Human Resource Management A1 Notes PDF

CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDATION AND CHALLENGES OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 1.2 Human resources: past and present 1.2.1 The scientific management approach: -The first radical approach is what most owners and managers of the early 1900s considered the most effective means of managing employees – constant s...

CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDATION AND CHALLENGES OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 1.2 Human resources: past and present 1.2.1 The scientific management approach: -The first radical approach is what most owners and managers of the early 1900s considered the most effective means of managing employees – constant supervision and threat of the loss of their jobs. -Before the advent of scientific management all employees were considered equally productive and if their productivity did not measure up their contracts were terminated. -Lead to the development of the scientific and objective approach -Based on scientific data instead of a boss’s subjective judgement, fair performance for each job can be determined. -However the movement’s treatment of employees- someone motivated solely by money- led to problems. 1.2.2 Human relations approach: -Researchers discovered that employees’ feelings, emotions and sentiments were strongly affected by work conditions such as group work, leadership styles and support from management. -Thus it was asserted that treating employees with dignity enhances employee satisfaction and enables achievement of higher productivity. -This led to widespread implementation of behavioural science techniques in industries ( personnel department is responsible for designing and implanting these programs). -This approach however only achieved minimal success in increasing employee output and enhancing job satisfaction. -Reasons for poor performance: 1. based on oversimplified concept of human behaviour in organisational setting. 2. failed to consider individual differences. (uniqueness and complexity of each individual). 3. failed to recognise the need for both job structure and for controls on employee behaviour- neglected the importance of procedures standards and work rules in guiding employees toward the goals of the organisation. 4. failed to recognise that good human relations are but one of the many conditions necessary to sustain a high level of employee motivation. (Productivity can also be improved with performance appraisal systems etc.) -Approach is considered outdated today. (no longer predominant leadership style). 1.2.3 Human resource approach: -organisations benefit in two ways: an increase in organisational effectiveness satisfaction of employees’ needs. -holds that organisational and employees needs are compatible and mutual – rather than separate and exclusive ( one need not be achieved at the expense of the other). -Relatively new approach. -Research in behavioural sciences showed that managing people as resources -rather than factors of production or as human beings who act solely on emotions – is beneficial to both the organisation and employees. -Principles that provide the basis for this approach: Employees are investments that provide long-term rewards to the organisation (productivity). Policies and programmes must be created that cover both economic and emotional needs of employees. Working environment that encourages employees to develop and use skills to maximum extent must be created. HR programmes must be implemented with the goal of balancing the needs and meeting the goals of both the organisation and employee. (work-life balance) Outcomes of the human resource approach: 1.3 Strategic resource management: -A focus on the integration of all HR policies with one another and with the overall strategy and direction of the organisation. -involves making decisions about the overall mission and objectives of the organisation, determining most effective use of its resources, crafting and executing this strategy in ways that produce the favourable / intended results. Differences between strategic and HR management: A model of strategic HR management: HR functions: -Assigned exclusively to HR: compensation and benefit issues. (e.g. Insurance administration, wages, unemployment compensation etc.) affirmative action and employment equity. job analysis programmes.  pre-employment testing. attitude surveys (research). -Assigned to HR jointly with other departments: Job analysis & job design Recruitment, selection, orientation/onboarding & internal staffing Performance appraisal, training & development, & career management Compensation & health Labour relations HR information systems (HRIS) & HR research and problem-solving -Does the HR function affect the success of an organisation? Yes – organisations wishing to remain competitive in today’s rapidly changing global marketplace need to address the issue of achieving productivity through their employees. HR Department’s roles: HR policies (define acceptable vs unacceptable behaviour and establish organisation’s position on certain issues). Critical policy issues (employee influence, personnel flow, compensation and reward systems). Communication (the glue that binds various elements and allows people to work together and produce results) Advice & services Control functions (good relationships between HR and other departments ensures compliance with guidelines