AnaPhy Lecture Notes PDF

CHAPTER ONE Subjects that encompass both Anatomy Gross Anatomy: structures examined without and Physiology a microscope Anatomy and physiology are studied together because they...

CHAPTER ONE Subjects that encompass both Anatomy Gross Anatomy: structures examined without and Physiology a microscope Anatomy and physiology are studied together because they are interwoven and changes in one will affect the Regional: studied area by area other structure and function are interdependent Systemic: studied system by system Pathology: structural and functional Surface: external form used to changes caused by disease visualize deeper structures Exercise Physiology: changes in Structures so small they require the aid of structure and function caused by microscope exercise. Cytology: cellular anatomy Biomedical Research Histology: study of tissues Shared characteristics between living things drive Anatomical Imaging research X-ray: electromagnetic radiation Single-cell bacteria = cell moves through body and is exposed Mammalian research furthers human on a photographic plate: creates a surgery and medicine radiograph Strict laws govern research to Ultrasound: sound waves pass into minimize suffering the body and bounce back to receiver; Current knowledge is constantly being JB visualize as a sonogram Computed Tomography (CT): computer-analyze images. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA): similar to a CT scan but uses a radiopaque dye to enhance differences in areas. updated through research in anatomy and physiology Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body Chemical Level: interaction of atoms and molecules Cell level: structural and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): unit of living organisms. Combinations radio waves directed to the patient of molecules for structures called while under an electromagnetic field; organelles that carry out specific radio waves collected and analyzed by functions. computer. Tissue level: group of similar cells and Position Emission Tomography the materials surrounding them. Four D (PET): radioactively labeled glucose tissue types - epithelial, connective, usage by a tissue is detected muscular, and nervous. Topics of Physiology Organ level: two or more tissues Goals of studying physiology include how the functioning together body responds to stimuli and how it maintains Organ system level: group of organs stable internal conditions in a constantly functioning together. changing environment Organism level: any living thing, Cell Physiology: examines process in whether composed of one cell or cells many. Systemic Physiology: functions of Organ Systems of the Body organ systems Integumentary System Neurophysiology: focuses on the Provides protection, regulates nervous system temperature, prevents water loss, and Cardiovascular Physiology: the heart helps produce vitamin D. and blood vessels Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Skeletal System Consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs. Provides protection and support, Urinary System allows body movements, produces Removes waste products from the blood cells, and stores minerals and blood and regulates blood pH, ion fat (adipose). Consists of bones, associated cartilage, balance, and water balance. ligaments, and joints. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine. Muscular System Female Reproductive System Produces body movements, maintains Produces oocytes and is the site of posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by fertilization and fetal development; tendons. produces milk for the newborn; Nervous System produces hormones that influence A major regulatory system that sexual function and behaviors. detects sensations and controls Consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and associated movements, physiological processes, structures. and intellectual functions. Male Reproductive System Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors. Produces and transfers sperm cells to Endocrine System the female and produces hormones JB A major regulatory system that that influence sexual functions and influences metabolism, growth, behaviors. Consists of testes, accessory structures, ducts, reproduction, and many other and penis. functions. 6 Essential Characteristics of Life Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones. 1. Organization: condition in which Cardiovascular System there are specific interrelationships Transports nutrients, waste products, and functions among the parts of an gases, and hormones throughout the organism. body; plays a role in immune response 2. Metabolism: the ability to use energy and the regulation of the body and to perform vital functions; all temperature. chemical reactions of the body. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. 3. Responsiveness: ability to sense Lymphatic System changes in the interior and exterior D Removes foreign substances from the environment and adjust; cell-to-cell blood and lymph, combats disease, communication is necessary. maintains tissue fluid balance, and 4. Growth: increase in size and/or absorbs dietary fats from the number of cells. digestive tract. 5. Development: changes in an Consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and organism over time. the lymphatic system. ○ Differentiation: change from Respiratory System general to specific Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide ○ Morphogenesis: change in between the blood and air and shape of tissues, organs, or the regulates blood pH. entire organism. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages. 6. Reproduction: formation of new cells Digestive System or new organisms; allows for growth Performs the mechanical (chewing) and development; allows organisms to and chemical processes (digestion), pass on their genes to their offspring. absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Homeostasis Examples of normal positive maintenance of relatively constant feedback: childbirth, lactation, blood internal environment within the body; clotting. stability of internal environment. Example of harmful positive Values of variables (conditions) feedback: after hemorrhage, blood fluctuate around the set point (ideal pressure drops, and the heart’s ability normal value) to establish a normal to pump blood decreases range of values; conditions that make Effectors continue the response our body’s respond to external beyond the set point until the original environment. stimulus is removed. Feedback Loops Terminology and the Body Plan Homeostasis is regulated by feedback Anatomical Position loops that allow for a process to be Body standing erect, face forward, adjusted by the outcome. feet together, upper limbs hanging to The two types of feedback loops are the side, palms face forward negative feedback and positive Other Body Positions feedback. Supine: lying face upward Components of a Feedback Loops Prone: lying face downward Receptor: monitors the value of some Directional Terms JB variable by detecting a stimulus (a change in the variable) Control center: establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor. ○ Hypothalamus/control center: receives information Superior (Cephalic) versus Inferior (Caudal) toward or away from the head Medial versus Lateral relative to the midline. Proximal (near the head) versus Distal used to describe linear from stimuli structures. Effector: generate the response which Superficial (surface) versus Deep can change the value of variable. relative to the surface of the body. Negative Feedback Anterior (Ventral) versus Posterior Regulates most systems in the body; (Dorsal), Anterior is forward; posterior to level down or cool down D is towards the back Counteracts a change in a variable (for example, body temperature) by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point. Changes in Blood Pressure During Exercises During exercise, muscle tissue demands more oxygen to meet this demand, blood pressure (BP) increases, resulting in an increase in blood flow to the tissues. Positive Feedback When deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and can result in death.  Pelvic cavity: below the pelvic contains the urinary bladder, urethra, rectum of the large intestines, and the reproductive organs Serous Membrane Cover the organs of body cavities and are double-layered Parietal Serous Membrane Lines the walls of the cavities Visceral Serous Membrane Layer covering the internal organs Peritoneum Mesentery - regions of double-folded visceral peritoneum that are attached Planes throughout the Body to certain points to the posterior Sagittal divides the body's left and right abdominopelvic wall. portions The mesenteries provide a pathway Median is a sagittal plane down the midline for nerves and blood vessels to reach of the body the digestive organs Frontal (coronal) divided body into JB anterior and posterior sections Transverse (horizontal) divides the body into superior and inferior sections Oblique: other than at a right angle Longitudinal: cut along the length of an organ Cell Retroperitoneal - behind the peritoneum, organs or parts of organs that only have CHAPTER THREE is the basic unit of life and is composed of plasma Transverse (cross) cut at a right General Parts of Cell angle to the length of the organ Plasma (cell) membrane - outer Oblique: cut at any but right angle boundary that allows cell interaction Body Cavities with its external environment contains dorsal and ventral body cavities Nucleus - directs cell activities Dorsal Body Cavity