Anatomy & Physiology I PDF

Anatomy & Physiology I ©McGraw-Hill Education • © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution What are Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy studies the form and structure of the body Physiology examines...

Anatomy & Physiology I ©McGraw-Hill Education • © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution What are Anatomy and Physiology? Anatomy studies the form and structure of the body Physiology examines how the body functions Form and function are interrelated ©McGraw-Hill Education • To study anatomy, one must know anatomical terminology and be able to observe, manipulate, palpate, and auscultate • Complementarity of Structure and Function • Anatomy and physiology are inseparable • Function always reflects structure • What a structure can do depends on its specific form • Known as the principle of complementarity of structure and function 3 • Homeostasis • Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment • A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as needed • Maintained by contributions of all organ systems 4 Three main themes of this course 1. Interconnection between structure and function 2. Integrative function 3. Adaptive nature of our bodies: inter-relationship between environment and body’s response 5 How do organisms work? Why does the human body look and function the way it does? 7 How? • Trephenation - The Stone Age (750000–500000 BCE) • Ancient Greeks – Hippocrates and Aristole (500-336 BCE) • • Ancient Romans (670 BCE–480 CE) • • Founder of Anatomy - Herophilus of Chalcedon Comparative anatomy Vivisection http://broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/vivisection ©McGraw-Hill Education Hippocrates • • • • 460 - 377 B.C. Greek physician Father of Western medicine First to separate disease from superstition • Key players in early anatomy 9 Hippocratic Oath (students do not need to remember) I swear by Apollo Physician and Asclepius and Hygieia and Panaceia and all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will fulfill according to my ability and judgment this oath and this covenant: To hold him who has taught me this art as equal to my parents and to live my life in partnership with him, and if he is in need of money to give him a share of mine, and to regard his offspring as equal to my brothers in male lineage and to teach them this art—if they desire to learn it—without fee and covenant; to give a share of precepts and oral instruction and all the other learning to my sons and to the sons of him who has instructed me and to pupils who have signed the covenant and have taken an oath according to the medical law, but no one else. I will apply dietetic measures for the benefit of the sick according to my ability and judgment; I will keep them from harm and injustice. I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody who asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to this effect. Similarly I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy. In purity and holiness I will guard my life and my art. I will not use the knife, not even on sufferers from stone, but will withdraw in favor of such men as are engaged in this work. Whatever houses I may visit, I will come for the benefit of the sick, remaining free of all intentional injustice, of all mischief and in particular of sexual relations with both female and male persons, be they free or slaves. What I may see or hear in the course of the treatment or even outside of the treatment in regard to the life of men, which on no account one must spread abroad, I will keep to myself, holding such things shameful to be spoken about. If I fulfill this oath and do not violate it, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and art, being honored with fame among all men forhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html all time to come; if I transgress it and swear falsely, may 10 the opposite of all this be my lot. Beginning to understand organ systems PlatoAristotle 5th - 2nd centuries BC 11 Vivisections furthered knowledge of anatomy • Herophilus & Eristratus - ~ 2nd century B.C. vivisections of criminals • 129 AD- Galen - vivisections of pigs and primates; wrote “the” anatomy text used for 1500 years!! • MIDDLE AGES- study of anatomy outlawed • RENAISSANCE - Anatomical interest/knowledge reestablished • 17 & 18th CENTURIES- anatomists like celebrities; people paid to see dissections in large amphitheaters 12 Anatomy: Details of Structure Subdivisions of anatomy: • Gross or macroscopic anatomy is the study of large, visible structures • Regional anatomy • Systemic anatomy (cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, etc.) • Surface anatomy • Deep anatomy • Comparative anatomy • Microscopic anatomy • Cytology: microscopic study of cells • Histology: microscopic study of tissues ©McGraw-Hill Education Physiology: Details of Function Physiologists examine the function of body structures, focusing on the molecular and cellular level Physiology subdisciplines: • Cardiovascular physiology examines functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood • Neurophysiology studies functioning of nerves and nervous system organs • Respiratory physiology explores functioning of respiratory organs • Reproductive physiology investigates functioning of reproductive hormones and the reproductive cycle • Pathophysiology focuses on the function of a body system during disease or injury to the system ©McGraw-Hill Education Levels of Organization in the Human Body ©McGraw-Hill Education Anatomical Position Common reference position Characteristics of anatomic position • Upright stance • Feet parallel and flat on the floor • Upper limbs at the sides of the body • Palms face anteriorly (toward the front) • Head is level • Eyes look forward ©McGraw-Hill Education Anatomic Position and Body Planes ©McGraw-Hill Education Sections and Planes “Slices” of body called sections or planes • Section—slice that exposes internal anatomy • Plane—imaginary flat surface passing through body; 3 types • Coronal (or frontal) plane • Transverse (or cross-sectional) plane • Midsagittal (or median) plane • Sagittal plane • Oblique plane ©McGraw-Hill Education Sections from a Three-Dimensional Structure ©McGraw-Hill Education Directional Terminology In anatomic position, specific directional terms are used to describe relative positions Presented in opposing pairs • E.g., anterior/posterior; dorsal/ventral; proximal/distal ©McGraw-Hill Education Directional Terms in Anatomy ©McGraw-Hill