates in other countries. The team focused on netiquette when communicating with travel agencies. Finally, the team pulled together the information they gathered and planned the trip. The team had to work together and make critical decisions about where they wanted to visit. Decisions were made based on a budget and time frame. Finally, the team created a PowerPoint presentation and presented it to the class. Through this PBL lesson, Rae learned skills to help her overcome some impairment associated with ADHD. She learned to self- regulate her impulsive talking behavior. Furthermore, the team completed the project by assigning tasks based on each other's strengths and interests. Arun and Joey were both detail oriented and were interested in organizing the information and planning the activities. Rae and Kay were inquisitive and enjoyed exploring the information. As such, Ms. Thompson was able to use PBL to teach Rae social skills that increased her peer relations and success in a long- term project and increased her attention to task by allowing her to be actively engaged. The class utilized the 21st century skills of information, media, and technology literacy as well as the additional life and career skills of social skills, productivity, and leadership. As such, Ms Thompson used the project to increase equity of instructional strategies, tapping into strengths and interests. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Consider Darrius, a student with an EBD in Ms. Zhang’s eighth grade English class. Darrius struggled with anxiety that resulted in a lack of attendance and academic engagement, which led to failing grades. Darrius often forgot to take his medication. When this occurred, his 148 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings anxiety would increase and he would withdraw. When at school, he would refuse to ask for help and would put the hood from his sweatshirt over his head and his head on the desk. Ms. Zhang was aware that Darrius was an avid Minecraft player, so she developed a long-term (9 weeks) PBL project in which students began with an independent activity and moved into group activities. First, Ms. Zhang instructed the students to login to Thrively® and complete a strengths and interest assessment. Next, she introduced Minecraft and instructed the students to design a digital character that represented themselves using the information gleaned from the assessment on Thrively®. The students independently crafted a description of themselves in terms of their body, style, personality, emotion, capes, and history. After the student created their character, they created their own Minecraft digital card. Through this activity, students explored their own strengths and interests and demonstrated knowledge of technology. During the development of their characters, a counselor helped the students explore their perceptions of themselves and assisted with reframing negative perceptions. Next, Ms. Zhang instructed the students to create a digital narrative essay using their Minecraft character as the main character in the essay. Students were instructed to draft their essay as an adventurous story of their future. Next, Ms. Zhang put the students into groups of four. Together, the students combined their narratives into one large essay, developed a blog for their group, and posted their story on the blog. In the end, the blog consisted of five group stories representing the class of 2024. Through each week of this project, Darrius became more and more engaged. Ms. Zhang was careful to put Darrius in a group of peers where he felt comfortable. Darrius reported his excitement for the activity, as he was very engaged with Minecraft. As such, Ms. Zhang was able to combine the strengths of PBL, student interest, and 21st century skills to increase Darrius’ exposure and comfort with school, a source of his anxiety. Conclusion The essence of STEM PBL lies in the engaging experiences that involve learners in complex and real-world projects through which they develop and apply 21st century skills. Students who are at risk of school failure and/or have been identified as a student with an LD, ADHD, and/or EBD are challenged by areas of impairment that interfere with academic performance. STEM PBL projects are a perfect means of addressing challenges faced by students and maximizing their strengths. PBL supports inquiry into various aspects of real-world topics that are of interest to students and judged worthy by teachers, thus increasing student engagement and motivation and teacher satisfaction. Because of its real-world appeal, students are driven to investigate, record, and reflect on their findings. The hallmark of PBL is greater independence of inquiry and ownership on the part of students. When contrasted with more formal STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 149 instruction, it allows students a greater choice and capitalizes on internal motivation. When students participate in experiences, they see what they are learning and become more actively engaged. As with any teaching method, STEM PBL can be used effectively or ineffectively. At its best, it can help the teacher create a high-performing classroom in which a powerful learning community focused on achievement, self-mastery, and contribution to the community is created. It allows teachers to focus on central ideas and salient issues in the curriculum, create engaging and challenging activities in the classroom, and support self-directed learning among students. PBL assists in overcoming the dichotomy between knowledge and thinking while supporting students in learning and practicing skills in critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, communication, and self-management. But most of all, STEM PBL can create positive communication and collaborative relationships among diverse groups of students. Reflection Questions and Activities 1. Consider a short-term lesson you currently teach in class. How might you alter it to make it long term? Furthermore, how might you make it a STEM PBL activity? What learning goals and/or outcomes would remain the same and which ones might change? 2. There are many 21st century skills. Think about traditional curricula and lesson plans. How many 21st century skills do you think are adequately developed using these? Now reflect on the STEM PBL activity you created in Question 1. How many 21st century skills do you think this activity would develop? 3. It is likely that your classroom has one or more exceptional learners. Consider how their individual learning needs might be addressed when engaging in the STEM PBL activity you created in Question 1. What reactions from them would signal a need for adapting or changing the structure of the activity or the way they participate? What might signal successful learning and engagement? References Abrami, P. C., & Bures, E. M. (1996). Computer-supported collaborative learning and distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 10(2), 37–42. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Barkley, R. A., & Fischer, M. (2010). The unique contribution of emotional impulsiveness to impairment in major life activities in hyperactive children as adults. