Carbohydrates and Lipid (Morning) PDF

Topic: Waxes Abeera Zia (008) Muneeba Khan (036) Maryam Naz (026) Khadijah Rasheed (042) Arfa Asif (031) Anushka Altaf (065) Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology (IBBT)  1 Introduction to Waxes in Biochemistry OBJ...

Topic: Waxes Abeera Zia (008) Muneeba Khan (036) Maryam Naz (026) Khadijah Rasheed (042) Arfa Asif (031) Anushka Altaf (065) Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology (IBBT)  1 Introduction to Waxes in Biochemistry OBJECTIVES 2 Chemical Composition of Waxes 3 Biosynthesis of Waxes 4 Functions of Waxes in Living Organisms  5 Types of Biological Waxes OBJECTIVES 6 Physical and Chemical Properties 77 Analytical Techniques for Studying Waxes 8 Metabolism of Waxes  9 Occurrence of Waxes OBJECTIVES 10 Extraction and Purification of Waxes 11 Examples and Applications  Introduction to Waxes in Biochemistry ❑Waxes are hydrophobic organic compounds. ❑Solid at room temperature, formed from esters. ❑Made from long-chain fatty acids and alcohols. ❑Serve as barriers against water loss. ❑Protect against environmental damage effectively.  Chemical Composition of Waxes ❑Waxes consist of long-chain hydrocarbons. ❑Include fatty acids and alcohols. ❑Combine to form wax esters. ❑Variation in chain length affects properties. ❑Plant waxes have alcohols, aldehydes, alkanes.  Biosynthesis of Waxes 1. Fatty Acid Elongases ❑ Extend carbon chain, adding two carbons. ❑ Key enzymes in wax biosynthesis pathway. ❑ Critical for increasing fatty acid length. 2. Fatty Acyl-CoA Reductases ❑ Reduce fatty acyl-CoA to primary alcohols. ❑ Intermediate step, essential in wax formation. ❑ Enzymatic process converting acyl-CoA molecules. 3. Wax Synthases ❑Esterify long-chain fatty acids with alcohols. ❑Final step in creating wax esters. ❑Crucial enzymes for wax production process. 4. Plant Biosynthesis ❑Occurs in epidermal cells, forming cuticle. ❑Waxes secreted, providing surface protection. ❑Plant-specific biosynthesis, essential for defense. 5. Animal Biosynthesis ❑Takes place in specialized glands or cells. ❑Serves as energy storage, within body tissues. ❑Important for animal physiology and metabolism (Pediaa)  Functions of Waxes in Living Organisms 1. Protective Roles in Plants ❑ Integral to the cuticle, covering aerial parts. ❑ Reduces water loss through transpiration. ❑ Provides barrier against pathogens and UV radiation. 2. Barrier Function in Animal Skin and Fur ❑ Contributes to waterproofing of skin and fur. ❑ Sebaceous glands secrete waxes for skin hydration. ❑ Protects against microbial invasion, maintaining health. 3. Chemical Communication in Insects ❑ Waxes used in pheromone production. ❑ Essential for mating and colony coordination. ❑ Plays a key role in social behavior. 4. Protection in Birds ❑ Birds produce waxes for feather maintenance. ❑ Ensures waterproofing and flexibility of feathers. ❑ Helps in grooming and insulation against cold.  Types of Biological Waxes 1. Plant Waxes ❑ Cutin: Found in cuticle of leaves, fruits. ❑ Provides protective barrier, reduces water loss. ❑ Suberin: Found in roots and bark cell walls. ❑ Prevents water loss, protects against microbes. 2. Animal Waxes ❑ Lanolin: From sheep wool, waterproof. ❑ Used in cosmetics, skincare, and other products. Cont… ❑ Spermaceti: From sperm whales' head cavities. ❑ Historically used in cosmetics, industrial applications. 3. Insect Waxes ❑ Beeswax: Produced by honeybees for hive construction. ❑ Used in cosmetics, food production, candle making. ❑ Essential for hive structure, human industrial uses. 4. Marine Waxes ❑ Cholesterol Waxes: Found in marine organisms. Cont… ❑ Used for buoyancy and energy storage. ❑ Copepod Wax Esters: Produced by copepods. ❑ Significant for buoyancy, cold environment adaptation. 5. Microbial Waxes ❑ Mycolic Acids: Found in bacterial cell walls. ❑ Provides protection and resistance to antibiotics. ❑ Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs): Produced by bacteria. ❑ Used for energy storage and biodegradable plastics. (Creative Proteomics)  Physical and Chemical Properties of Waxes 1. High Melting Points ❑ Typically have high melting points. ❑ Vary depending on specific composition. ❑ Longer chain lengths = higher melting points. ❑ Saturated chains melt at higher temperatures. ❑ Influenced by different fatty acids, alcohols. ❑ Important for stability in various environments. 