Western Asia and Egypt 3500–500 B.C. PDF

Western Asia and Egypt 3500–500 B.C. Section 1 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia Section 2 Egyptian Civilization Section 3 New Centers of Civilization Section 4 The Rise of New Empires...

Western Asia and Egypt 3500–500 B.C. Section 1 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia Section 2 Egyptian Civilization Section 3 New Centers of Civilization Section 4 The Rise of New Empires MAKING CONNECTIONS How does progress affect history? During the 1960s, Egypt built the Aswan High Dam to control flood- ing of the Nile River. The lake rising behind the dam threatened to destroy ancient Egyptian monuments. An international team saved several temples including Abu Simbel—Ramses II’s temple. Abu Simbel was carved into 20 ton blocks, moved 200 feet, and reassem- bled. In this chapter you will learn about Egyptian rulers and temples. Why would other countries help Egypt preserve its monuments? How can countries adapt to changing needs and still preserve their history? c. 3000 B.C. c. 2540 B.C. Sumerian cities Great Pyramid of emerge; cuneiform King Khufu THE WORLD writing invented complete 3500 B.C. 2500 B.C. c. 2700 B.C. Egypt’s Old Kingdom begins 24 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, David S. Boyer/Getty Images  Egyptian History c. 1792 B.C. c. 970 B.C. c. 521 B.C. Summarizing Old Kingdom Hammurabi Solomon Darius I begins Create a layered-look Middle Kingdom book with four layers New Kingdom comes to power becomes expanding to review the history in Babylon King of Israel Persian Empire of ancient Egypt. Summarize the impor- tant facts about each era in each layer. 1500 B.C. 500 B.C. c. 1250 b.c. c. 539 B.C. Queen Nefertari, Babylon falls wife of Ramses II, dies (ISTORY /.,).% Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 2. David S. Boyer/Getty Images, (l) Art Archive/Bibliothèque Musée du Louvre/Dagli Orti, (r) Roger Wood/CORBIS  Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia, located in what is now southern Iraq, was one GUIDE TO READING area where civilization began. Its people developed complex The BIG Idea economic, political, and social structures. Such inventions as Physical Geography Fertile soil between written language improved the quality of their lives. As the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers allowed an early different groups fought for power, they set up the world’s first civilization to flourish in Mesopotamia. empires and codified their laws. Content Vocabulary polytheistic (p. 27) cuneiform (p. 30) city-state (p. 28) empire (p. 32) Geography and Religion ziggurat (p. 29) patriarchal (p. 33) theocracy (p. 29) The physical environment of Mesopotamia supported the develop- ment of civilization and influenced people’s religious beliefs. Academic Vocabulary HISTORY & YOU Is your town located near a river? Read about how the fertile transport (p. 29) innovations (p. 30) soil of a river valley supported the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture and the birth of civilization. People and Places Tigris River (p. 26) Uruk (p. 28) Civilization depends on large permanent settlements. Fertile Euphrates River Akkadians (p. 32) (p. 26) river valleys that can support a large population are ideal loca- Sargon (p. 32) Mesopotamia (p. 26) tions for such settlements. Highly organized societies then evolved Babylon (p. 33) Fertile Crescent (p. 26) in these regions. Hammurabi (p. 33) Sumerians (p. 26) The Fertile Crescent Reading Strategy The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Categorizing Information As you Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the riv- read, complete a chart like the one below to help ers.” Mesopotamia was at the eastern end of the Fertile Crescent, you study. an arc of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Political Life Cultural Life Inventions Rich soil and abundant crops allowed the land to sustain an early civilization. Mesopotamia had little rain, but over the years its soil had been enriched by layers of silt—material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding, however, was unpre- dictable. It depended on the melting of snows in the upland moun- tains where the rivers began. People in the valley could not tell exactly when the floods would come or how large they would be. Therefore, people in ancient Mesopotamia learned to control the flow of the rivers. By using irrigation and drainage ditches, farmers were able to grow crops regularly. An abundance of food allowed many people to live together in cities, and civilization emerged. Mesopotamian civilization refers to the achievements of people from three general areas: Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. The Sumerians were the creators of the first Mesopotamian civilization. 26  ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA 20°E 40°E 60°E B l a ck S e a CA Ca EUROPE UC sp AS US ia 40°N MT n S S. ea ASIA MINOR ASSYRIA Me M dit AKKAD ES Nineveh err ZA Ancient shoreline ane G OP Euph an S Byblos rRO Fertile Crescent Tig SM OT ea at TNS ris Sidon SYRIAN es AM R LOWER ive. SUMER Ri v Tyre DESERT r IA EGYPT er Jerusalem Jordan Babylon Susa River Umma Lagash Dead Sea Uruk N River Eridu Ur AFRICA UPPERNile EGYPT (A Per E ra sia W bi n an G S Guulf A R A B I A N lf) D E S E R T palace 0 400 kilometers “City of Ur” Re (6th century BC) dS court of 0 400 miles 20°N Nanna north ea harbor temple of Lambert Conformal Conic projection shrine of E-nun-makh A r a bia n Se a Nanna fortress ziggurat houses Eup temple of royal tombs 1. Location What mountain range forms the hra canal Nin-gal eastern border of the Fertile Crescent? te 0 200 meters s palace of Riv E-Khursag 2. Location In which direction do the Tigris and e 0 200 yards west harbor r houses Euphrates Rivers flow? In which direction does Royal palace (c. 1800 BC) the Nile flow? cit temple Temple yw of Enki all See StudentWorks™ Plus Other building s