with minimum stress to the organization. Policies & procedures (proper policies need to be developed to ensure fairness and compliance as well as well-known and easily accessible to all employees). Communication with other departments: -DOWNWARD: -UPWARD: *New employee orientation/ *Suggestion programs onboarding *Bulletin boards *Complaint procedures *Communication meetings *E-mail *Newsletters *Surveys *Employee handbooks *Apps Current issues and challenges: Employee productivity Quality improvement Downsizing, delayering & decruiting The changing workforce Global economy  The impact of government Quality of working life Technology and training 21st century challenges for HR mangers: Organisations must identify: Future talent needs The desired make-up of the organisation’s human capital Internal talent to be grown and leveraged Competencies and skills that will have to be acquired externally The organisation’s demographic profile will need to be engaged and energised The structure of the HR department: -Clerical / support staff -Managerial staff -Professional staff HR career opportunities: Best strategies for entering HR careers: Numerous opportunities Academic preparation (university degree or diploma): o Business management background o Communications & psychology o Organisational behaviour & change o Training & development o Employee selection, performance management, wellness, labour- management practices, compensation Skills: o Interpersonal o Proactive decision-making o Teaming, communication & persuasion o Creative, innovative thinking o HR technical knowledge o Leadership & planning  Work experience Build a network though local IPM Professionalism of HRM: SABPP (South African Board for People Practices) registration Ethics and HRM SIOPSA (Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology in South Africa) CHAPTER 3: MANAGING DIVERSITY AND REGULATORY CHALLENGES: South Africa’s diverse population groups: Population groups Women The age of the workforce South Africans with disabilities Sexual/affectional orientation HIV and AIDS Religion STATS SA: Population – 60,6 mil (mid-2022) Unemployment rate 2023 – Q1 = 32,9% Female: 51.1% (approximately 30,7 mil) Population between 0 – 19 = 22.12 mil Population 80 years and older – 609,000 Life expectancy at birth-estimated at 60 years for males and 65,6 years for females. Estimated overall HIV prevalence rate – 14.75% (13,7% ) “Almost a fourth of SA women in their reproductive ages (15 – 49 years are HIV positive” Total number of people living with HIV – 8,5 mil For adults aged 15–49 years, an estimated 19,6% of the population is HIV positive People living with disabilities –about 7.5% of the population)(2014) Disability compare female/male = 8.3% and 6.5% Managing Diversity: What is diversity? o Any collective mixture characterised by differences, similarities and related tensions and complexities. o Managing diversity: the development and implementation of organisational policies and practices intended to embrace employee differences and promote inclusion with the aim of leveraging each employee’s unique contribution to the organisation. Stereotypes and prejudices  o Stereotype: a fixed distorted generalisation about members of a group. Usually comes from outside sources not individual experiences. It negates people’s individuality and limits their potential. o Prejudice: processing one’s stereotype and in such a way as to reinforce one’s own sense of superiority to members of that group. o Stereotyping and prejudice have been institutionalised in the workplace in South Africa Assimilation o Assimilation: assume that the dominant group’s performance and style were superior to those of persons not in the dominant group. o Pressuring diverse individuals to conform diminishes them as individuals and they may lose touch with their own cultural backgrounds. o The basis for assimilation is bias. o An exclusionary culture. Valuing diversity o First step is to acknowledge the fundamental difference between employment equity and affirmative action. Diversity programmes o Such as sexual harassment policies , providing physical access for employees with disabilities and the recruitment and selection of disadvantaged groups and women. Diversity education and awareness training o First group to be educated should be top management. o Education in managing diversity as a resource is ongoing and will be unique to each organisation’s needs. o Awareness training seeks to motivate employees to recognise the worth and dignity of everyone in the workplace and treat them with respect. o Unlearning biases is a long-term process. Individuals must be willing to re- evaluate and reprogramme many deeply held beliefs. Problems with diversity training: -Trainers own psychological values are used as training templates. -Trainers have political agendas or support and promote particular special-interest groups. -Training is too brief or too late or only used in response to an existing crisis situation such as a lawsuit. -The working definition of diversity is too narrow. When is diversity training effective? -The focus is on substantive changes both individual and organisational -Accountability is a priority. -Training is well integrated into organisational functions and planning and has strong support of leadership.  -Training is viewed as a long-term process that requires a strong commitment from everyone. Language sensitivity -Avoid terms that devalue people. -Be sensitive with titles or terminology. The multicultural organisation -These organisations value the diversity that they have created within the workforce. They also adopt some of the norms and values of minority groups. How can an organisation truly become a multicultural organisation? STEP 1: UNFREEZING -Diverse top management. -Top management commitment and vision. -Top management symbolic communication and actions. -Adequate resources. -Goal setting. STEP 2: MOVING -Recruitment and outreach programmes. -Co-op and internship programmes. -Training and education. -Mentoring and career development. STEP 3: REFREEZING -Policies and procedures. -Job descriptions. -Reward system. COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE: -Improved creativity and decision-making. -More agile and adaptive workforce. -Broader demographic market. -Increased market share.  Dimensions of diversity: In SA diversity has 3 main focus areas: 1. Legal imperatives in the form of employment equity and affirmative action. 2. The unique work-related challenges experienced by minority groups (based on race, gender disability, religion, sexual orientation etc.) 3. The broad range of common traits and differences that impact on relations between individuals and groups. Response to diversity: Government Legislation: The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (No.108 of 1996): o The right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion. o The right to freedom of expression. o The right to assemble, to picket and demonstrate with others peacefully and unarmed, and to present petitions. o The right to freedom of association. o The right to engage freely in economic activity and to pursue a livelihood anywhere in the national territory. o The right to fair labour practices. o The right to use the language and to participate in the cultural life of his or her choice. Employment Equity Act (EEA) (No. 55 of 1998) (as amended): o aims to achieve equity in the workplace by promoting equal opportunities and fair treatment in employment through the elimination of unfair discrimination and implementing affirmative action measures to redress the disadvantages in employment experienced by designated groups  o While the Act's provisions in terms of the prohibition of unfair discrimination (Chapter II) apply to all employers, only the following employer groups are subject to the affirmative action provisions outlined in Chapter III of the Act (Section 4): o Employers who employ 50 or more employees. o Employers who employ fewer than 50 employees but whose total annual turnover equals or exceeds the applicable turnover of a small business in terms of Schedule 4 of the Act. o An employer appointed as a designated employer by a collective agreement. o Municipalities. o Organs of the state except for: - The National Defence Force. -The National Intelligence Agency. - The South African Secret Service Labour Relations Act (LRA) (No. 66 of 1995): o Right to freedom of association. o Workplace forums. o Dispute resolution. o Automatically unfair dismissals. o Collective agreements, trade unions and employers’ organisations. Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA) (No. 75 of 1997) (as amended): o Aspects covered in this Act include working time, leave, remuneration, deductions, notice of termination, administrative obligations, prohibition of the employment of children and forced labour. o It is clear from the discussion above, that discrimination in terms of conditions of employment is prohibited. o Other aspects that are regulated by the BCEA and that may relate to diversity and the management therefore include the protection of female employees during pregnancy and after the birth of a child o It should be noted the most recent amendments to the BCEA address leave benefits that were perceived as discriminatory against male employees and parents in same- sex relationships. In addition to maternity leave, three new categories of leave were introduced, namely parental, adoption and commissioning parental leave. Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE) (No. 53 of 2003): o Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE) is a form of economic empowerment aimed at transforming South Africa economically by increasing the number of Black people who participate actively in the country's economy at all levels. o The Act sets specific requirements in terms of employment equity relating to business ownership, management control and skills development. Companies must ensure that their workforces are representative and black owners and managers should be empowered. o Organisations are therefore under increasing pressure to improve the diversity of their employees. It is essential, however, to refrain from 'window dressing' where individuals are appointed in positions because they fit a particular profile needed to  meet a Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) requirement but these positions carry little responsibility or power.90 Instead, organisations should revise their HR practices to ensure that the barriers affecting the advancement of previously disadvantaged employees' careers are eradicated. o This may, for instance, entail providing opportunities for mentorship and skills advancement and providing social support in the form of flexible work arrangements to enable employees to balance work and family commitments. o These aspects should not be regarded as legal