Education Organ Systems ©McGraw-Hill Education Organ Systems ©McGraw-Hill Education HUMAN Ex. Cranial/caudal Superior/Inferior HUMAN Ex. Dorsal/ventral Posterior/Anterior CAT Anterior/Posterior CAT Superior/Inferior 24 • bilateral – two-sided, Affecting both sides equally. We are bilaterally symmetrical (we are symmetrical about our midline) • ipsilateral – located on same side of body, right and left leg • contralateral – on opposite side, right arm and left leg (or right arm and left arm) 25 • 3. Anterior : – a. in front of – b. aka ventral – c. eg. the sternum is anterior to the spine • 4. Posterior a. back of the body, behind c. aka dorsal – d. eg. the heart is posterior to the ribcage • 5. Medial • a. toward the middle of the body, the inner side of – b. eg. the nose is medial to the eye • 6. Lateral – a. away from the midline, on the other side of – b. the ear is lateral to the eye 26 • • • • 7. Proximal a. closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk b. eg. the elbow is proximal to the wrist 8. Distal – a. further from the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk – b. eg. the knee is distal to the thigh • 9. superficial – a. toward the body’s surface – b. aka external – c. eg. skeletal muscles are superficial to bones • 10. deep – a. away from the body’s surface • b. internal • c. the lungs are deep to the ribs 27 Regional Anatomy Human body is partitioned into two main regions • Axial region • Head, neck, and trunk • Forms the main vertical axis of the body • Appendicular region • Upper and lower limbs Several more regions within these two main ones ©McGraw-Hill Education Regional Terms – Anterior View ©McGraw-Hill Education Regional Terms – Posterior View ©McGraw-Hill Education Body Cavities and Membranes Dorsal (posterior) cavity • Completely encased in bone • Cranial cavity (endocranium) is formed by bones of the cranium • Houses the brain • Vertebral canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column • Houses the spinal cord Ventral cavity • Larger than posterior cavity • Anteriorly placed in the body • Does not completely encase organs in bone • Partitioned into a • Superior thoracic cavity • Inferior abdominopelvic cavity ©McGraw-Hill Education Body Cavities ©McGraw-Hill Education Body Cavities and Membranes 4 Subdivisions of ventral cavity are lined with two layers of serous membranes • Parietal layer lines internal surface of body wall • Visceral layer covers external surface of organs (viscera) • Serous cavity—space between membranes • Serous fluid – liquid secreted by cells in serous membrane ©McGraw-Hill Education 34 Membranes Serosa (serous membrane)- thin, double-layered membrane, lines walls of ventral body cavity and outer surfaces of organs • Visceral serosa - covers organs • Parietal serosa - lines cavity walls • ***pleurisy/peritonitis- Causes roughening of pleurae or peritoneum causes organs to stick together and drag across one another-very painful Serous membranes Pleural cavity: Pericardial cavity: visceral serosa: covers organs parietal serosa: lines cavities visceral pleura visceral pericardium Abdominopelvic cavity: visceral peritoneum parietal pleura parietal pericardium parietal peritoneum Pleurisy – inflammation of pleura(e) Peritonitis – inflammation of peritoneum ©McGraw-Hill Education 35 ©McGraw-Hill Education Serous Membranes in the Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Body Cavities 1 ©McGraw-Hill Education Serous Membranes in the Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Body Cavities 2 ©McGraw-Hill Education © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. ©McGraw-Hill Education © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. ©McGraw-Hill Education © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. ©McGraw-Hill Education © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa) Air (comparable to serous cavity) Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa) A fist thrust into a flaccid balloon demonstrates the relationship between the parietal and visceral serous membrane layers. Heart Parietal pericardium Pericardial space with serous fluid Visceral pericardium The serosae associated with the heart. ©McGraw-Hill Education © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. ©McGraw-Hill Education Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants ©McGraw-Hill Education Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants Figure 1.10b ©McGraw-Hill Education Homeostasis A dynamic state of equilibrium Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as other systems, play a major role Variables are factors that can change (body temperature etc.) ©McGraw-Hill Education Receptor Control center Effector Monitors environment Determines set point Responds to stimuli Receives input from receptor Receives output from control center Determines appropriate response Provides the means to respond Response either negative feedback or positive feedback Homeostatic Systems Regulated by Negative Feedback Negative feedback • Controls most processes in the body • Variable fluctuates within a normal range around a set point • Resulting action is in the opposite direction of the stimulus • Example: temperature regulation ©McGraw-Hill Education reactant X enzyme 1 intermediate enzyme 2 intermediate enzyme 3 ©McGraw-Hill Education product Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. ©McGraw-Hill Education Positive Feedback Positive feedback • Occurs much less frequently than negative feedback • Stimulus reinforced to continue moving variable in same direction until a climactic event occurs, then body returns to homeostasis • Examples: • Breastfeeding • Blood clotting • Labor ©McGraw-Hill Education Positive Feedback ©McGraw-Hill Education Clinical View: Normal Ranges Normal ranges for homeostatic variables • Body temperature 98.6°F • Blood glucose 80–110 mg/dL • Blood pressure 90–120/60–80 mm Hg • Determined by sampling healthy individuals in a population • Normal range is value for 95% of individuals sampled • 5% of healthy population have values outside normal range ©McGraw-Hill Education Homeostasis, Health, and Disease Diabetes is an example of homeostatic imbalance • Occurs when homeostatic mechanisms for regulating blood glucose are not functioning normally • Blood glucose fluctuations and high glucose readings Treating patients involves finding a diagnosis, a specific cause of the homeostatic imbalance Most medications have benefits and side effects • Many can be explained by examining homeostatic mechanisms ©McGraw-Hill Education