or glencoe.com. The Growth of Religion In Mesopotamia, people looked to reli- gion to answer their questions about life. The physical environment affected the To them, powerful spiritual beings—gods way Mesopotamians viewed the world. A and goddesses—permeated all aspects of harsh climate and frequent famines con- the universe. The Mesopotamians identi- vinced them that unreliable supernatural fied nearly three thousand gods and god- forces controlled this world. In the pres- desses. Their religion was polytheistic ence of nature, Mesopotamians could eas- because of this belief in many gods. ily feel helpless, as this poem relates: According to the beliefs of the Mesopota- mians, humans were supposed to obey PRIMARY SOURCE and serve the gods. By their nature, humans were inferior to the gods and “The rampant flood which no man can oppose, Which shakes the heavens and causes earth to could never be sure what the gods might tremble, do to or for them. In an appalling blanket folds mother and child, And drowns the harvest in its time of ripeness.” ✓Reading Check Explaining What role did —in ”Mesopotamia,” from Before Philosophy, geography play in the development of Mesopotamian Henri Frankfort et al. civilization? CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 27  City-States of Ancient Sumerian Cities Topham/The Image Works Sumerian cities were surrounded by Mesopotamia walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall six miles (10 km) long, with defense Religion played a powerful role in the economic, political, and social structure of towers located every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 Mesopotamian city-states. m) along the wall. It is estimated that Uruk had a population of around 50,000 people HISTORY & YOU How are state and local govern- by 2700 b.c., making it one of the largest ment related in your community? Read about the con- nection in Mesopotamia. city-states. City dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both the small houses of peasants The origins of the Sumerian people and the larger buildings of the city offi- remain a mystery. By 3000 b.c., they had cials, priests, and priestesses. People living established a number of independent cities in city-states gained a sense of identity. in southern Mesopotamia, including Eridu, They now had a group to which they Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they belonged, beyond the basic family unit. gained political and economic control over Although Mesopotamia had little stone the surrounding countryside. They formed or wood for building purposes, it did city-states, the basic units of Sumerian have plenty of mud. Mud bricks, easily civilization. shaped by hand, were left to bake in the Ziggurat at Ur, c. 2100 B.C. The ziggurat at Ur was constructed during the reign of Ur-Nammu around 2100 B.C. It stands approximately 70 feet (21 m) high. The temple is believed to have been for the moon god, Nanna. Ziggurats ceased to be built after Mesopotamia was conquered by the Persians in the 500s B.C. 1. Making Inferences Why do you think priests were the only people per- Only priests were allowed to climb to mitted to enter the temples? the temple. One theory suggests the 2. Drawing Conclusions Why do you steps represented a stairway to heaven, suppose Sumerians built temples on bringing the priests closer to the gods. top of ziggurats? hot sun until they were hard enough to which farming depended. The army, the use for building. People in Mesopotamia government, and the priests and priest- were remarkably creative with mud esses all aided the kings in their rule. As bricks. They invented the arch and the befitted their power, Sumerian kings, their dome, and they built some of the largest wives, and their children lived in large brick buildings in the world. Mud bricks palaces. are still used in rural areas of Southwest Asia today. Economy and Society Although the economy of the Sumerian Religion and Rulers city-states was based chiefly on farming, The most prominent building in a Sume- trade and industry became important as rian city was the temple dedicated to the well. The peoples of Mesopotamia made chief god or goddess of the city. This tem- woolen textiles and pottery, but they ple was often built atop a massive stepped were particularly well known for their tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians metalwork. believed that gods and goddesses owned Copper, gold, and silver were already the cities. The people devoted much of being used for jewelry and some tools. The their wealth to building temples and elab- Sumerians discovered that when tin is orate houses for the priests and priestesses added to copper, it makes bronze. Bronze who served the gods. The temples and has a lower melting point, Mesopotamia related buildings served as the center of which makes it easier to Ca Black Sea Trade route spia the city physically, economically, and even cast than copper. Bronze is n Sea also a harder metal than Tig politically. Surplus food and crafts were ri Mediterranean sR Sea stored in the temples, which could then be copper and corrodes less.. Trade route Euphrates R. distributed or traded. It could also be melted INDIA down and remade when it Red The priests and priestesses who super- Persian vised the temples held a great deal of wore out. Gulf Sea power. In fact, historians believe that in the The Sumerians imported Arabian Sea early stages of the city-states, priests and copper, tin, and timber in priestesses played an important role in rul- exchange for dried fish, wool, barley, ing. The Sumerians believed that the gods wheat, and metal goods. Traders traveled ruled the cities, making the state a by land to the eastern Mediterranean in theocracy—a government by divine the west and by sea to India in the east. authority. The invention of the wheel, around 3000 Even when power passed into the hands b.c., led to wheeled carts, which made the of kings, Sumerians