imperatives to be addressed by means of formal policies and procedures only but should be internalised as part of an inclusive organisational culture. Various Codes of Good Practice have b Difference between affirmative action and diversity: Affirmative action/ Employment equity: Valuing Diversity: o Government pressure -Organization-driven o Legislation -Competitive edge o Quantitative -Qualitative o Representivity of the workforce -Utilization of the workforce o Assimilation -Individual performance Sexual Harassment: Defining sexual harassment: o Any unwanted conduct of a sexual nature that is intended to affect or interfere with a person’s work performance or meant to create an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment. Quid pro quo sexual harassment: -A form of harassment that occurs when a harasser makes unwelcome sexual advances toward someone in exchange for workplace benefits. Hostile environment harassment: -A form of harassment that occurs when unwelcome sexual conduct interferes with job performance or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment. Measuring and researching sexual harassment: -Grievance data (formal complaints) -Oral complaints to management or HR officials. -Exit interviews.  -Survey data. HR’s responsibility: o Identifying/recognising the characteristics of sexual harassers o Drawing up a good sexual harassment prevention policy o Providing effective sexual harassment training Different forms of sexual harassment: CHAPTER 4: STRATEGIC HR PLANNING AND RESEARCH: Human Resource Planning (HRP): The process of anticipating and providing for the movement of people into, within and out of an organisation with the aim of finding the best fit between employees and jobs. Strategic HR Planning (SHRP): The process by which organisational goals, as put forth in mission statements and organisational plans, are translated into HR objectives to ensure that the organisation is neither over- nor understaffed, and that employees with the appropriate talents, skills and desire are available to carry out their tasks/duties in the right jobs at the right times. Types of HR planning: Proactive or reactive approach: Does it want to anticipate needs and systematically plan to fill jobs or does it simply want to react to the needs as they arise. Broad or narrow focus: Can choose a narrow focus by doing planning in only one or two HR areas (recruitment and selection) or a broad focus by including additional activities such as training or compensation etc. Formal or informal plan: Informal- planning is done by managers and HR staff, who tend to keep it to themselves. Formal- plan is clearly spelled out in writing and backed up by supporting documentation and data. Fully integrated with company strategic plan or loosely tied. Three type of linkages: o Input linkages: HR information is made available either before or during the strategic planning process. This can take place either through a specialised HR unit doing scanning or through a specialised committee of HR personnel. o Decision inclusion linkages: HR personnel are either directly/ indirectly involved in organisation’s strategic planning process. An HR executive may serve as a full partner in the strategic team. They would then introduce and monitor HR issues and implications and participate in developing overall goals and strategies. Another approach- HR executive to sit in during a strategy session and participate only in discussions about HR issues. o Review and reaction linkages: HR personnel can respond to a proposed/ final strategic plan. Plan may be reviewed from an HR flexibility viewpoint. Personnel may even have sign-off authority. Planning Horizon: Time frame: Short-range objectives: 1 year or shorter. (objectives are specific) Intermediate objectives: 2–4 years. (objectives are specific) Long-range objectives: 5-15 years. (objectives are more general) Strategy-linked HRP: Who is responsible for HRP: Why is SHRP so important? Creates competitive advantage Achieve immediate and long-term goals Improves profitability of the organisation A better understanding of the HR implications of organisational strategies Recruiting experienced talent well in advance of needs Improved planning of assignments and other employee developmental actions Improved analysis and control of personnel-related costs Strategic change (radical and incremental) Elements of SHRP: HR objectives: what needs to be achieved with regards to: o Quantitative o Qualitative HR plans: blueprint that specifies: o Who o When o Where o How Steps in the SHRP process: STEP 1: Establish the mission, vision and values. -Organisations main beliefs and values and where it’s headed in the future. STEP 2: Conduct an external analysis. -Examine external factors (environment) -Opportunities or threats (competitors) -Economic factors, legislative matters, changes in technology etc STEP 3: Conduct an internal analysis. -Examine the internal environment. -Strengths and weaknesses (SWOT analysis). -Existing workforce competition, corporate culture. STEP 4: Forecasting demand. -Forecasting demands (manpower needs) -Approximation and estimations. -Past trends and productivity levels. STEP 5: Forecasting supply. -Forecasting future supply of labour. -Internal: skill inventory, movement (promotions, retirements) -External: local, national, international supply of labour. STEP 6: Developing, formulating and implementing a strategy. -Formulating an