D Cytoplasm - located between plasma Cranial cavity: houses the brain membranes and nucleus; contains Vertebral canal: houses the spinal organelles that perform specific cord functions Ventral body Cavity contains majority of viscera; Characteristics Function of Cell divisions include: Cell metabolism and energy use - Thoracic cavity, which is further includes all chemical reactions that divided into pleural cavities, each occur in the cell and often involves enclosing a lung; medial mediastinum energy transfer and production of (middle wall), which contains the heat heart, some major blood vessels, Synthesis of molecules, such as thymus, trachea, esophagus proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, that Abdominopelvic cavity: enclosed by are specific for the type of cell abdominal muscles and consists of the Communication - cells produce and more superior abdominal cavity; and receive electrical signals and chemical the more inferior pelvic cavity signals Abdominal cavity: includes the Reproduction and Inheritance - majority of digestive organs like the each cell contains a complete copy of stomach, intestines, and the liver.  all the genetic information (DNA) for The plasma membrane is primarily the individual that determines the made of lipids and proteins with a structural and functional very small amount of carbohydrates. characteristics of the cell; some cells Glycocalyx: combinations of are specialized as gametes for the carbohydrates and lipids (glycolipids) transmission of genetic information to and proteins (glycoproteins) on outer the next generation. surface. How We See Cells Membrane Lipids Cells are too small to be seen with the Phospholipids and cholesterol predominate unaided eye Phospholipids: bilayer. Polar heads Must use microscopes facing water in the interior and Light Microscope - has a resolution of about exterior of the cell (hydrophilic); 0.1µm (microns/micrometers) nonpolar tails facing each other on Examines tissues (ex. biopsies) and the interior of the membrane cells (hydrophobic) Requires stains. Cholesterol: interspersed among Electron Microscope - has a resolution of phospholipids. Amount determines the about 0.1nm (nanometers) fluid nature of the membrane, Scanning Microscope (SEM): providing stability to the membrane JB ○ three-dimensional surface features Transmission Microscope (TEM): ○ view internal structures Atomic Force Microscope (AFM): ○ Tiny probe scans same ○ Very high resolution Fluid Nature (fluid-mosaic model) provides/allows: Distribution of molecules within the membrane. Phospholipids automatically reassembled if membrane is damaged. Plasma Membrane Membrane can fuse with each other Functions: Membrane Proteins A boundary separating the Integral Membrane Proteins cytoplasmic (intracellular) substances Extend deeply into membrane, often from the extracellular environment of extending from one surface to the the cells D other. Encloses and supports Can form channels through the Production of a membrane potential membrane. An electrical charge difference across the Peripheral Membrane Proteins plasma membrane that results from the cell’s Attached to integral proteins at either regulation of ion movement into and out of the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid the cell. bilayer or to polar heads of There are more positively charged phospholipids. ions along the outside of the plasma Functioning depends on 3-D shape and membrane, giving it a positive chemical characteristics. charge. Markers, attachment sites, channels, There are more negatively charged receptors, enzymes, or carriers. ions and proteins on the inside of the Marker Molecules plasma membrane, giving it a Glycoproteins or Glycolipids negative charge. Allow cells to identify one another or other Composition of the Plasma Membrane molecules. Distinguish between self-cells and foreign cells  Recognition of oocyte by sperm cell Ligand-gated lon channel: open in Intercellular communication response to small molecules that bind to proteins or glycoproteins. Attachment Proteins Voltage-gated ion channel: opens Integral Proteins when there is a change in charge Cadherins - attach cells to other cells across the plasma membrane. Integrins - function in pairs to attach to Cystic Fibrosis: a genetic disorder that extracellular molecules. affects chloride ion channels and causes cells Sometimes allow communication due to produce thick, viscous secretions. to contact with intracellular molecules. Transport Proteins: Specificity and Also called transporters Competition Integral proteins move ions from one side of Involve carrier proteins or channels in the cell membrane to the other. membrane 1. Specific molecule enters the carrier. Characteristics: 2. Molecule attaches to binding site in Specificity for a single type of carrier. molecule based on shape. 