believed that these transport of goods much easier. rulers derived their power from the gods Sumerian city-states contained three and were the agents of the gods. As one major social groups: nobles, commoners, person said in a petition to his king: and slaves. Nobles included royal and priestly officials and their families. Com- moners worked for palace and temple PRIMARY SOURCE estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, “You in your judgement, you are the son of and craftspeople. Probably 90 percent or Anu [god of the sky]. Your commands, like the more of the people were farmers. Slaves work of a god, cannot be reversed. Your words, belonged to palace officials, who used them like rain pouring down from heaven, are without mostly in building projects. Temple officials number.” most often used female slaves to weave —anonymous Sumerian petitioner cloth and grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their lands. Regardless of their origins, kings held great power. They led armies, supervised ✓Reading Check Explaining Why were the the building of public works, and orga- early Mesopotamian city-states considered to be nized workers for the irrigation projects on theocracies? CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 29  The Creativity of the PRIMARY SOURCE Sumerians “In the tablet-house, the monitor said to me: ‘Why are you late?’ I was afraid, my heart beat fast. I entered before my teacher, took my place. The Sumerians invented writing and My ‘school-father’ read my tablet to me, several new technologies that made life easier. said, ‘The word is cut off,’ caned me. HISTORY & YOU What are some examples of how He who was in charge of drawing said ‘Why when writing makes your life better? Read about Sumerian I was not here did you stand up?’ caned me. writing innovations. He who was in charge of the gate said ‘Why when I was not here did you go out?’ caned me. My teacher said ‘Your hand is not good,’ caned The Sumerians created many inventions me.” that still affect our lives today. Probably —James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts their greatest invention was their writing. In addition, historians credit them with Scribal students spent most of their many technological innovations. school days following the same routine. They copied and recopied standard works on clay tablets and then recited from them. Writing and Literature Although boring, this was probably the Around 3000 b.c., the Sumerians created scribe’s only way of learning how to form a cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) system of the cuneiform writing signs neatly and writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for correctly. writing), they made wedge-shaped impres- sions on clay tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. Once dried, PRIMARY SOURCE these tablets lasted a very long time. Sev- “’What did you do in school?’ eral hundred thousand tablets have been ‘I read my tablet, wrote it, finished found. They have been a valuable source it; then my prepared lines were of information for modern scholars. prepared for me and in the Mesopotamian peoples used writing pri- afternoon, my hand copies were marily for record keeping. Cuneiform prepared for me.’” texts, however, were also used in schools —James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts to train scribes, members of the learned class who served as copyists, teachers, and Writing was important because it jurists. allowed a society to keep records and to For boys of the upper class in Mesopota- pass along knowledge from person to per- mia, becoming a scribe was the key to a son and from generation to generation. successful career. Men who began their Writing also made it possible for people careers as scribes became the leaders of to communicate ideas in new ways. This their cities, temples, and armies. Scribes is especially evident in The Epic of came to hold the most important positions Gilgamesh. in Sumerian society. Gilgamesh is an epic poem that records To become scribes, boys from wealthy the exploits of a legendary king named families, many of them the sons of scribes, Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is wise, strong, attended the new schools that were in and perfect in body. He is part man and operation by 2500 b.c. Young boys seeking part god. Gilgamesh befriends a hairy to become scribes began school when they beast named Enkidu. Together, they set were small children and trained until they off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, were young men. School days began at Gilgamesh feels the pain of death and sunrise and ended at sunset. Discipline begins a search for the secret of immor- was harsh. The following essay, written by tality. His efforts fail, and Gilgamesh a teacher as a copying exercise for pupils, remains mortal. This Mesopotamian epic shows that punishments—being caned or makes clear that “everlasting life” is only beaten with a stick—were frequent: for the gods. 30 SECTION 1 Civilization Begins in Mesopotamia  The Standard of Ur The Standard of Ur was found in a grave in the Royal Cemetery at Ur. The Standard has two main panels titled “War” and “Peace.” The “War” panel, shown here, depicts a Sumerian army. It should be read from the bottom up, and The top panel shows the left to right. king receiving prisoners and other spoils of war. Sumerian soldiers use spears to drive their prisoners forward, in the middle panel. It is believed that the middle panel depicts men carrying tribute to their conquerors. A king figure in the bottom left-hand 1. Describing What events are depicted in these panels? corner drives a chariot, which crushes 2. Interpreting What does the “War” panel reveal about enemies under its wheels. Sumerian society? Technology also made outstanding achievements in mathematics and astronomy. In math, they The Sumerians invented several tools and devised a number system based on 