Psych 240: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Fall 2024 PDF

Psych 240: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Fall 2024 Instructor: Dr. Michael Snodgrass GSIs: Dahlia Kassel [email protected] Greg Stanley [email protected] Giselle King [email protected] Admin GSI: Dominic Bonanni [email protected]...

Psych 240: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Fall 2024 Instructor: Dr. Michael Snodgrass GSIs: Dahlia Kassel [email protected] Greg Stanley [email protected] Giselle King [email protected] Admin GSI: Dominic Bonanni [email protected]  Plan for Today Mechanics of the Class: structure (lecture, sections), overrides, grading, schedule, course details. Then—we begin with: History and Methodology What is cognitive psychology, how did it start, how does it differ from earlier approaches in psychology? Waitlist/Overrides 1. Must attend your first section meeting --this is live/synchronous/in person Even if you’re already registered! --Or you could lose your spot. 2. We have a fixed number of students per section. If you’re not registered: Be on the relevant (section) waitlist on Wolverineaccess. You want in, have to come to that section. Someone has to drop to make an opening. 3. If you’d like to try to switch to another section, let your GSI know the first section you meet—complete google for (see syllabus). If someone from your preferred section also wants to switch, it can be done—if not, you’ll have to stay with your original section. 4. [New—can’t register in overlapping classes!!]  Textbook/Readings Textbook: Goldstein, Bruce, Cognitive Psychology, 5th Edition. Cengage. (packaged with Mindtap/eText/CogLab). See syllabus for detailed instructions on buying this direct from publisher. MUST buy Mindtap (which includes etext, Coglab).  Mindtap New learning platform (accessed through Canvas) we adopted recently. Under “Modules” link on Canvas eTextbook and CogLab available through Mindtap Once you’ve bought Mindtap, REGISTER THROUGH OUR CANVAS SITE—NOT PUBLISHER. See instructions on Canvas site!  CogLab Software for running ~40 classic psych experiments. We’ll do about 18 experiments during the semester Participation required; counts for 10% of the grade. Access through Mindtap. See also syllabus for details (and later instructions we’ll post).  First 2 Coglabs 1. Simple detection: Measure reaction time to detect a stimulus and respond. 2. Brain Asymmetry (Due by Sept. 16; in general, see syllabus schedule for due dates—should be completed by that date BEFORE class). If not completed on time, no credit.  Canvas Site (Note: Ours is Psych 240 020 FA 2024) I will post various materials on the Canvas site (usually under “Files”): Syllabus (already there). Lecture slides (already there; I may post further revised versions as the class progresses). Articles/readings for Special Topics (consciousness) Mindtap/eTextbook/Coglab (through “Modules” when that’s enabled).  Grades 1. 3 Exams (80%) 2. CogLab experiments (10%) 3. Weekly quizzes (10%)  Missed Exams It’s very difficult to devise make-up exams that are equivalent to the actual exams and that will test you fairly if you miss an exam. So, only in extraordinary circumstances can we allow for makeup exams. Needs to be a serious and well-documented issue, arranged in advance (excepting same- day emergencies documented later).  Exams Exams= 80% (20% first exam, 30% each for Exams 2 & 3) --All are multiple choice, based on the lectures, text chapters and special topics/articles --Each exam will focus on material from one third (only; noncumulative) of the class. --In person, closed book  Weekly Quizzes (10% of grade) During discussion section, we will have a short, time- limited quiz on the material covered in the previous week (lectures, textbook, coglab). See syllabus. No quiz first two weeks-first quiz is during week 3. The lowest two quizzes (or outright misses, if these occur) will be dropped. Reasons/excuses are not relevant for missed quizzes. If you anticipate missing a quiz, contact your GSI IN ADVANCE and you may be able to take the quiz in another of their sections that week—or, failing that, in another GSI’s section (this must be arranged through your GSI). See syllabus.  Discussion Sections 1. Review/discuss material from lectures/readings. 2. Bring questions about lectures or readings to section (and ultimately to me if need be). 3. Weekly quizzes will be given during discussion sections (except the first two weeks)  My teaching approach Stress understanding, no stupid Qs, mutual respect Straightforward, emphasize main concepts, not “tricky” (re exam Qs, etc.) Want students to do well, help however I can Lecture class, lots of info, etc.