2. Hydrophobic Nature ❑Highly hydrophobic, repel water effectively. ❑Excellent protective barriers against moisture. ❑Essential for preventing water loss in plants. ❑Protects animal skin from excessive moisture. ❑Integral for various biological functions. ❑Key for protective and sealing applications. 3. Solubility Characteristics ❑ Low solubility in water due to hydrocarbon chains. ❑ Highly soluble in organic solvents like benzene. ❑ Solubility crucial for extraction, purification. ❑ Affects processing in various industrial uses. ❑ Influences application in pharmaceuticals. ❑ Determines compatibility with different materials. 4. Protective and Sealing Applications ❑Serve various protective, sealing roles. ❑Used in coating fruits, vegetables for shelf life. ❑Prevent dehydration, extend storage duration. ❑Act as moisture barriers in ointments, creams. ❑Used in cosmetics for skin protection, hydration. ❑Industrially used in lubricants, polishes, waterproofing.  Analytical Techniques for Studying Waxes 1. Chromatography ❑Gas Chromatography (GC): Separates wax components. ❑High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Analyzes individual compounds. ❑Identifies and quantifies fatty acids, alcohols, hydrocarbons. ❑Essential for detailed compositional analysis. ❑Provides high resolution and accuracy. ❑Widely used in analytical chemistry. 2. Spectroscopy ❑Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Analyzes molecular structure. ❑Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Identifies functional groups. ❑Characterizes chemical bonds in wax molecules. ❑Provides detailed structural information. ❑Non-destructive and highly informative. ❑Key for understanding molecular configurations. 3. Mass Spectrometry ❑Determines molecular weight, composition of wax esters. ❑Analyzes molecular fragments for identification. ❑Aids in identifying complex mixtures. ❑Provides detailed molecular insights. ❑High sensitivity and precision. ❑Essential for comprehensive molecular analysis. (Chemical Instrumentation)  Metabolism of Waxes ❑ Waxes can be synthesized through multiple pathways. ❑ One pathway involves acyl-CoA intermediates. ❑ Another pathway utilizes glycerol-3-phosphate. ❑ Breakdown of waxes occurs via hydrolysis. ❑ Oxidation reactions also contribute to degradation. ❑ Metabolic processes differ among organisms.  Occurrence of Waxes ❑Waxes are present in various natural sources. ❑Plant sources include carnauba and candelilla wax. ❑These are obtained from leaves and stems. ❑Animal sources include beeswax and lanolin. ❑Beeswax comes from insects, lanolin from sheep. ❑Certain bacteria and fungi produce microbial waxes.  Extraction and Purification of Waxes ❑Waxes are extracted using several methods. ❑Solvent extraction involves dissolving waxes. ❑Common solvents include ethanol and hexane. ❑Distillation separates waxes based on boiling points. ❑Chromatography purifies by separating from impurities. ❑The choice of method depends on the wax type.  Examples and Applications 1. Plant Cuticles ❑ Plant Leaves and Stems: Coated with wax cuticles. ❑ Reduces water loss through transpiration. ❑ Protects against fungal, bacterial infections. ❑ Vital for survival in dry environments. ❑ Enhances plant's ability to retain moisture. ❑ Provides UV protection, mechanical damage resistance. 2. Animal Skin and Fur ❑Waterproofing: Produced waxes waterproof skin, fur. ❑Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum containing waxes. ❑Keeps skin, fur hydrated and protected. ❑Shields from environmental damage. ❑Maintains skin elasticity and health. ❑Acts as a barrier against microbial invasion. 3. Insect Waxes ❑Beeswax: Produced by honeybees for hive construction. ❑Provides structural integrity to the hive. ❑Ensures a safe environment for bees. ❑Used in various human industries. ❑Essential for colony maintenance. ❑Supports hive insulation and protection. 4. Marine Organisms ❑Buoyancy Regulation: Waxes aid buoyancy in plankton, fish. ❑Energy Storage: Important for cold environments. ❑Helps in survival and mobility. ❑Provides insulation in cold waters. ❑Stores energy for long periods. ❑Critical for organismal metabolism. 5. Candles ❑Paraffin Wax: Commonly used for candles. ❑Beeswax: Natural option for candle making. ❑Soy Wax: Made by hydrogenating soybean oil. ❑Used for lighting, decoration purposes. ❑Burns cleanly and evenly. ❑Offers various aesthetic and functional benefits. (Free Images)