60. They devices that made daily life easier and more used geometry to measure fields and to productive. They developed the wagon erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumeri- wheel, for example, to help transport peo- ans charted the heavenly constellations. A ple and goods from place to place. The pot- quick glance at your watch and its division ter’s wheel to shape containers, the sundial of an hour into 60 minutes should remind to keep time, and the arch used in construc- you of our debt to the Sumerians. tion are other examples of Sumerian tech- nology. The Sumerians were the first to ✓Reading Check Identifying Name two major make bronze out of copper and tin, creating inventions of the Sumerians, and tell how those finely crafted metalwork. The Sumerians inventions affect our lives today. CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 31 British Museum, London/Bridgeman Art Library  Empires in Ancient control of land and water. Located on flat land, the Sumerian city-states were also Mesopotamia open to invasion by other groups. Strong leaders established empires and codified the laws of Mesopotamia. Akkadian and Babylonian HISTORY & YOU How might a written code of laws Empires change the system of justice in a country? Read about To the north of the Sumerian city-states the law code Hammurabi developed. were the Akkadians (uh KAY dee uhnz). They spoke a Semitic language. Around 2340 b.c., Sargon, leader of the Akkadians, As the number of Sumerian city-states overran the Sumerian city-states and set grew and the city-states expanded, new up the first empire in world history. An conflicts arose. City-states fought for empire is a large political unit or state, HAMMURABI’S CODE Hammurabi’s code was written on a Although there were earlier Mesopotamian law codes, the Code 7-foot (2-m) monument of Hammurabi is the most complete. It influenced law codes in later called civilizations. The code’s influence is apparent in the precepts of the a stela. major world religions including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam though there are also significant differences. THE INFLUENCE OF HAMMURABI’S CODE If anyone commits a robbery and is caught, then he shall be put 1 to death.—Hammurabi’s code The upper section of the stela Thou shalt not steal.—Bible (Old Testament) shows Hammurabi standing in front of a seated sun god. If a man wishes to separate from a woman who has borne him children, or from his wife who has borne him children, then he shall give that wife her dowry, and a part of the usufruct [right of use] of field, garden, and property, so that she can rear her 2 children.—Hammurabi’s code Those who die and leave wives, a will shall provide their wives with support for a year, provided they stay within the same household.—Quran If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.—Hammurabi’s code 3 If any harm follows, then you shall give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.—Bible (Old Testament) 1. Comparing What similarities do you see In some ways the laws of Hammurabi’s between Hammurabi’s code and the Bible code were harsher than earlier Sumerian and the Quran? laws. The laws were also more 2. Speculating Why do you think the images progressive in the areas of family law were included at the top of the stela with and women’s rights. Hammurabi’s code? Art Media/Heritage-Images/The Image Works usually under a single leader, that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are often easy to create, but they can be difficult to maintain. The rise and fall of empires is an important part of history. Attacks from neighbors caused the Akkadian Empire to fall by 2100 b.c. After that, the system of warring city- Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: Tigris River, states lasted until 1792 b.c. In Babylon, a city-state south Euphrates River, Mesopotamia, Fertile of Akkad, Hammurabi (HA muh RAH bee) came to Crescent, Sumerians, polytheistic, Uruk, power. He gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thus creat- city-state, ziggurat, theocracy, transport, ing a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After his death in 1750 innovations, cuneiform, Akkadians, Sargon, b.c., however, a series of weak kings was unable to keep empire, Babylon, Hammurabi, patriarchal. the empire united, and it finally fell to new invaders. Main Ideas The Code of Hammurabi 2. Explain how the physical environment For centuries in Mesopotamia, laws had regulated affected the way Mesopotamians viewed the world. people’s relationships with one another. Hammurabi’s collection of laws provides great insight into social con- 3. Describe how temples served as the ditions there. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a center of Mesopotamian cities. system of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were 4. Create a chart like the one shown below to severe, and they varied according to the social class of the list Sumerian achievements and the effects victim. A crime against a noble by a commoner was pun- of these achievements on our lives today. ished more severely than the same offense against a mem- Effects on our lives Achievements ber of the lower class. Moreover, the principle of retaliation today (“an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”) was a fundamen- tal part of this system of justice. Hammurabi’s code took seriously the duties of public officials. Officials who failed to solve crimes had to make personal restitution to the victims or their families. Judges could be penalized for ruling incorrectly on a case. Critical Thinking The law code also included what we would call con- 5. BIG Idea Analyzing How did the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers support a strong sumer-protection laws. Builders were held responsible for economy in Mesopotamia? the buildings they constructed. If a house collapsed and caused the owner to die, the builder was put to death. 