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 503–513. Child With a Disability, 34 C.F.R. § 300.7 (2002). 150 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453–494). Erlbaum. Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends and emerging issues (3rd ed.). National Center for Learning Disabilities. Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (Eds.). (2008). Learning and leading with habits of mind: 16 essential characteristics for success. ASCD. Davila, R. R., Williams, M. L., & MacDonald, J. T. (1991). Clarification of policy to address the needs of children with attention deficit disorders within general and/or special education [Memorandum]. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services. Dede, C. (2010). Comparing frameworks for 21st century skills. In J. Bellanca & R. Brandt (Eds.), 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn (pp. 51–76). Solution Tree Press. Dossey, J. A., Mullis, I. V. S., Lindquist, M. M., & Chambers, D. L. (1988). The mathematics report card: Are we measuring up? Trends and achievement based on the 1986 National Assessment. Educational Testing Service. Forness, S. (1989). Statement of the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition to the Senate Subcommittee on the Handicapped regarding the reauthorization of the Education of the Handicapped Act. National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition. Gage, N. A., Wilson, J., & MacSuga-Gage, A. S. (2014). Writing performance of students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities. Behavioral Disorders, 40(1), 3–14. Garcia, E. & Weiss, E. (2018, September 25). Student absenteeism: Who misses school and how missing school matters for performance. Economic Policy Institute. https://www.epi.org/publication/student- absenteeism-who-misses-school-and-how-missing-school-matters-for-performance/ Gargiulo, R. M., Metcalf, D., & Metcalf, D. J. (2017). Teaching in today s inclusive classrooms: A universal design for learning approach. Nelson Education. Gonzalez, V., Yawkey, T., & Minaya-Rowe, L. (2006). English-as-a-second-language (ESL) teaching and learning: Pre-K–12 classroom applications for students’ academic achievement and development. Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Grant, M. M. (2002). Getting a grip on PBL: Theory, cases and recommendations. Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal, 5(1). Hopson, L. M., & Lee, E. (2011). Mitigating the effect of family poverty on academic and behavioral outcomes: The role of school climate in middle and high school. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(11), 2221–2229. Hussar, B., Zhang, J., Hein, S., Wang, K., Roberts, A., Cui, J., Smith, M., Bullock Mann, F., Barmer, A., & Dilig, R. (2020). The Condition of Education 2020 (NCES 2020-144). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020144.pdf Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004). Kauffman, J. M. (2001). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (7th ed.). Merrill/Prentice Hall. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 151 McFarland, J., Hussar, B., De Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Gebrekristos, S., Zhang, J., Rathbun, A., Barmer, A., Bullock Mann, F., & Hinz, S. (2017). The condition of education 2017 (NCES 2017-144). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017144.pdf McFarland, J., Hussar, B., Zhang, J., Wang, X., Wang, K., Hein, S., Diliberti, M., Forrest Cataldi, E., Bullock Mann, F., & Barmer, A. (2019). The condition of education 2019 (NCES 2019-144). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019144.pdf Mikami, A. Y., Huang-Pollock, C. L., Pfiffner, L. J., McBurnett, K., & Hangai, D. (2007). Social skills differences among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder types in a chat room assessment task. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(4), 509–521. Moursund, D. G. (1998). Project-based learning in an information technology environment. Learning and Leading with Technology, 25(4), 4. Murray, D. W., Molina, B. S., Glew, K., Houck, P., Greiner, A., Fong, D., Swanson, J., Arnold, L. E., Lerner, M., Hechtman, L., Abikoff, H. B., & Jensen, P. S. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of school services for high school students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Mental Health, 6(4), 264–278. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12310-014-9128-6 National Research Council. (1996). Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/5143. National Research Council. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. The National Academies Press. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 115, Stat. 1425 (2002). Office for Civil Rights. (2016). 2013–2014 civil rights data collection: A first look. U.S. Department of Education. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/CRDC2013-14-first-look.pdf Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2005). The definition and selection of key competencies: Executive summary. Oswald, D. P., Best, A. M., Coutinho, M. J., & Nagle, H. A. (2003). Trends in the special education identification rates of boys and girls: A call for research and change. Exceptionality, 11(4), 223– 237. Robbins, T., Stagman, S., & Smith, S. (2012). Young children at risk: National and state prevalence risk factors. National Center for Children in Poverty. https://www.nccp.org/wp- content/uploads/2020/05/text_1073.pdf Ronk, M. J., Hund, A. M., & Landau, S. (2011). Assessment of social competence of boys with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Problematic peer entry, host responses, and evaluations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(6), Article 829. Sacchetti, G. M., & Lefler, E. K. (2017). ADHD symptomology and social functioning in college students. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21(12), 1009–1019. Stohlmann, M., Moore, T., & Roehrig, G. (2012). Considerations for teaching integrated STEM education. Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research, 2(1), 28–34. https://doi.org/10.5703/1288284314653 152 STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings Tompkins, G. E. (1998). Language arts: Content and teaching strategies. Merrill. U.S. Census Bureau. (2004). United States Summary: 2000: Population and housing unit counts. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration. https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc3-us-pt1.pdf U.S. Public Health Service. (2000). Report of the Surgeon General’s Conference on Children’s Mental Health: A national action agenda. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Wolraich, M. L., McKeown, R. E., Visser, S. N., Bard, D., Cuffe, S., Neas, B., Geryk, L. L., Doffing, M., Bottai, M., Abramowitz, A. J., Beck, L., Holbrook, J. R., & Danielson, M. (2014). The prevalence of ADHD: Its diagnosis and treatment in four school districts across two states. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18(7), 563–575. STEM PBL in Inclusive Settings 153