HR strategy hat aligns with the organisations goals – functional strategy. STEP 7: Succession plan. -Succession planning. -Long-term plans for the replacement of key employees (retirement and critically skilled employees) HR forecast conditions and action plans: 1. Labour demand exceeds labour supply: Training or Retraining Succession planning Promotion Transfer Recruitment from outside Sub-contracting Part-time / Temporary workers Overtime 2. Labour supply exceeds labour demand: Pay cuts Reduced work hours Work sharing Voluntary early retirements Inducements to quit (e.g. severance pay) Retrenchments 3. Labour demanded equals labour supply. Common pitfalls in SHRP: The identity crises: HR planners work in an ambiguous environment characterized by regulations, organizational politics and diverse management styles. Unless they develop a strong sense of mission (direction), their existence may be challenged. Top management support: For the process to be viable it must have the full support of top management. May sometimes not be forthcoming.  Size of effort: Many SHRP programs fail in the beginning because of a complex start. Build the process up gradually instead of starting with a complex system. Coordination with other functions : Important that process is coordinated with other management and HR functions. Integration with company plans: HR plans must be derived from organizational plans- plans made in isolation will not serve any purpose. Non-involvement of operating managers: Successful SHRP requires a coordinated effort on the part of operating managers and HR staff. If this does not take place- line management will not be able to execute the plans formulated in SHRP process. The technique trap: As SHRP process has become more popular, new sophisticated techniques have been developed to assist it. Many are useful but there is a tendency to use them as everyone else is using it. Organisations must decide on purpose of the activity and use techniques to fit their specific needs. HR Research and Metrics: HR Research : The collection and investigation of facts related to HR problems in order to reduce or eliminate those problems. Types of research: 1. Basic/Pure Research: -Advance knowledge through theory -Explain underlying principles/processes 2. Applied Research: -Conducted to solve a particular problem -Discovery through application -Solve problems/ improve situation The Researcher: -government -private organizations -professional associations -universities HR research publications HR metrics: used to calculate the success or failure of workforce-related HR projects or initiatives related to HR function, in terms of cost and impact. Research Techniques: Surveys: e.g. job satisfaction survey  Exit interviews Historical study Controlled experiments HR information systems (HRIS): High-quality research required Timely Accurate Relevant Cost-benefit analysis: Employee turnover Absenteeism HRIS Employee attitudes Labour contracts CHAPTER 5: JOB DESIGN AND JOB ANALYSIS: Dividing work into jobs: Work is an effort directed towards producing or accomplishing particular results. -Work is divided into jobs. A job is the grouping of tasks, duties and responsibilities that constitute the total work assignment for an employee. Workflow analysis :studies the way work moves through the organisation -Starts with examination of desired outputs & actual outputs (goods and services) into quantity and quality. – Activities (tasks and jobs)that lead to the outputs are evaluated to see if they can achieve the desired outputs. –Inputs (people, material , information , data , equipment) must be assessed to determine if these inputs make the outputs and activities more efficient o desired & actual outputs o activities o inputs Re-engineering business process -Changes business processes. -Responsive to the need for changes in the business. -Generating – revised business processes appropriately. o Generates the needed changes in the business processes o Purpose: To improve such activities as product development, customer service & service delivery Re-engineering may ultimately require the use of work teams, training employees to do more than one job, and reorganising operations, workflow and offices to simplify and speed up the work. Re-engineering may ultimately require the use of: -Work teams – groups of people who work together to achieve a common goal -Training employees to do more than one job External organisational factors o Environmental uncertainty, availability & introduction of new technology Internal organisational factors o Management & leadership style.  o Technology within the organisation & systems Major HR concerns: o Employee productivity o Job satisfaction Job design (JD) is the manipulation of the content, functions and relationships of jobs in a way that both accomplishes organisational goals and satisfies the personal needs of individual job holders. JD determines how work is performed and greatly affects how an employee feels about a job, how much authority an employee has over the work, how much decision-making the employee performs on the job and how many tasks the employee should complete. Dimensions of Job Design: 1. CONTENT: -tasks performed -autonomy of job holder -complexity of task -extent to which the job is performed by the job holder 2. FUNCTIONS: -work methods used -responsibility -authority 3. RELATIONSHIPS: -activities shared by job holders and others. Designing Jobs: Specialisation-intensive jobs o Job simplification (job specialisation) – jobs with very few tasks that are repeated often during the workday o Jobs are characterised by fewer and repetitive tasks. o Specialisation determined = 2 dimensions -SCOPE = how long it takes to complete a task -DEPTH = determine the degree of specialisation -manager drives the performance standards for the job – determine the best way to do the job. o Benefits: -employees can learn tasks quickly (training) -little or no mental effort.