6. Evaluating Which type of government— The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi separate city-states or an empire—would have been most advantageous to the focused on marriage and the family. Parents arranged mar- people of Mesopotamia? riages for their children. After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract, which made the marriage legal. 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the image on Mesopotamian society was patriarchal—that is, men page 31. What does it reveal about life in Sumer? dominated the society. Hammurabi’s code shows that women had far fewer rights in marriage than did men. A woman’s place was definitely in the home. A husband Writing About History could divorce his wife if she failed to fulfill her duties, was 8. Expository Writing Explain why unable to bear children, or tried to leave home to engage Hammurabi’s code was a significant development. Develop a set of laws based in business. Even harsher, a wife who neglected her home on the Code of Hammurabi that would or humiliated her husband could be drowned. apply to your community today. Explain Fathers ruled their children as well. Obedience was why your code differs from that developed expected: “If a son has struck his father, he shall cut off his by Hammurabi or why it is similar. hand.” If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him. Hammurabi’s laws clearly covered almost every aspect of people’s lives. (ISTORY /.,).% For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World ✓Reading Check Identifying Identify five aspects of History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central. Mesopotamian society as revealed by the Code of Hammurabi. 33  Egyptian Civilization Egypt, like Mesopotamia, was one of the first river-valley GUIDE TO READING civilizations. Egyptian history includes three long periods of The BIG Idea stability and achievement interspersed with shorter periods of Order and Security Continuity and sta- political disorder. Egyptian society was organized in layers, but bility were characteristics of Egyptian civilization for most people worked the land. thousands of years. Content Vocabulary dynasty (p. 36) mummification (p. 37) Geography and Religion pharaoh (p. 37) hieroglyphics (p. 42) The Nile was fundamental to the development of Egyptian bureaucracy (p. 37) hieratic script (p. 43) civilization. vizier (p. 37) HISTORY & YOU How does the geography of your region affect your outlook on life? Learn how the Egyptians in the Nile Valley used their geography. Academic Vocabulary major (p. 34) identifying (p. 36) The Nile River played an important role in Egyptian civilization. physical (p. 37) Egyptians wrote of their reliance on the great river in “Hymn to the Nile,” praising it as the “creator of all good” in its ability to bring People and Places them food and other riches. Like their religious beliefs, the Nile Nile River (p. 34) Hatshepsut (p. 40) provided a sense of well-being and comfort to the Egyptians. Lower Egypt (p. 34) Akhenaten (p. 40) Upper Egypt (p. 34) Tutankhamen (p. 40) Menes (p. 36) Ramses II (p. 40) The Nile Giza (p. 37) Cleopatra VII (p. 40) The Nile River begins in the heart of Africa and courses north- Hyksos (p. 39) ward for more than 4,000 miles (6,436 km). It is the longest river in the world. Before it empties into the Mediterranean, the Nile Reading Strategy splits into two major branches. This split forms a triangular terri- Identifying As you read, complete a chart tory called a delta. The Nile Delta is called Lower Egypt; the land like the one below to help you study. upstream, to the south, is called Upper Egypt. Egypt’s important The Old The Middle The New cities developed at the tip of the delta, the point at which the Nile Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom divides. The ancient Egyptians referred to the river’s yearly flooding as the “miracle” of the Nile. The river rose in the summer from heavy rains in central Africa, reached its highest point in Egypt in early autumn, and left a deposit of mud that created an area of rich soil several miles wide on both sides of the river. The Egyptians called this dark-colored, fertile land the “Black Land.” Beyond it lay the deserts, the “Red Land.” Farmers in the Nile Valley grew a surplus of food, which made Egypt prosperous. The river also served as a unifying factor in Egyptian history. In ancient times, the Nile was the fastest way to travel through the land, making both transportation and commu- nication easier. North winds pushed sailboats south, and the Nile’s current carried them north. Unlike Mesopotamia, which was subject to constant invasion, Egypt was blessed by natural barriers that gave it protection from 34  20°E THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT 40°E EGYPT Mediterranean Sea Dead Sea NILE DELTA Pyramids for tombs were built LOWER EGYPT during the Old Kingdom. 30°N Giza Memphis Saqqara Dahshur N W E WESTERN UPPER EASTERN S DESERT EGYPT DESERT Amarna Fertile Land (”Black Land”) N ile Riv 0 300 kilometers e r RE 0 300 miles Abydos Re Lambert Conformal Conic projection Akhenaten built his capital D S Valley of the Kings Karnak at Amarna. d Valley of the EA Queens Thebes Se HIL a Royalty was buried in underground LS ARABIAN tombs during the New Kingdom. DESERT First Cataract TROPIC OF CANCER Middle Kingdom pharaohs 1. Human-Environment Interaction What conquered land south of the First Cataract. is significant about the location of Egyptian cities? 