3. Protein changes shape to transport to Competition among molecules of the other side. Resumes original shape similar shape after transport. Saturation: rate of transportation Carrier Proteins JB limited to number of available carrier proteins. Saturation of a Transport Protein Saturation: the rate of movement of a substance across the membrane is limited by the number of available transport proteins Carrier proteins come in several forms. Uniporters - moves one ion/molecule. Symporters - move two ions/molecules in the same direction at the same time (cotransport). Antiporters - move two ions/molecules in opposite directions Channel Proteins at the same time (countertransport). Channel Proteins: integral membrane Require the breakdown of ATP proteins that form tiny channels through the 1. ATP-powered pumps have binding membrane. sites for specific ions or molecules and The channel determines the size, ATP. shape, and the 2. Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP releases D Hydrophobic regions face outward energy to change the shape of the toward the hydrophobic part of the carrier to move the substance across plasma membrane. the membrane. Hydrophilic regions face inward and 3. Ion and phosphate are released and line the tunnel. the pump resumes its original shape. The charge of the hydrophilic tunnel Receptor Proteins determines the types of ions that can Proteins or glycoproteins in move through. membranes with an exposed receptor Leak and Gated Ion Channels site on the outer cell surface. Leak ion channels (nongated ion channels): Can attach to specific chemical signal always open. molecules and act as an intercellular Responsible for the permeability of communication system. the plasma membrane to ions when Ligands can attach only to cells with the plasma membrane is at rest. that specific receptor. Gated ion channels: opened or closed Receptors Linked to Channel Proteins by certain stimuli. Receptor molecules linked to channel proteins.  Attachment of receptor-specific Must maintain homeostasis though chemical signals (for example, the composition inside and outside acetylcholine) to receptors causes the cell are different. change in shape of channel protein. Enzymes, other proteins, glycogen, Channel opens or closes; changes the and K' are in higher concentration in permeability of cell to some the cell cytoplasm. substances. Na, Ca, and Cl are in higher Certain toxins disrupt normal cell concentrations in the extracellular activity by blocking acetylcholine environment. bonding sites. Cell volume must stay the same even Opening and Closing of Ligand-Gated with movement of materials into and Channels out of the cell. 1. Acetylcholine binds to the receptor Passive membrane transport - the cell does sites linked to a Na+ channel. When not expend ATP; movement from higher the receptor sites are not occupied by concentration to lower concentration. ACh, the Na channel remains closed. Diffusion 2. The binding of ACh (a ligand) Osmosis molecules to the receptor sites opens Facilitated diffusion the Na* channels in the plasma Active membrane transport - ATP is used to JB membrane allowing Na* to move into the cell. Receptors Linked to G Protein Complexes: Alter activity on inner surface of the plasma membrane. Leads to intracellular chemical signals that affect cell function. move from lower concentration to higher concentration. Active transport Secondary active transport Vesicular transport - uses a membrane- bound sac. Endocytosis Some hormones function in this way. Exocytosis The G protein complex consists of Osmosis three proteins: alpha (a), beta (β), Diffusion of water (solvent) across a and gamma (y). selectively permeable membrane. Water Drugs with structures similar to moves from an area of low concentration of specific chemical signals may solute (high amount of water) to an area of D compete for the receptor sites. high concentration of solute (low amount of Enzymes water). Enzymes: some act to catalyze Aquaporins - water channel proteins. reactions at outer/inner surface of Osmotic pressure: force required to plasma membrane. prevent water from moving across a Example: Surface cells of small membrane by osmosis. intestine produce enzymes that digest Function of Integumentary dipeptides. Protection Some membrane-associated enzymes Sensation are always active while others are Temperature Regulation activated by receptors or G protein Vitamin D complexes. Excretion Movement through the Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Types of Skin Cancer Only allows certain substances to pass Basal Cell Carcinoma through it. Most common Cells of stratum basal  Varied appearance Eccrine (merocrine) Glands Cured by removal or destruction Most common; numerous in palms and Squamous