—but try to discuss  Studying Tips --See text, Ch. 7-2. Excellent material on effective (and ineffective) studying methods --I’d estimate c. ½ students have trouble w/this --One main point—critical to “generate” the material, don’t just “read over”, highlight, etc. --For each Chapter/lecture/special topic, should generate your own list of major concepts, etc. --In sections, quizzes and exam reviews should help.  Lecture Outline--Introduction 1. History --How do we study the (unobservable?) mind --Approaches to the problem Introspectionism, behaviorism, cognitive 2. Methodology How do we get inside the box? --try to infer inner processes/stages --Example: reaction time (RT) methods 3. Basic experimental logic --Causes (IVs), effects (DVs) 4. The consciousness revolution  What is Cognitive Psychology? The scientific study of the human mind. How do we perceive, learn, remember, think...? or, in other words: The study of the structures and processes of the mind and brain that take in, transform, and use information (functional definition)  What is not Cognitive Psychology? --leaves out emotion (mostly) --but…more interest in emotional influences recently --e.g., neuroeconomics --individual (not social) emphasis --(mostly) ignores individual differences (e.g., personality) --generally healthy functioning  Illustrative Task—True/False Sentence Verification (RT) Answer the question: “Is a robin a bird?” Cognitive processes required: Perceive the letters Recognize the words Comprehend the English sentence Access knowledge of robins Decide truth or falsity Response selection/hand-finger movement And that’s a simple example  The Problem The mind is (sort of) unobservable “Black Box” Stimulus Response  Some solutions: Introspectionism Behaviorism Cognitive Approach  Introspectionism Just look inside and see what is going on... --Get introspective reports from subjects while they’re doing various things --Try to isolate “elements” of (conscious) experience  Introspectionism Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Edward Titchener (1867-1927)  “Triangle” What comes to mind when you hear the word triangle? – Most said visual image with three sides, three corners. – Revolving, colorless form with one side longer than others. – Some people said they had no visual image at all.  Introspectionism Titchener (1896)  Problems with introspection Difficult to verify. Private events, not public. End product of cognitive processing, not the process itself. [But...better controlled/less sweeping forms of introspection can work—e.g., psychophysics]  The Behaviorist Response: Only analyze behavior (S/R) Stimulus Response Accept the black box One important influence on behaviorist thought: Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) and “Associationism” Classical Conditioning Some “unconditioned” stimuli (UCS; e.g., food) naturally produce “unconditioned” response (UCR; e.g., salivating). If present initially neutral stimulus (e.g., bell) at same time as UCS, eventually it alone will “trigger” response—i.e., “Conditioned” stimulus (CS; e.g., bell) produces “conditioned” response (CR; e.g., salivating)  Watson’s Declaration Psychology should study behavior, not the unobservable “mind” We should look for the “causes” of behavior in the environment Understanding behavior requires no reference to any unobservable event occurring within the individual No fundamental differences between human and animal behavior John Watson (1878-1958)  Behaviorism Psychology is the “science of behavior.” Emphasis on what can be directly observed. – Stimuli – Responses – Reinforcements / Rewards Ignore the mind (unobservable). B. F. “Fred” Skinner (1905-1990)  Beyond Classical Conditioning Instrumental (vs. classical) Conditioning – Reward desired (but animal-initiated) behavior – Can “shape” successively closer approximations of such behaviors – Rewards shape/change behavior long-term; punishment only short-term Reinforcement Schedules – Fixed vs. variable/intermittant—latter harder to extinguish  Problems with Behaviorism Can’t account for diversity of human behavior – Example: language (but…maybe). Limiting science to the directly observable is a bad idea – Who’s ever seen an electron? – But…mind maybe a bit different (“private access”)  Some solutions Introspectionist Behaviorist Cognitive Approach  The Cognitive Approach Infer what’s going on inside the box Stimulus Response  Computational View of the Mind --Core cognitive assumption: the mind is somehow like a computer program—stages of processing --So...use experimental methods to infer (internal) processes and stages.  