2. Regions What do the names Upper Egypt Second Cataract and Lower Egypt reveal about the topo- graphy of Egypt? invasion and a sense of security. These bar- The Growth of Religion riers included the deserts to the west and Religion, too, provided the Egyptians east; the Red Sea to the east; the cataracts, with a sense of security and timelessness. or rapids, on the southern part of the Nile, They had no word for religion. For them, which made defense relatively easy; and religious ideas represented an inseparable the Mediterranean Sea to the north. part of the entire world order. The Egyp- The regularity of the Nile floods and the tians were polytheistic. They had a number relative isolation of the Egyptians created a of gods associated with heavenly bodies feeling of security and changelessness. To and natural forces. Two groups, sun gods the ancient Egyptians, when the Nile and land gods (including river gods), came flooded each year, “the fields laugh and to have special significance in view of the people’s faces light up.” Unlike people in importance of the sun and the fertile land Mesopotamia, Egyptians faced life with a along the Nile to Egypt’s well-being. spirit of confidence in the stability of The sun, the source of life, was worthy of things. Ancient Egyptian civilization was worship. The sun god took on different marked by a remarkable degree of conti- forms and names based on his role. The nuity over thousands of years. Egyptian ruler took the title “Son of Re.” CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 35 Art Archive/Luxor Museum, Egypt/Dagli Orti  Egyptian Kingdoms Travelpix Ltd/Getty Images The rulers were seen as an earthly form of Re, one of the sun god’s names. River and land gods included Osiris Egyptian history is divided into three and Isis. A famous myth told of the strug- major periods, called kingdoms. gle between Osiris, who brought civiliza- HISTORY & YOU Why might periods of political tion to Egypt, and his evil brother Seth. stability also be times of cultural achievement? Learn When Seth cut Osiris into pieces and about Egypt’s accomplishments. tossed them into the Nile, Isis, Osiris’s wife, found the pieces. With help from other gods, she brought Osiris back to life. Scholars divide Egyptian history into Osiris became a symbol of resurrection, or three major periods: the Old Kingdom, rebirth. By identifying with Osiris, Egyp- Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. tians hoped to gain new life after death. These were periods of long-term stability The dead were placed in tombs (in the marked by strong leadership, freedom case of kings, in pyramid tombs) and from invasion, great building projects, and through rituals would become Osiris. Like rich cultural activity. In between were the Osiris, they would then be reborn. The Intermediate periods, times of political flooding of the Nile and the new life that disorder and invasion. it brought to Egypt were symbolized by Egypt’s history begins around 3100 b.c., Isis’s bringing all of Osiris’s parts together when King Menes (MEE NEEZ) united each spring in the festival of the new Upper and Lower Egypt into a single king- land. dom and created the first royal dynasty. A dynasty is a family of rulers whose right to ✓Reading Check Contrasting How did the rule is passed on within the family. flooding patterns of rivers in Egypt and Mesopotamia From then on, the Egyptian ruler would cause the two civilizations to develop differently? be called “King of Upper and Lower Pyramids at Giza Built for King Khufu during the Old Kingdom, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the largest pyramid built. Khafre was the son of Khufu. Although King Khafre’s pyramid is smaller than the Great Pyramid, more elaborate structures and statues, including the Great Sphinx, surround it. The pyramids contained items needed in the afterlife. Each of the three pyramids shown is part of a complex, which included temples, smaller pyramids, mastabas, and a causeway. Five large pits for boats border the pyramids of Khufu and Khafre. Menkure was the son of 1. Making Inferences Why might boats have Khafre. King Menkure’s been buried near the pharaohs’ pyramids? pyramid is the smallest 2. Comparing and Contrasting How does the and was not finished when he died. pyramid of Khafre compare to his father’s pyramid? Egypt.” The crown was a double crown, structures: a large pyramid for the pha- indicating the unity of all Egypt. Just as the raoh’s burial; smaller pyramids for his Nile served to unite Upper Egypt and family; and several mastabas, rectangular Lower Egypt physically, kingship united structures with flat roofs used as tombs for them politically. the pharaoh’s officials. The tombs were well prepared for their residents. They contained rooms stocked The Old Kingdom with supplies, including chairs, boats, The Old Kingdom, which lasted from chests, weapons, games, dishes, and a vari- around 2700 b.c. to 2200 b.c., was an age of ety of foods. The Egyptians believed that prosperity and splendor. Like the kings of human beings had two bodies—a physical the Sumerian city-states, the monarchs of one and a spiritual one, which they called the Old Kingdom were powerful rulers the ka. If the physical body was properly over a unified state. Among the various preserved and the tomb furnished with all titles of Egyptian monarchs, that of pha- the various objects of regular life, the ka raoh—originally meaning “great house” could return. Surrounded by the earthly or “palace”—eventually became the most comforts, the spiritual ka could then con- common. tinue its life despite the death of the physi- Kingship was a divine institution in cal body. ancient Egypt and formed part of a univer- To preserve the physical body after sal cosmic order: “What is the king of death, the Egyptians practiced mummifi- Upper and Lower Egypt? He is a god by whose dealings one lives, the father and cation, a process of slowly drying a dead mother of all men, alone by himself, with- body to prevent it from rotting. This pro- out an equal.” In obeying their pharaoh, cess took place in workshops run by priests, subjects believed that they were helping to primarily for the wealthy families who maintain a stable world order. A break- could afford it. Workers first removed the down in royal power could only mean that liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines and citizens were