(scripted) -reduced cost due to low skilled workers (wages) o Problem of over-specialisation (alienated) o Repetition – quickly bored o Mechanical pacing – assembly line o No end-product o Little social interaction o No input by employee o Job dimensions Motivation-intensive jobs (creates interest and motivates employees) – Job rotation: – Alternating jobs and tasks (expanding scope) – Does not change depth of job/tasks – Breaks routine – BENEFITS: – Prevent health problems associated with repeated work. – Broadens skills – Assists organisation in dealing with frequent absenteeism and high turnover. – Job enlargement: – Increasing the number of tasks performed – Scope pf the job is increased = more tasks are added to same level (horizontal expansion) - Alters the pace of work - Depth of job not increased - Resolve problems associated with over specialisation of jobs. - Job enrichment: - Applied to organisations with a high level of knowledge and skills, - Jobs redesigned according to scope and depth. - Employees have greater say of how job will be done. - Increased variety/complexity of task and additional responsibility.  - Task identity = start to finish. Sociotechnical approach: - Complex organisational work design - Based on 2 premises = work unit combines the social and technical systems. - Incorporates the interaction between people and technology in the workplace. - Most popular application = self-managed work teams - Self-managed work teams: o Teams that are empowered to manage themselves. o Divide up task o Learn multiple jobs o Train each other. o Elect their own leader = idea of a boss is outdated. o Evaluate each other’s job performance. -Virtual teams: use advanced computer and telecommunications technology – disperse team (geographical locations) 1. PROBLEM-SOLVING TEAM (limited period) 2. SPECIAL PURPOSE TEAM (complex problems) - BENEFITS: OWNERSHIP AND COMMITMENT. Newer organisational approaches: Total quality management (TQM) o Focuses on the quality of all the processes that lead to the final product or service o It requires support of top management & the belief that quality is a key part of every employee’s job o Customer focus in the process of designing and improving quality o Proper implementation requires a clear vision & support of top management and a focus on results, NOT the process South African Quality Institute (SAQI) coordinates total quality effort. Companies can obtain TQM accreditation by applying for certification in ISO 9001:2015. South African National Accreditation System (SANAS) coordinates accreditation in South Africa. The office environment: Work environment (space, workstations, light etc.) affects employee morale, productivity and quality, absenteeism & turnover Creativity can happen anywhere Retain the services of an architect or design consultant Where we work is important- The design and development of the office is no coincidence! Space, workstations, light, furnishings can affect employee morale, productivity, absenteeism and turnover. Design of office space often done in consultation with architects and design consultants. Poor air quality= increase illness- SA= sick building syndrome. Special requirements of a diverse workforce- access requirements for people that are differently abled. Green space (natural environments)- has an important influence on employees (light, nature, water features & impact on health and wellbeing. Living green providing an environmentally friendly working environment. Robotics: The use of robots to perform routine tasks Industrial robots: o Anthropomorphic: approximate the appearance and functions of humans o Nonanthropomorphic: machine-like with limited functionality (assembly, manufacturing) New robots perform most of the shaping, bending and drilling work that workers used to perform. In South Africa, many of these robots can be found in the motor manufacturing industry. Employees need to re-skill to perform augmented jobs. Ergonomics: Definition: the study of people’s efficiency in their working environment. Taking into account the human factor in designing the employee’s workstation Relationship between the employees and their workstations: machines, lighting, noise, chairs etc., can affect productivity Consider the following aspects in designing employee workstations: o Posture o The back o The hand  o The environment Productivity Measures: Productivity: A measure of the output of goods and services directly relative to the input of labour, material and equipment. Quantity or volume produced An accurate measure of productivity is vital= feedback performance= organisational improvement effort Accurate measure of productivity is vital to the organisational improvement effort Be measured by groups (divisions) or individuals HR professional = ensuring employees engage in meaningful way-task identity Gain a competitive advantage (industry basis nationally or internationally) Strategies to improve productivity & quality Organisations must be careful not to measure the wrong things or overlook those that are critical to success. Merely implementing quality techniques, including employee empowerment and benchmarking will not produce benefits. Productivity is the relationship between what is put into a piece of work (input) and what is yielded (output). Major components of productivity: Three major components of productivity: 1. Utilisation – the extent to which we use the resources. 