Basic Experimental Logic Dependent variable (DV): what you measure/analyze (to index process of interest); e.g.: – reaction time – accuracy – brain activity Independent variable (IV): what you manipulate (and think may be cause/influence); e.g.: – number of items to be memorized – amount of alcohol ingested – passage of time Can have multiple IVs (and DVs)  Example: a recognition test 100 95 % Correct responses 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 10 minutes Day 1 Day 7 “Main effect” of one IV (test delay): averaged across all other IVs  Example: a recognition test 100 % Correct responses 95 90 85 80 Study time 75 2 sec 70 0.5 sec 65 60 55 50 10 Day 1 Day 7 minutes Two IVs (test delay and study time): Here, both have main effects, but no interaction.  Example: a recognition test % Correct responses Study time Main effects of both IVs and an interaction. Interaction: IV’s effect changes depending on value/level of other IV  Interpreting Main Effects & Interactions --”Main” effects are average effects (i.e., when all other IVs are ignored—thus averaging across their levels) --So...when interactions are present, sometimes main effects (if present) are meaningful, sometimes not --in recognition memory example just given, all effects meaningful --BUT—sometimes not (especially w/categorical IVs) --example: say examining effect of birth control pills on pregnancy, have both (biologically) male and female participants --would get main effects for (biological) sex and BC, but in this case, only interaction would be meaningful  Reaction Time Methods --Assume mind is information processing computer --Lots going on inside the “black box” – much processing in time period between stimulus and response. e.g., pressing button in response to sentence verification task. So...how do we infer what’s going on inside the box? Reaction time (as DV) methods are a powerful, very common approach.  Donders (1868) Invented Mental Chronometry: The study of the time course of mental processes.  Assumption: Serial information processing stages still more Stimulus processing processing Response Each stage receives information from the previous stage processes the information sends information (outputs) to the next stage  Two questions: What are the stages involved in a task? How long does each stage take? Donders developed a methodology for estimating the time needed for each stage of processing: the “subtraction” technique.  (Simple) Detection task Press the button when you see a red or green light. S detection R  Choice task (identification; discrimination) Raise left hand for green light; right hand for red light. S detection decision R  Subtractive method S detection decision Choice RT 285 ms S detection Detection RT 197 ms Duration of the decision stage = 88 ms  Subtractive Method: Problems 1. Assumption of Pure Insertion All stages remain the same when the new one is added Problem: adding the decision stage may influence another stage (like detection) Subtractive Method: Problems 2. Assumption of additivity. The durations of all stages add together to yield the reaction time. Problem: Stages might operate in parallel/overlap. S detection decision R Subtractive Method: Problems 2. Assumption of additivity. The durations of all stages add together to yield the reaction time. Problem: Stages might operate in parallel. S detection Underestimate decision time. decision R Subtractive Method: Problems 3. Assumes you already know what the stages are. Problem: You probably don’t (although have some idea)  Subtractive Method: Problems 3. Assumes you already know what the stages are Problem: You probably don’t memory S detection decision R lookup  Donders’ Contributions 1) The idea that you can measure mental processes. 2) The choice reaction time procedure.  Modern Cognitive Psychology Infer what’s going on inside (processes; stages) the black box: – No magic formula or technique. – Construct theories – then design experiments to test the predictions of those theories. – If the experiments work – supports the theory, if not may need to change theory. – Also, try to constrain our theories with information from neuropsychology, biopsychology, and neuroscience. – Also, in some cases we build computational models.  And recently—consciousness! Consciousness now major topic in cognitive science – Last “behaviorist taboo” broken—from 1980s on – Realization that cognition/mental processes can be both conscious and/or unconscious – So—for any given cognitive process (perception, memory, etc.), can study conscious vs. unconscious differences – Complete understanding requires knowledge of both. This could lead to understanding consciousness itself! – Cuts across virtually all traditional areas – We’ll explore this area in special topics