offending the gods and weak- placed them in four special jars that were ening that order. put in the tomb with the mummy. The Egyptian pharaohs possessed absolute priests also removed the brain by extract- power—that is, they had complete, unlim- ing it through the nose. They then covered ited power to rule their people. Neverthe- the corpse with a natural salt that absorbed less, they had help in ruling. At first, the body’s water. Later, they filled the body members of the pharaoh’s family provided with spices and wrapped it with layers of this help. During the Old Kingdom, how- linen soaked in resin. At the end of the pro- ever, a government bureaucracy—an cess, which took about 70 days, a lifelike administrative organization with officials mask was placed over the head and shoul- and regular procedures—developed. Espe- ders of the mummy. The mummy was then cially important was the office of vizier, sealed in a case and placed in its tomb. the steward of the whole land. Directly Pyramids were tombs for the mummi- responsible to the pharaoh, the vizier was fied bodies of pharaohs. The largest and in charge of the government bureaucracy. most magnificent of all the pyramids was In time, Egypt was divided into 42 prov- built under King Khufu (KOO FOO). Con- inces, which were run by governors structed at Giza around 2540 b.c., the appointed by the pharaoh. Each governor famous Great Pyramid of King Khufu cov- was responsible to the pharaoh and vizier. ers 13 acres (5.3 ha), measures 756 feet (230 An example of the splendor of the Old m) at each side of its base, and stands 481 Kingdom—and one of the great achieve- feet (147 m) high. ments of Egyptian civilization—is the The building of the Great Pyramid was building of pyramids. Pyramids were built an enormous construction project. The as part of a larger complex of buildings Greek historian Herodotus reported the dedicated to the dead—in effect, a city of traditional story that it took 100,000 Egyp- the dead. The area included several tians 20 years to build the Great Pyramid. CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 37  c. 2055 B.C. Middle Kingdom ▲ Embalmer’s knife begins—a golden c. 3100 B.C. age of stability King Menes unites c. 2540 B.C. and expansion the villages of Upper The building of the Great into Africa and and Lower Egypt Pyramid of King Khufu at Giza western Asia c. 2700 B.C. Old Kingdom c. 2180 B.C. begins—a First Intermediate time of strong Period begins, leadership and a consisting of unified Egypt nearly 150 years without centralized leadership ▲ Double crown of unified Egypt Herodotus wrote two thousand years after built later matched its size or splendor. The the event, however, and speculation still pyramid was not only the pharaoh’s tomb surrounds the building of the Great Pyra- but also an important symbol of royal mid. Especially puzzling is how the build- power. It could be seen for miles and ers achieved their amazing level of served to remind people of the glory, precision. The stone slabs on the outside of might, and wealth of the ruler who was a the Great Pyramid, for example, fit so living god on Earth. tightly side by side that even a hair cannot be pushed into the joints between them. Guarding the Great Pyramid at Giza is a The Middle Kingdom huge figure carved from rock, known as The Old Kingdom eventually collapsed, the Great Sphinx. This colossal statue is followed by a period of disorder that lasted 240 feet (73 m) long and 66 feet (20 m) high. about 150 years. Finally, a new dynasty It has the body of a lion and a human head. gained control of all Egypt and began the The head is believed by many to be a like- Middle Kingdom, a period of stability last- ness of Khufu’s son Khafre, who ordered ing from about 2055 b.c. to 1650 b.c. Egyp- the statue’s construction. Historians do not tians later portrayed the Middle Kingdom agree on the purpose of the Great Sphinx. as a golden age of stability. Many Egyptians, however, believed that As evidence of its newfound strength, the mythical sphinx was an important Egypt began a period of expansion. Nubia, guardian of sacred sites. which was located south of Egypt, was The Great Pyramid still stands as a visi- conquered. Fortresses were built to protect ble symbol of the power of the Egyptian the new frontier. Egypt sent armies into pharaohs of the Old Kingdom. No pyramid Palestine and Syria although they did not 38 SECTION 2 Egyptian Civilization (t) Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY, (b) Werner Foreman/Topham/The Image Works  c. 1364 B.C. c. 1279 B.C. c. 1070 B.C. Akhenaten (Amenhotep The reign of Post-empire Egypt IV) takes the throne Ramses II begins; begins and establishes a he fights to regain monotheistic cult; control of lands in religious disputes Africa and western cause unrest Asia c. 1550 B.C. c. 1347 B.C. New Kingdom Tutankhamen’s reign begins; begins—through he restores the old gods 1. Differentiating Which event military campaigns shows how powerful the leader- Egypt becomes ship was during the Old the most powerful Kingdom? empire in 2. Making Inferences What was Southwest Asia the response to Akhenaten’s reli- gious reforms? c. 1470 B.C. Hatshepsut dies and Thutmose III Tutankhamen ▲ becomes pharaoh remain there. Pharaohs also sent traders to overwhelm the Egyptian soldiers, who Kush, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Crete. fought from donkey carts. One feature of the Middle Kingdom was For almost a hundred years, the Hyksos a new concern of the pharaohs for the peo- ruled much of Egypt. The conquered Egyp- ple. In the Old Kingdom, the pharaoh had tians learned a great deal from their con- been seen as a god-king far removed from querors. From the Hyksos, the Egyptians his people. Now he was portrayed as the learned to use bronze in the making of shepherd of his people and expected to their farming tools and their weapons. The build public works and provide for the Egyptians also mastered many of