2.Efficiency – doing things right.  o Rate of conversion o Machine output 3.Effectiveness – doing the right things o What we choose to do Other job design issues: Work schedules Flexitime - allows employees to better use worker by matching work demands to work hours -service organisations (retail, banking) More advantages with flexi schedules (turnover, absenteeism) -typical flexi time system = core time (all employees are required to work) -employees can choose stopping & starting times -employees enjoy the flexibility = family responsibility/ leisure time -lateness is eliminated – reduced overtime Compressed workweeks -fewer than traditional 5 work-day weeks, hours per day increases -total hours worked in week remains the same -employee working 40hrs week- compress their work into 4x10 hour days= day off -compliant with the BCEA Alternative physical work locations o Telecommuting -Employees can complete work task different locations -does not work for everyone -create isolation, stagnation, family problems and even compulsive working, loss of visibility at work could derail careers. Nature of Job Analysis: (JA) Job analysis: a systematic way to gather and analyse information about the content, context and the human requirements of jobs. Investigates: – Levels of decision-making – Skills employees need to do a job adequately – Autonomy of the job  – Mental effort required to perform the job – Machines operated, reports completed & special financial/other responsibilities – Working conditions (levels of temperature, light etc.) It is also known as job review and job classification. The end product of job analysis is o job description o job specification o The importance of job analysis: New realities: o Organisational restructuring due to downsizing o The need to motivate and reward people o The impact of technology on jobs throughout the organisation o Labour legislation pertaining to employment equity and general discriminatory practices o The implementation of teams o Depth and breadth of teams Contents of a Job Description: (JD) Every description must answer the following: What is done? What is the result? How is the task done? What methods, techniques, tools, processes are involved? 1.Job Identification: o Job title: Assistant Manager o Job location: Gauteng o Title of immediate supervisor: Manager, Director o Job status: managerial/ professional/ administrative/ support. o Pay grade/range: R 20 000 – R25 000 per month o Name of compiler: Job analyst o Date of approval: 21/08/2024 2.Job Summary: Brief statement  1-3 line description of essence of job Start each entry with a verb Emphasize either: -most common function -primary output or -objective of the job Example: Assistant Manager: The Assistant Manager role is responsible for the development of strategies toward better workplace efficiency and goal achievement, monitoring spending patterns and budgets, and addressing employee and customer concerns. 3.Job Duties and Responsibilities: Start each entry with a verb Group tasks into major functional categories, including: a) Duties and Responsibilities: -What must the person be able to do? -How well? b) Relationships: -Who does the job holder report to? -Who does the job holder supervise? -Who does the job holder work with? c) Authority/ accountability: -Decision-making (e.g. hiring staff, discounting goods) -Budgetary d)Working conditions: -work schedule (e.g. shift work) -out-of-town travel -environmental factors (e.g. noise, temperature) Job Duties and Responsibilities : Schedule and coordinate meetings Conduct employee performance reviews Develop good customer relationships Participate in recruitment and dismissal processes.  Smooth out problems within the workplace Address employee and customer concerns Develop strategies for better workplace efficiency and goal achievement Email and phone correspondence Liaise between managers, customers and employees Provide direction to staff Monitor spending patterns and budget. Fill in for General Manager (GM) in times of absence. Make executive decisions, hold meetings and provide accountability. Troubleshoot POS system. Support ongoing learning and development of team members. Help create and foster a respectful and inclusive team environment. (AT LEAST 4 DUTIES & RESPONSIBILITIES) Uses of a Job Description: Induction (orientation and onboarding) Job evaluation (payment decisions) Recruitment (job advertisement) Selection (interviewing) Training and Development Performance Appraisal (KPA) Job design Health and safety (conditions) Outplacements (career progression) Legislation: “Stipulate the terms and conditions of employment” Basic Conditions of Employment Act No. 75 of 1997 states: (as amended) “An employer must supply and employee, when the employee commences with employment, with the following particulars in writing: 1b) the name and occupation of the employee, or a brief description of the work for which the employee is employed.” 