Cell Carcinoma soles. Cells of stratum spinosum Simple coiled tubular glands Varied appearance; may bleed Open directly onto surface of skin. Most cases are cured by removal or Have own pores destruction Coiled part in dermis, duct exiting through epidermis Growth and Resting stages are Cyclic Produce isotonic fluid (sweat) Growth stage: cells added at base containing mostly water and some and hair elongates. wastes. Resting stage: follicle shortens and Important role in body regulation holds hair in place. Rest, then hair falls Apocrine Glands out of follicle. New hair begins Active at puberty The amount of time spent in each Simple coiled tubular, usually open stage depends on the type or location into hair follicles superficial to of the hair. opening of sebaceous gland. Regular hair loss: hair is being replaced. Secretion: organic compounds that Permanent hair loss: pattern baldness most are odorless but, when acted upon by common cause. JB Alopecia areata: spot baldness most likely due to an autoimmune response. Hair Color and Muscles Hair Color Caused by varying amounts and types of melanin. Melanin can be bacteria, may become odiferous. Found in axillae, genitalia (external labia, scrotum), around anus. Do not help regulate temperature. Ceruminous Glands: modified eccrine sweat glands in the external auditory canal. Earwax (cerumen) - composed of a black-brown and red. Color is combination of sebum and secretion controlled by several genes. from ceruminous. Muscles Function - in combination with hairs, Arrector pili: Type of smooth muscle. prevent dirt and insects from entry. Extends from the dermal root sheath Mammary Glands: modified apocrine sweat of the follicle to the papillary layer of glands that produce milk. D the dermis. Accessory Skin Structures: Nails Muscle contraction causes hair to Structure - thin plate of layers of dead “stand on end” stratum corneum cells with hard keratin. Skin pushed up by movement of hair Nail body: stratum corneum; visible follicle to produce “goosebumps” portion. Accessory Skin Structures: Glands Eponychium or cuticle: corneum Sebaceous Glands superficial to nail body Holocrine (death of secretory cells) Hyponychium: corneum beneath the Sebum (oily secretion) free edge. Prevents drying and inhibits some Matrix and nail bed: cells that give bacteria rise to the nail Most empty into hair follicles Nail root: covered by skin; extends ○ Exceptions: lips, meibomian glands of from nail matrix. eyelids, genitalia Nail Growth Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands The nail matrix and bed are composed Two types–traditionally called apocrine and of epithelial tissue with a stratum merocrine, but apocrine may be secreted in a merocrine or holocrine fashion.  basale that gives rise to the cells that Burns form the nail. Partial-thickness Grow continuously unlike hair First-degree Fingernails grow 0.5 to 1.2 mm/day; Second-degree. faster than toenails Full-thickness Lunula - small part of nail matrix seen Third-degree through the nail body as a whitish, Fourth-degree - affects deeper structures. crescent-shaped area at the base of Skin Grafts the nail. Split skin Physiology of the Integumentary System Artificial skin Protection Cadavers or pigs Against abrasion, sloughing off of Effects of Aging on the Integumentary bacteria as desquamation occurs. System Against microorganisms and other Skin is more easily damaged because foreign substances. Glandular epidermis thins and amount of secretions bacteriostatic and skin collagen decreases. contains cells of the immune system. Skin infections are more likely. Melanin against UV radiation. Wrinkling occurs due to decrease in Hair on head is an insulator and elastic fibers. JB protects against light, and from abrasion. Eyebrows keep sweat out of the eyes; eyelashes protect eyes from foreign objects. Hair in nose and ear against dust, bugs, etc. Skin becomes drier. Decrease in blood supply causes poor ability to regulate body temperature. Functioning melanocytes generally decrease; age spots are areas of increased melanin production. Sunlight ages skin more rapidly. Nails protect the ends of digits, self-defense. Acts as barrier to diffusion of water. Vitamin D Production Begins in skin; aids in Ca²+ absorption. Vitamin D (calcitriol): hormone. D Stimulates uptake of Ca² and PO from intestines. Promotes Ca² and PO release from bones. Reduces Ca² loss from kidneys. Increases blood Ca² levels. 7-dehydrocholesterol converts to cholecalciferol when exposed to UV radiation. Cholecalciferol released to blood and modified in the liver and kidneys to form calcitriol (active vitamin D). People in cold climates and those who cover the body can be deficient, but calcitriol can be absorbed through intestinal wall. Sources: dairy, liver, egg yolks, supplements.