the mili- public welfare. Pharaohs of the Middle tary skills of the Hyksos, especially the use Kingdom undertook a number of helpful of horse-drawn war chariots. projects. The draining of swampland in the Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs Nile Delta provided thousands of acres of used the new weapons to drive out the new farmland. The digging of a canal to Hyksos and reunite Egypt. The New King- connect the Nile River to the Red Sea aided dom was established and lasted approxi- trade and transportation. mately from 1550 b.c. to 1070 b.c. This reunification launched the Egyptians along a new militaristic path. During the period The New Kingdom of the New Kingdom, Egypt created an The Middle Kingdom came to an end empire and became the most powerful around 1650 b.c. with the invasion of Egypt state in Southwest Asia. by a group of people from western Asia Massive wealth boosted the power of the known as the Hyksos (HIHK sahs). The New Kingdom pharaohs. They showed Hyksos used horse-drawn war chariots to their wealth by building new temples. CHAPTER 2 Western Asia and Egypt 39 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY (l) Michael Jenner/CORBIS, (r) CM Dixon/HIP/The Image Works Hatshepsut—one of the first women to The upheavals associated with Amenho- become pharaoh—built a great temple at tep’s religious revolution led to a loss of Deir el-Bahri, near Thebes. Hatshepsut Egypt’s empire. Under Ramses II, who was succeeded by her nephew Thutmose reigned from c. 1279 b.c. to 1213 b.c., the (thoot MOH suh) III. He led 17 military Egyptians went back on the offensive. campaigns into Syria and Palestine and They regained control of Palestine but even reached as far east as the Euphrates were unable to reestablish the borders of River. His forces occupied Palestine and their earlier empire. New invasions in the Syria and moved westward into Libya. 1200s b.c. by the “Sea Peoples,” as the Magnificent new buildings and temples Egyptians called them, drove the Egyp- were constructed to show the greatness of tians back within their old frontiers and the empire. ended the Egyptian Empire. The New The New Kingdom was not without Kingdom itself collapsed in 1070 b.c. troubles, however. The pharaoh Amen- For the next thousand years, Egypt was hotep IV introduced the worship of Aten, dominated periodically by Libyans, god of the sun disk, as the sole god. Amen- Nubians, Persians, and, finally, Macedo- hotep changed his own name to Akhenaten, nians after the conquest of Alexander the “It is well with Aten,” and closed the tem- Great. In the first century b.c., the pharaoh ples of other gods. In a society that had Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt’s always been tolerant of many gods, independence. Her involvement with Rome Akhenaten’s actions in destroying the old led to her defeat and suicide, and Egypt gods meant to many Egyptians the destruc- became a province in Rome’s empire. tion of Egypt itself. Akhenaten’s changes were soon undone after his death by the ✓Reading Check Contrasting What were the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen, who restored major differences among the Old Kingdom, the Middle the old gods. Kingdom, and the New Kingdom? Ramses II Hatshepsut Ruled c. 1279–1213 B.C. Egyptian Pharaoh Ruled c. 1485–1470 B.C. Egyptian Pharaoh The long reign of Ramses II brought a variety of Hatshepsut was the daughter of the pharaoh Thutmose I. changes to Egypt. During the early years of his She married the pharaoh Thutmose II. When he died, Hatshep- reign, he fought the Hittites to regain control sut assumed the full power of pharaoh. Statues show over land in Africa and western Asia. After a Hatshepsut clothed and bearded as a decisive battle around 1274 B.C., Ramses king would be. Hatshepsut’s reign II claimed victory for Egypt, but signed was a prosperous one. She a treaty that divided the land between exercised her power by the Hittites and Egyptians. He also increasing trade and complet- married a Hittite princess as part of ing ambitious building proj- the agreement. He undertook ects, including the temple numerous building projects dur- at Deir el-Bahri on the ing his reign, including estab- west bank of the Nile at lishing a new capital city. Thebes. She was suc- Ramses II also built many ceeded by her stepson grand temples, such as the and nephew, Thutmose Ramesseum at Thebes. Do III. Why do you think you think Ramses II was Hatshepsut had herself truly victorious over the depicted as a man Hittites? Explain. rather than a woman? Life in Ancient Egypt pharaoh, nobles, and priests; lived in small villages; and provided military service and Egyptian society was organized into forced labor for building projects. classes. HISTORY & YOU How does wealth or social status Daily Life in Ancient Egypt affect lifestyle? Learn how various classes of Ancient Egyptians had a positive attitude Egyptians lived. toward daily life on Earth. They married young (girls at 12 and boys at 14) and estab- Egyptian society was highly structured. lished homes and families. Monogamy The existence of a large lower class of peas- (marriage to one person) was the general ants allowed a small upper class of the rule, but a husband could have additional pharaoh and nobles to live in splendor and wives if his first wife was childless. to build elaborate temples and pyramids. The husband was master in the house, See page R34 Class was important in determining indi- but wives were very well respected. Wives to read excerpts from vidual rights. were in charge of the household and the Vizier Ptah-hotep’s education of the children. From a book of An Egyptian Father’s wise sayings came this advice: Advice to His Son in Egyptian Society the Primary Sources and Literature Over a period of thousands of years, PRIMARY SOURCE Library. Egyptian society maintained a simple “If you are a man of standing, you should love structure. It was organized like a pyramid, your wife at