2) When any matter listed in subsection (1) changes- a) the written particulars must be revised to reflect the change; and  b) the employee must be supplied with a copy of the document reflecting the changes. Difference between job description and job specification: Job description: -A written statement of what the job holder actually does, how(s)he does it, under what conditions the job is performed, and the compensation value that is attached to the job. Job specification: -Statement about the knowledge, skills and abilities required of the person performing the job. -Minimum competencies. (requirements) Job Specification: (JS) Knowledge Skills and ability (attributes) Competencies (demonstratable) Work relevant prior experience Education Training Qualifications Experience Physique, sensory perceptiveness (e.g. colour discernment) (e.g. working in a warehouse) Disposition/personality (e.g. calm, self-reliant, friendly) Example: Assistant Manager: Proven experience as an Assistant Manager or similar position Proficient user of MS Office (MS Excel in particular) Leadership and organizational abilities Interpersonal and communication skills Business Administration degree or relevant equivalent. (AT LEAST 4 JOB SPECIFICATIONS) TIP: JA = JD (3) + JS (4) Additional Tips: 1.Writing Tips: Keep the language as simple as possible  Minimum use of adverbs/adjectives e.g. “beautiful”, “quickly”, “very strong” Minimum use of pronouns e.g. “I”, “they”, “we” No employee names The writing style should be brief Keep sentences short Begin sentences with action verbs Use the present tense. 2.List of action verbs: Achieves Listens Adjusts Meets Administers Organises Appoints Schedule Approves Selects Audits Shows Budgets Specifies Calculates Structures Clarifies Studies Coaches Suggests Communicates Supervises Corrects Targets Creates Teaches Directs Trains Evaluates Undertakes Explores Uses Follow up Gathers Handles Helps Influences Instructs Summary:  JOB ANALYSIS: JOB DESCRIPTION: JOB SPECIFICATION: -Job title -Qualifications -Job location -Experience -Job summary -Training -Reporting to -Skills -Working conditions -Responsibilities -Job duties -Emotional characteristics -Machines to be used -Sensory demands -Hazards Components of a job: To understand a specific job and to be able to make comparisons among or between jobs, it is important that anyone analysing a job should know that it can be broken down into several components and arranged into a hierarchy of work activities. Hierachy of work activities: Job family Occupation Job Position Duty Task Element Programme Implementation: 1.Committee Review: o Particpants – representatives from labour unions, all major departments in the organization and professional bodies and with increased workplace forums there is a greater involvement of employees o The quality of job analysis depends on the accuracy of information gathered, the objectivity of job analysis and evaluation and the ability of the committee to make critical decisions. 2.Information Collection: Site observation o Observing people at work o Positives: minimizes incumbent bias, embellishment of duties or overlooking important aspects of the job o Negatives: employees may resent being observed (makes them feel uncomfortable), the work performed by accountant for example may be difficult to observe  Work sampling: o Is a variation of site observation o Random sampling of the content of a job instead of observing all the employees’ behaviours o Positives: useful for highly repetitive tasks o Negatives: analyst must ensure that what is observed is a representative of the main tasks Interviews: o Interview the job incumbent or job supervisor o Job analyst uses structured interviews – one-on-one sessions or meetings with sample groups o Positives: job analyst can probe uncertainties or complexities o Negatives: time consuming process, data collected may not be standardized or comparable – this often occurs when there are multiple interviewees. Diaries: o Job holders keep a diary of work activities. The diary is maintained for 2-4 weeks. o Positives: cost effective and comprehensive o Negatives: time consuming process for the employee, there may be employee bias and jobs or tasks could be added Questionnaires: o A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. o Positives: most efficient method, results are standardized and comparable, data can be converted into quantitative scale- score of questionnaire leads to print out of job summary. o Negative: questionnaire requires thoughtful planning and can be expensive. 3.Information Review Assemble and review information Data factual, correct and complete Data analysis is comparable and objective Establish standard categories about the job Create a draft 4.Product Completion: Job description Job specification Who conducts job analysis: Large companies = job analyst Collect and process job information Most part of SA follows a standard format: 1. Committee review 2. Information collection 3. Choose job analysis method 4. Product completion 5. Updating Job analysis problems: Employee fear Need to update information regularly Job is held by only one or two employees Managers often feel restricted as they are of the opinion that the JA & JD have an impact on the flexibility that they have Newer research on job design: Job crafting Generational differences and reactions to jobs Transformational leadership Job design and new work arrangements Job design in a digitised gig economy